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History of foreign relations of China

History of foreign relations of China covers diplomatic, military, political and economic relations in History of China from 1800 to the modern era. For the earlier period see Foreign relations of imperial China, and for the current foreign relations of China see Foreign relations of China.

During the period from 1800 to 1925, China's foreign policy was largely shaped by the country's efforts to resist Western imperialism and maintain its territorial integrity. Some of the key features of China's foreign relations in this period include:
 * Unequal treaties: In the 19th century, China was forced to sign a series of unequal treaties with Great Britain, the U.S., France and other Western powers (and also Japan), which granted extraterritorial rights to foreigners and opened China's ports to foreign trade. China's foreign policy during this period was characterized by a desire to resist these treaties and regain control over its own affairs.
 * Isolationism: China was largely isolated from the rest of the world during this period, with limited contact with other countries outside of its immediate neighbors. This was partly due to China's self-imposed isolationist policies, as well as the fact that Western powers had a major presence only in a few treaty ports such as Shanghai, China was engaged in several small wars with Britain, France and Japan.

China's foreign policy between 1925 and 1949 was marked by significant political upheaval and a shifting relationship with the outside world. Main points of China's foreign policy during this period: Following 1949:
 * Anti-Imperialism: In the aftermath of the May Fourth Movement in 1919, China's foreign policy became increasingly focused on anti-imperialism and national liberation. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under Mao Zedong and the Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek both sought to resist foreign domination and establish a unified, independent China. This led to the strengthening of nationalist sentiment and the rise of anti-foreign sentiment throughout the country.
 * Resistance to Japanese Aggression: Japan's invasion of China in 1937 marked a turning point in China's foreign policy. The CCP and the KMT resisted the Japanese.
 * Alignment with the Soviet Union: Following Mao's establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, China's foreign policy became closely aligned with the Soviet Union and the Communist movement. The CCP saw the Soviet Union as a key ally in the struggle against imperialism and sought to model China's development after the Soviet Union's socialist system. This led to increased cooperation between the two countries in areas such as trade, military assistance, and ideological exchange.
 * China was close to the USSR at first, and fought a major war against the United States and South Korea (and the UN) in 1950–1953. However, by the 1960s China and the USSR were enemies and both were trying to build support worldwide/ while simultaneously supporting anti-colonial movements in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
 * Diplomatic Recognition: China struggled for several decades to gain recognition from the international community. In 1971, the United Nations finally recognized recognized the PRC and expelled the Republic of China (Taiwan). Since then, China has established diplomatic relations with almost all countries in the world.
 * Economic Reforms and Opening-up: In the late 1970s, China embarked on a program of economic reforms and opening-up. This led to increased engagement with the global economy and the development of China as a major economic power. China sought to increase trade and investment ties with other countries, and became an active member of international economic organizations such as the World Trade Organization.
 * Assertiveness and Expansion: Since 2000, China has become more assertive in its foreign policy, as it seeks to expand its influence in the world. China has sought to strengthen its military presence in the South China Sea, expand its Belt and Road Initiative, and promote Chinese values and culture globally. This has led to tensions with India and the United States.

Qing Dynasty
By the mid 19th century, Chinese stability had come under increasing threat from both domestic and international sources. Social unrest and serious revolts became more common while the regular army had was too weak to deal with foreign military forces. Chinese leaders increasingly feared the impact of Western ideas. John Fairbank argues that in 1840 to 1895 China's response to the worsening relations with Western nations came in four phases. China's military weakness was interpreted in the 1840s and 1850s as a need for Western arms. Very little was achieved in this regard until the 1860s. Since the 1860s the Self-Strengthening Movement started and there was a focus on acquiring Western technology—as Japan was doing very successfully at the same time, but China gradually lagged behind. The 1870s to 1890s were characterized with efforts to reform and revitalize the Chinese political system more broadly. There was steady moderate progress, but efforts to leap forward such as the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898 roused the conservatives who stamped out the effort and executed its leaders. There was a rise in Chinese nationalism, as a sort of echo of Western nationalism, but that led to a quick defeat in war with Japan in 1895. An intense reaction against modernization set in at the grassroots level in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900.

Opium Wars
European commercial interests sought to end the trading barriers, but China fended off repeated efforts by Britain to reform the trading system. Increasing sales of Indian opium to China by British traders led to the First Opium War (1839–1842). The superiority of Western militaries and military technology like steamboats and Congreve rockets forced China to open trade with the West on Western terms.

The Second Opium War also known as the Arrow War, in 1856-60 saw a joint Anglo-French military mission including Great Britain and the French Empire win an easy victory. The agreements of the Convention of Peking led to the ceding of Kowloon Peninsula as part of Hong Kong.

Unequal treaties
A series of "unequal treaties", including the Treaty of Nanking (1842), the treaties of Tianjin (1858), and the Beijing Conventions (1860), forced China to open new treaty ports, including Canton (Guangzhou), Amoy (Xiamen), and Shanghai. The treaties also allowed the British Empire to set up Hong Kong as a Crown colony and established international settlements in the treaty ports under the control of foreign diplomats. China was required to accept diplomats at the capital in Peking, provided for the free movement for foreign ships in Chinese rivers, kept its tariffs low, and opened the interior to Christian missionaries. Manchu leaders of the Qing government found the treaties useful, because they forced the foreigners into a few limited areas, so that the vast majority of Chinese had no contact whatsoever with them or their dangerous ideas. The missionaries, however, ventured more widely but they were widely distrusted and made very few converts. Their main impact was setting up schools and hospitals. Since the 1920s, the "unequal treaties" have been a centerpiece of angry Chinese grievances against the West in general.

Suzerain and tributaries
For centuries China had claimed suzerain authority over numerous adjacent areas. The areas had internal autonomy but were forced to give tribute to China while being theoretically under the protection of China in terms of foreign affairs. By the 19th century the relationships were nominal, and China exerted little or no actual control. The great powers did not recognize China's fiefdom and one by one seized the supposed suzerain areas. Japan moved to dominate the Korean Empire (and annexed it in 1910) and seized the Ryukyus; France took Vietnam; Britain took Burma and Nepal; Russia took parts of Siberia. Only Tibet was left, and that was highly problematic since the Tibetans, as most of the supposed suzerainty, had never accepted Chinese claims of lordship and tribute. The losses humiliated China and marked it as a repeated failure.

Christian missionaries
Catholic missions began with the Jesuit China missions from France and Italy in the 16th century. For a while were highly successful in placing intellectuals and scientists in the royal court. The Pope, however, prohibited the priests from making accommodations to Confucianism or paganism. The Jesuits left, but returned in 1842. Converts were from the lower social strata, and numbered about 240,000 in 1840 and 720,000 in 1901. The Jesuits opened Aurora University in Shanghai in 1903 to reach an elite audience. German missionaries arrived in the late 19th century, and Americans arrived in force in the 1920s, largely to replace the French.

Beginning in Protestant missionaries started to come, to include thousands of men, their wives and children, and unmarried female missionaries. These were not individual operations, they were sponsored and financed by organized churches in their home country. The 19th century is one of steady geographical expansion, which was reluctantly allowed by the Chinese government every time it lost a war. At first they were limited to the Canton area. In the 1842 treaty ending the First Opium War missionaries were granted the right to live and work in five coastal cities. In 1860, the treaties ending the Second Opium War opened up the entire country to missionary activity. Protestant missionary activity exploded during the next few decades. From 50 missionaries in China in 1860, the number grew to 2,500 (counting wives and children) in 1900. 1,400 of the missionaries were British, 1,000 were Americans, and 100 were from Continental Europe, mostly Scandinavia. Protestant missionary activity peaked in the 1920s and thereafter declined due to war and unrest in China, As well as a sense of frustration among the missionaries themselves. By 1953, all Protestant missionaries had been expelled by the communist government of China.

In long-term perspective, the major impact of the missions was not the thousands of converts out of million of people, but introducing modern medical standards, and especially building schools for the few families eager to learn about the outside world. The hospitals not only cured sick people, they taught hygiene and care of children. They lessened the hostility of Chinese officials. The key leader of the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen spent four-year in exile in Hawaii, where he studied in Christian schools and eventually converted.

When missionaries returned home they typically preached a highly favorable view toward China, and a negative view toward Japan, helping promote public opinion in the West that increasingly supported China. At the local level across China, for the vast majority of the population, missionaries were the only foreigners they ever saw. Outside the protected international centers, they came under frequent verbal attack, and sometimes violent episodes. This led the international community to threaten military action to protect missionaries, as their diplomats demanded the government provide more and more protection. Attacks reached a crescendo during the Boxer Rebellion, which had a major anti-missionary component. The Boxers killed over 200 foreign missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians. Dr. Eleanor Chesnut was killed by a mob in 1905. Likewise nationalist movements in the 1920s and 1930s also had an anti-missionary component.

First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
A weakened China lost wars with Japan and gave up nominal control over the Ryukyu Islands in 1870 to Japan. After the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894 it lost Formosa to Japan. After the Sino-French War of 1884–1885, France took control of Vietnam, another supposed "tributary state." After Britain took over Burma, as a show of good faith they maintained the sending of tribute to China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations. To affirm this, Britain agreed in the Burma convention in 1886 to continue the Burmese payments to China every 10 years, in return for which China would recognise Britain's occupation of Upper Burma.

Japan after 1860 modernized its military after Western models and was far stronger than China. The war, fought in 1894 and 1895, was fought to resolve the issue of control over Korea, which was yet another suzerain claimed by China and under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. A peasant rebellion led to a request by the Korean government for China to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending its own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in Seoul. China objected and war ensued. It was a brief affair, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula and nearly destroying the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River.

Treaty of Shimonoseki
China, badly defeated, sued for peace and was forced to accept the harsh Treaty of Shimonoseki Signed on April 17, 1895. China became responsible for a financial indemnity of £30 million. It had to surrender To Japan the island of Taiwan and the Pescatore Islands. Japan received most favored nation status, like all the other powers/ Korea became nominally independent, although the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire were vying for control. The most controversial provision ceded the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan. However this was not acceptable. Russia, taking the self-appointed mantle of protector of China, worked with Germany and France to intervene and forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula. To pay the indemnities, British French and Russian banks loaned China the money, but they also gained other advantages. Russia in 1896 was given permission to extend its Trans-Siberian Railway across Manchuria to reach Vladivostok, a 350-mile shortcut. The new Chinese Eastern Railway, was controlled by the Russians, and became a major military factor for them In controlling key parts of Manchuria. Later in 1896 Russia and China made a secret alliance, whereby Russia would work to prevent further Japanese expansion at China's expense. In 1898 Russia obtained a 25-year lease over the Liadong Peninsula in southern Manchuria, including the ice free harbor of Port Arthur, their only such facility in the East. An extension of the Chinese Eastern Railway to Port Arthur greatly expanded Russian military capabilities in the Far East.

Reforms in 1890s
One of the government's main source of income was a five percent tariff on imports. The government hired Robert Hart (1835–1911), a British diplomat to run it from 1863. He set up an efficient system based in Canton that was largely free of corruption, and expanded it to other ports. The top echelon of the service was recruited from all the nations trading with China. Hart promoted numerous modernising programs. His agency established a modern postal service and supervision of internal taxes on trade. Hart helped establish its own embassies in foreign countries. He helped set up the Tongwen Guan (School of Combined Learning) in Peking, with a branch in Canton, to teach foreign languages, culture and science. In 1902 the Tongwen Guan was absorbed into the Imperial University, now Peking University.

Hundred Days Reform fails in 1898
The Hundred Days Reform was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement from 11 June to 22 September 1898. It was undertaken by the young Guangxu Emperor and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of over 100 reformative edicts, a coup d'état ("The Coup of 1898", Wuxu Coup) was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by Empress Dowager Cixi. The Emperor was locked up until his death and key reformers were exiled or fled.

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) was in control of imperial policy after 1861; she had remarkable political skills but historians blame her for major policy failures and the growing weakness of China. Her reversal of reforms in 1898 and especially support for the Boxers caused all the powers to join against her. Late Qing China remains a symbol of national humiliation and weakness in Chinese and international historiography. Scholars attribute Cixi's "rule behind the curtains" responsible for the ultimate decline of the Qing dynasty and its capitulatory peace with foreign powers. Her failures hastened the revolution to overthrow the dynasty.

Boxer rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion (1897–1901) was an anti-foreigner movement by the Righteous Harmony Society in China between 1897 and 1901. They attacked and often killed missionaries, Christian converts, and foreigners. They held the international diplomats in Peking under siege. The ruler of China, the Dowager Empress Cixi, supported the Boxers and the Chinese government paid the penalty. The uprising was crushed by the ad hoc Eight Nation Alliance of major powers. On top of all the damage and pillage, China was forced to pay annual installments of an indemnity of $333 million American dollars to all the victors—actual total payments amounted to about $250 million. Robert Hart, the inspector general of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service, was the chief negotiator for the peace terms. The indemnity, despite some beneficial programs, was "nothing but bad" for China, as Hart had predicted at the beginning of the negotiations.

Manchuria
Manchuria was a contested zone with Russia and Japan taking control away from China and in the process going to war themselves in 1904–1905.

Republican China
The Republican Revolution of 1911 overthrew the imperial court and brought an era of confused politics. Yuan Shikai became president in 1912 and, with support from regional war lords, tried to be a dictator. He showed little interest in foreign affairs apart from obtaining loans from Europe. When he suddenly died in 1916 the national government was left in chaos.

When World War I broke out in 1914, China officially entered the war and played a small role. Japan seized the German possessions in China. In January 1915 Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands. The goal was to greatly extend Japanese control of Manchuria and of the Chinese economy. The Chinese public responded with a spontaneous nationwide boycott of Japanese goods; Japan's exports to China fell by 40%. Britain was officially a military ally of Japan but was affronted and no longer trusted Japan. With the British tied down on the Western Front against Germany, Japan's position was strong. Nevertheless, Britain and the United States forced Japan to drop the fifth set of demands that would have given Japan a large measure of control over the entire Chinese economy and ended the Open Door Policy. Japan and China reached a series of agreements which ratified the first four sets of goals on 25 May 1915. Japan gained a little at the expense of China, but Britain refused to renew the alliance and American opinion turned hostile. The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 resulted in the Versailles Treaty that allowed Japan to retain territories in Shandong that had been surrendered by Germany in 1914. Chinese students launched the May Fourth Movement in 1919, inspiring a nationwide nationalistic hostility against Japan and the other foreign powers.

After 1916 almost all of China was in the hands of regional warlords. Until 1929 the Nationalist government was a small rump establishment based in Beijing, with little or no control over most of China. However it did control foreign affairs, and was recognized by foreign countries. It receive the customs revenue; the money was largely used to pay off old debts, such as the indemnities for the Boxer Rebellion. It managed to negotiate an increase in the customs revenue, and represented China in international affairs such as the Paris peace conference. It tried with limited success to renegotiate the unequal treaties. Britain and the other powers continue to control Shanghai and the other port cities until the late 1920s.

In 1931, Japan seized control of Manchuria over the objections of the League of Nations. Japan quit the League, which was helpless. The most active Chinese diplomat was Wellington Koo.

In 1938, Chiang Kai-Shek's Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a "Map of National Shame" which listed Mongolia, parts of Siberia, and Indochina as "lost territories."

German role
The German military had a major role in Republican China. The Imperial German Navy was in charge of Germany's Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory, and spent heavily to set up modern facilities that would be a showcase for Asia. Japan seized the German operations in 1914 after sharp battles. After World War I, the Weimar Republic provided extensive advisory services to the Republic of China, especially training for the Chinese army. Colonel General Hans von Seeckt, the former commander the German army, organized the training of China's elite National Revolutionary Army units and the fight against communists in 1933–1935. All military academies had German officers, as did most army units. In addition, German engineers provided expertise and bankers provided loans for China's railroad system. Trade with Germany flourished in the 1920s, with Germany as China's largest supplier of government credit. The last major advisor left in 1938, after Nazi Germany had allied itself with Japan, the great enemy of the Republic of China. Nevertheless, Chiang Kai-Shek continued to hope to use Germany as a model for his nation, as his mentor Sun Yat-sen had recommended.

War with Japan: 1937–1945
Japan invaded in 1937, launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. By 1938, the United States was a strong supporter of China. Michael Schaller says that during 1938:
 * China emerged as something of a symbol of American-sponsored resistance to Japanese aggression.... A new policy appeared, one predicated on the maintenance of a pro-American China which might be a bulwark against Japan. The United States hoped to use China as the weapon with which to contain Tokyo's larger imperialism. Economic assistance, Washington hoped, could achieve this result.

Even the isolationists who opposed war in Europe supported a hard-line against Japan. American public sympathy for the Chinese, and hatred of Japan, was aroused by reports from missionaries, novelists such as Pearl Buck, and Time Magazine of Japanese brutality in China, including reports surrounding the Nanjing Massacre, called the 'Rape of Nanking'. By early 1941, the U.S. was preparing to send American planes flown by American pilots under American command, but wearing Chinese uniforms, to fight the Japanese invaders and even to bomb Japanese cities. There were delays and the "Flying Tigers" under Claire Lee Chennault finally became operational days after the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) brought the U.S. into the war officially. The Flying Tigers were soon incorporated into the United States Army Air Force, which made operations in China a high priority, and generated enormous favorable publicity for the China in the U.S.

After Japan took Southeast Asia, American aid had to be routed through British India and over the Himalayan Mountains at enormous expense and frustrating delay. Chiang's beleaguered government was now headquartered in remote Chongqing. Roosevelt sent Joseph Stilwell to train Chinese troops and coordinate military strategy. He became the Chief of Staff to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, served as U.S. commander in the China Burma India Theater, was responsible for all Lend-Lease supplies going to China, and was later Deputy Commander of South East Asia Command. Despite his status and position in China, he became involved in conflicts with other senior Allied officers, over the distribution of Lend-Lease materiel, Chinese political sectarianism and proposals to incorporate Chinese and U.S. forces in the 11th Army Group (which was under British command). Madame Chiang Kaishek, who had been educated in the U.S., addressed the U.S. Congress and toured the country to rally support for China. Congress amended the Chinese Exclusion Act and Roosevelt moved to end the unequal treaties. Chiang and Mme. Chiang met with Roosevelt and Churchill at the Cairo Conference of late 1943, but promises of major increases in aid did not materialize.

The perception grew that Chiang's government, with poorly equipped and ill-fed troops was unable to effectively fight the Japanese or that he preferred to focus more on defeating the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). China Hands advising Stilwell argued that it was in American interest to establish communication with the Communists to prepare for a land-based counteroffensive invasion of Japan. The Dixie Mission, which began in 1943, was the first official American contact with the Communists. Other Americans, led by Chennault, argued for air power. In 1944, Generalissimo Chiang acceded to Roosevelt's request that an American general take charge of all forces in the area, but demanded that Stilwell be recalled. General Albert Coady Wedemeyer replaced Stilwell, Patrick J. Hurley became ambassador, and Chinese-American relations became much smoother. The U.S. had included China in top-level diplomacy in the hope that large masses of Chinese troops would defeat Japan with minimal American casualties. When that hope was seen as illusory, and it was clear that B-29 bombers could not operate effectively from China, China became much less important to Washington, but it was promised a seat in the new UN Security Council, with a veto.

Civil War
When civil war threatened, President Harry S. Truman sent General George Marshall to China at the end of 1945 to broker a compromise between the Nationalist government and the Communists, who had established control in much of northern China. Marshall hoped for a coalition government, and brought the two distrustful sides together. At home, many Americans saw China as a bulwark against the spread of communism, but some Americans hoped that the Communists would remain on friendly terms with the United States. Mao Zedong had long admired the U.S.—George Washington was a hero to him—and saw it as an ally in the Second World War. He was bitterly disappointed when the U.S. would not abandon the Nationalists, writing that "the imperialists who had always been hostile to the Chinese people will not change overnight to treat us on an equal level." His official policy was "wiping out the control of the imperialists in China completely." Truman and Marshall, while supplying military aid and advice, determined that American intervention could not save the Nationalist cause. One recent scholar argues that the Communists won the Civil War because Mao Zedong made fewer military mistakes and Chiang Kai-shek antagonized key interest groups. Furthermore, his armies had been weakened in the war against Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists promised to improve the ways of life for groups such as farmers.

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's policy was opportunistic and utilitarian. He offered official Soviet support only when the People's Liberation Army had virtually won the Civil War. Sergey Radchenko argues that "all the talk of proletarian internationalism in the Sino-Soviet alliance was but a cloak for Soviet expansionist ambitions in East Asia".

International recognition
Since its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China has worked vigorously to win international recognition and support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Tibet, Hong Kong, Macau, (Taiwan), the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands and islands in the South China Sea.

The early PRC operated under the principle of "cleaning the house before inviting guests," meaning that it would seek to "clean up" colonial influences before it sought recognition from states that it deemed as Western imperialists.

Upon its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China was recognized by Eastern Bloc countries. On 4 January 1950, Pakistan became the first Muslim country to recognize China. Among the first Western countries to recognize China were the United Kingdom (6 January 1950), Switzerland (17 January 1950 ) and Sweden (14 February 1950 ). The first Western country to establish diplomatic ties with China was Sweden (on 9 May 1950). Until the early 1970s, the Republic of China government in Taipei was recognized diplomatically by most world powers and held China's permanent seat in the UN Security Council, including its associated veto power. After the Beijing government assumed the China seat in 1971 (and the ROC government was expelled), the great majority of nations have switched diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Japan established diplomatic relations with the PRC in 1972, following the Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, and the U.S. did so in 1979. In 2011, the number of countries that had established diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 171, while 23 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (or Taiwan). (See also: Political status of Taiwan).

People's diplomacy
Soon after its founding, the People's Republic of China institutionalized its view of people's diplomacy (renmin waijiao). People's diplomacy was expressed through the slogan, "influence the policy through the people." Pursuant to its people's diplomacy, China sent doctors, scientists, and athletes to developing countries in Asia to cultivate ties. This form of people's diplomacy was often executed through the communist party's International Liaison Department. People's diplomacy with the capitalist countries sought to cultivate informal, non-state ties in the hope of developing "foreign friends" who would lobby their governments to improve relations with China.

Mao-era foreign policies
During the Mao era, China's foreign relations were rooted in Chinese leadership's perceptions of the international socialist movement's purpose. In their view, the primary concern of worldwide revolutionary activities should be anti-imperialism, and the economic development brought by socialism would result in a shift in the global balance of power.

The terminology of "the Cold War" was not prominent in Chinese discourse during the Mao era. From the dominant Chinese view, the conflict between capitalism and socialism that existed from the late 1940s into the 1970s had not gone "cold."

In the 1947-1962 era, Mao emphasized the desire for international partnerships, on the one hand to more rapidly develop the economy, and on the other to protect against attacks, especially by the U.S. His numerous alliances, however, all fell apart, including the Soviet Union, North Vietnam, North Korea, and Albania. He was unable to organize an anti-American coalition. Furthermore, Mao was insensitive to the fears of alliance partners that China was so big, and so inwardly directed, that their needs would be ignored.

During the Mao era, China's foreign policy bureaucracy was small. Strategic decisions and security issues were handled in a top-down style. With Mao in overall control and making final decisions, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai handled foreign-policy and developed a strong reputation for his diplomatic and negotiating skills. Zhou stressed discipline in the diplomatic corps, maintaining that "there is no small matter in diplomacy." Despite his diplomatic skills, Zhou's bargaining position was undercut by the domestic turmoil initiated by Mao.

The 1954 Geneva Conference, which sought to resolve issues from the Korean War and the Indochina War, was the PRC's first significant involvement in an international diplomatic event.

The Bandung Conference in 1955, at which Zhou led the Chinese delegation, was an important milestone for China's foreign relations. China developed its foreign relations with many newly independent and soon-to-be independent countries. China termed this cooperative approach the "Bandung Line." China's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence were incorporated into the Ten Principles of Bandung.

After the Sino-Soviet split, Moscow and Beijing sometimes sponsored rival Communist parties around the world, which expended energy fighting each other. China's focus especially was on the Third World as China portrayed itself as the legitimate leader of the global battle against imperialism and capitalism. It urged Third World countries not to side with either the United States or the Soviet Union, viewing both of those count as coveting hegemony over the Third World. Mao described Africa and Latin America as the "First Intermediate Zone," in which China's status as a non-white power might enable it to compete with and supersede both United States and Soviet Union influence.

Soviet Union and Korean War
After its founding, the PRC's foreign policy initially focused on its solidarity with the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc nations, and other communist countries, sealed with, among other agreements, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance signed in 1950 to oppose China's chief antagonists, the West and in particular the U.S. The 1950–53 Korean War waged by China and its North Korea ally against the U.S., South Korea, and United Nations (UN) forces has long been a reason for bitter feelings. After the conclusion of the Korean War, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.

China's entry into the Korean War was the first of many "preemptive counterattacks". Chinese leaders decided to intervene when they saw their North Korean ally being overwhelmed and no guarantee American forces would stop at the Yalu River.

Break with Moscow
By the late 1950s, relations between China and the Soviet Union had become so divisive that in 1960, the Soviets unilaterally withdrew their advisers from China. The two then began to vie for allegiances among the developing world, for China saw itself as a natural champion through its role in the Non-Aligned Movement and its numerous bilateral and bi-party ties. In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. In 1962, China had a brief war with India over a border dispute. By 1969, relations with Moscow were so tense that fighting erupted along their common border. Following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position. China then lessened its anti-Western rhetoric and began developing formal diplomatic relations with West European nations.

In a March 22, 1969 meeting on the Sino-Soviet border clashes, Mao stated that in foreign relations, China was "now isolated" and "we need to relax a little". Later that year, China began to restore its embassies, which had been disrupted by the Cultural Revolution, to normal functioning.

1970s and 1980s
In the 1970s and 1980s, China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. During the time of Mao, China was a closed country. After his death, authorities led by Deng Xiaoping began initiating reforms. Along with Deng's policy of reform and opening up, Deng involved more parties in foreign policy decision-making, decentralizing the foreign policy bureaucracy. Deng's approach attempted to build broad consensus and required enormous efforts to achieve compromises acceptable to all relevant stakeholders on an issue. This decentralized approach led to consideration of a great number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process.

In 1983, 74-year-old Li Xiannian became President of China, nominal head of state of China under Deng Xiaoping and one of the longest serving politicians in the leadership of China. He visited many countries and thus began opening China to the world. In 1985, Li Xiannian was the first president of China to visit the U.S. President Li also visited North Korea. 1986 saw the arrival of Queen Elizabeth II in an official visit. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.

China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower hegemonism", focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to closely follow the political and economic positions of the Third World Non-Aligned Movement, although China was not a formal member.

A visit by Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka to Beijing culminated in the signing of a joint statement on September 29, 1972, and normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and the PRC. Japan stated that it was aware of its responsibility for causing enormous damage to the Chinese people during World War II and China renounced its demand for war reparation from Japan. Avoiding political disputes over this traumatic history facilitated immediate strategic cooperation. The Japanese agreed with the Chinese view on the political status of Taiwan, namely "that Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of the People's Republic of China."

China grew concerned about the strong Soviet influence in Vietnam, fearing that Vietnam could become a pseudo-protectorate of the Soviet Union. Vietnam's claim to be the world's third largest military power following its victory in the Vietnam War also increased Chinese apprehensions. In the Chinese view, Vietnam was pursuing a regional hegemonic policy in an attempt to control Indochina. On 25 December 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea, overrunning most of the country, deposing the Khmer Rouge regime favored by China, and installing Heng Samrin as the head of the new Cambodian government. The move antagonized China, which now viewed the Soviet Union as capable of encircling its southern border. China launched an invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese war. On Match 6, 1979, China declared that its punitive mission had been achieved and withdrew.

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia—the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.

Since the 1980s, China's foreign policy has been peace-seeking with a focus on optimizing mutual economic interests between states. It has generally sought to maintain good relationships with countries that may be opposed to each other, for example in its cultivation of relationships with both Israel and the Arab states. During the 1980s, Deng began formulating a good neighboring policy to capitalize on regional activism. Under this policy, China no longer considered a neighboring country's ideological tendencies as a critical factor in foreign policy, and instead focused on developing international relationships with its neighbors regardless of their respective ties to the United States or the Soviet Union. Thus, in 1988, China signed an agreement with Mongolia regarding borders, despite the fact that China's government had long viewed neighboring Mongolia as a Soviet satellite.

1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
In the immediate aftermath of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, various countries imposed sanctions, cancelled aid, banned sales of military equipment, or cut back diplomatic ties. In response to these efforts to isolate China, Deng articulated the "twenty-four character guidelines" for China to adopt in its international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头). China's approach focused on learning to live with the fact of United States hegemony.

Although the crackdown hurt relations with Western countries, it had relatively little impact on China's relations with its Asian neighbors. Most of these neighboring countries did not have better human rights records than China and were generally sympathetic to China in light of the pressure it received from Western countries. Even in the wake of the crackdown, China's foreign relations with its neighbors generally improved.

1990s
In the 1990s, China adopted conservative negotiating tactics in its territorial disputes, deemphasizing the use of confrontation and instead relying on legal agreements and diplomatic measures.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union. In the post-Cold War environment, President Jiang Zemin continued Deng's good neighboring policy, under the principles of stabilizing the periphery, expanding diplomacy, and altering the situation. China had considered the Soviet Union its principal security threat, and its dissolution reduced the importance of security considerations in China's perceptions of South and Central Asian geo-politics. China began rebuilding relations with its Central Asian countries, with their economic ties growing during the 1990s and subsequently.

Beginning in 1992, China began to balance its relationships with North and South Korea. It normalized its diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992 while continuing its strategic relationship with North Korea.

To combat the threat of militant Islam-fueled separatism in Xinjiang and to cement relations with the Central Asian states following the Soviet Union's dissolution, China signed the 1996 Treaty of Enhancing Military Mutual Trust in the Border Areas with nearby Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Russia, and Kyrgyzstan at a meeting in Shanghai. The group of nations began meeting in 1997 as the "Shanghai Five" (and continuing into the 2000s as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation).

China increased its reputation among its neighbors during the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Other Asian countries harshly affected by the crisis sought the United States or Japan to bail them out of the difficult economic conditions. As the United States and Japan moved slowly, China made a highly regarded symbolic gesture by refusing to devalue its own currency (which presumably would have touched off a series of competitive devaluations with serious consequences for the region). Instead, China contributed $4 billion to neighboring countries via a combination of bilateral bailouts and contributing to IMF bailout packages. In 1999, as a result of these actions, the World Bank described China as a "source of stability for the region" in one of its reports.

Beginning in the late 1990s, China began to articulate its new security concept: that no single state, even the most powerful, is capable of coping with all security challenges alone.

Relations with the United States in the 1990s
The 1990s presented several challenges in China-United States relations, although there were positive developments for China including the United States' de-linking of China's most favored nation status from its human rights record. In July 1993, the Yinhe incident prompted Jiang's adoption of the "sixteen-characters formula" for working with the United States: "enhancing confidence, reducing troubles, expanding cooperation, and avoiding confrontation." During the Yinhe incident, the United States Navy stopped a Chinese container ship, the Yinhe, based on incorrect suspicions that the ship contained chemical weapon precursors bound for Iran. Although China denied the allegation, the United States unilaterally cut off the Yinhe 's GPS, causing it to lose direction and forcing it to anchor on the high seas for twenty-four days. The Yinhe ultimately agreed to an inspection which found no chemical weapon precursors. Despite China's request for a formal apology, the United States refused to apologize and refused to pay compensation. Despite the humiliation of the Yinhe incident, Jiang adopted a posture of diplomatic good will to the United States, including the sixteen-characters formula.

Tensions also followed the United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade on May 7, 1999, which the United States claimed occurred by mistake. The bombing created outrage among Chinese people, who did not accept the United States claim that the bombing was accidental. For several days, Beijing was rocked by massive anti-US demonstrations. Deeming the importance of the bilateral relationship too great to be harmed by the embassy bombing, President Jiang sought to calm the Chinese public outrage.

21st century
Since its founding in 2000, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between China and the African states. Chinese foreign aid is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC. Through FOCAC, China provides aid in the forms of debt forgiveness, aid grants, concessional loans, and interest-free loans.

In 2001, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan began regular meetings under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. China takes a leadership role in the organization, which focuses on defeating the "three evils" of separatism, terrorism, and extremism.

China was active in the Six-Party talks in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s. China hoped to play a lead role in developing the Six-Party Talks into a lasting multilateral security mechanism for northeast Asia, but ultimately the talks failed. China's efforts in the unsuccessful tasks nonetheless raised its international standing.

Founded in 2004, the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF) serves as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states.

In 2008, China revised its policies towards pariah states, articulating a new view that it was willing to condition its diplomatic protection of pariah countries, forcing them to become more acceptable to the international community.

Under Xi Jinping Administration, China has adopted a new foreign policy doctrine called "Major Country Diplomacy" (大国外交) which has replaced the earlier Deng Xiaoping era slogan of "keep a low profile" (韬光养晦) and has legitimized a more active role for China on the world stage, particularly with regards to reform of the international order, engaging in open ideological competition with the West, and assuming a greater responsibility for global affairs in accordance with China's rising power and status. During the first five years of Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping’s leadership the budget for diplomacy doubled.

The aggressive style of Chinese diplomacy which emerged in the 21st century has been termed “Wolf Warrior Diplomacy." The phrase is derived from the patriotic Chinese movie Wolf Warrior and its sequel Wolf Warrior 2, the film's tagline was "Even though a thousand miles away, anyone who affronts China will pay." Efforts aimed at incorporating Chinese diaspora into China's foreign policy have also intensified with an emphasis placed on ethnic loyalty over national loyalty.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Xi kept an extensive schedule of phone and video foreign meetings as part of his "cloud diplomacy" (云外交), which received prominent attention in Chinese media, similar to in-person foreign visits.

China has been criticized for its aggressive diplomatic response to the COVID-19 outbreak which included spreading misinformation about how other countries were handling the outbreak.

Social media
Engagement on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter has become an integral component of Chinese diplomacy. From April 2019 to April 2020 the output of Chinese diplomat's Twitter accounts increased fourfold.

Relations with United States

 * Cohen, Warren I. America’s Response To China: A History Of Sino-American Relations (6th ed. Columbia UP, 2019) 2010 edition online
 * Garver, John W. China's quest: the history of the foreign relations of the people's Republic of China (2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2018), chapters 3, 9, 11, 21, 23, 24.
 * MacMillan, Margaret. Nixon and Mao: the week that changed the world (Random House, 2008).
 * Kirby, William C., et al. Normalization of US-China relations: an international history (Harvard University Asia Center Publications Program, 2005).
 * Wang, Dong. The United States and China: A history from the eighteenth century to the present (Rowman & Littlefield, 2021).

title: History of foreign relations of China


text:
John Kirk

John Kirk may refer to:

Military

 * John Kirk (soldier) (1827–1865), awarded the Victoria Cross
 * John Kirk (Medal of Honor), American Indian Wars soldier on List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars

Sportspeople
John Kirk (1934-2021) Professional rugby player England Rugby team captain.
 * John Kirk (footballer, born 1922) (1922–?), English football winger with Darlington
 * John Kirk (footballer, born 1930), Canadian football inside forward with Accrington Stanley
 * John Kirk (cyclist) (1890–1951), British Olympic cyclist

Politicians

 * John Kirk (New Zealand politician) (born 1947)
 * John Angus Kirk (1837–1910), Canadian politician and farmer
 * John P. Kirk (1867–1952), American politician, mayor of Ypsilanti, Michigan

Others

 * John Kirk (antiquarian) (1760–1851), Roman Catholic priest and antiquary
 * John Kirk (explorer) (1832–1922), worked alongside David Livingstone in southern Africa
 * John Foster Kirk (1824–1904), American historian, journalist, educator and bibliographer
 * John Kirk (archaeologist) (1869–1940), British twentieth-century archaeologist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Kirk


text: Category:Sesiidae

title: Category:Sesiidae


text:
Shi Kang

Shi Kang (石康) is a modern Chinese writer born in 1968. His novel "晃晃悠悠"(Loafing Around) is sometimes described as being a bit like Catcher in the Rye and has been very popular in China. It was turned into a play in 2005. Huang Huang You You( Loafing Around),along with Zhi Li Po Sui (Torn to Pieces) and Yi Ta Hu Tu (Completely Muddled),are known as the Youth Trilogy of Shi Kang. As a prolific screenwriter, Shi Kang wrote the popular TV show Struggle in 2007, which was considered as "the bible for people born in the 1980s". Also, Shi Kang is a co-writer of Feng Xiaogang's 2002 Spring Festival comedy smash, Big Shot's Funeral (Da wan).

His novels have not yet been translated into English.

Works

 * "支离破碎" (Torn to Pieces)
 * "晃晃悠悠" (Loafing Around)
 * "一塌糊涂" (Completely Muddled)
 * "在一起"
 * "心碎你好"
 * "北京姑娘"
 * "鸡一嘴鸭一嘴"
 * "激情与迷茫"
 * "过山车"
 * "口吐莲花"

title: Shi Kang


text:
Talk:Caernarfonshire

Spelling
Wasn't the county almost always referred to as Caernarvonshire? I thought it was only in the last couple of decades that the switch to Cymricised spellings took place?
 * Caernarvonshire is a redirect to this page. The very first sentence states "Caernarfonshire, also known as Carnarvonshire"! :) Owain 09:30, 31 August 2005 (UTC)
 * No need to tell me what I already know. :-) Now, anyone know the answer to my questions?
 * I always find it difficult to understand some people's attitude towards Welsh. The English name "Caernarfonshire" / "Caernarvonshire" / "Carnarvonshire" is derived from the Welsh place name "Caernarfon". So what's this "Cymricised spellings" supposed to mean? Surely it's the other way round, "Caernarvon" being the Anglicised spelling of Caernarfon. It seems a general policy on most wiki pages to respect the original native names of people and places, even to the extent of providing them in Chinese or Persian characters. That's fine by me. Why should Welsh be the exception to this rule? For centuries the name has been "Sir Gaernarfon" in the native language of Wales, and remains so today. If there is an argument for redirecting this page anywhere logically it should be to "Sir Gaernarfon". People entering the anglicised spelling in Search would still find it. Enaidmawr 01:18, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

If the county existed today, it would undoubtedly be spelled "Caernarfonshire". But it ceased to exist in 1972, and surely at that time almost everyone spelled it as either "Caernarvonshire" or "Sir Gaernarfon"? If that's true then this article is mis-titled! --Dr Greg (talk) 22:27, 19 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, this is a tricky one. What you say is true.

 * The county abolished under the LGA 1972 (in 1974) was called in English Caernarvonshire, with a "v".
 * There was a Caernarvonshire County Council, a Lord Lieutenant of Caernarvonshire, a High Sheriff of Caernarvonshire.
 * Before the 1920s it was spelt "Carnarvonshire" in English. There is an exact date for the change, but I don't have it in front of me.
 * There was, in fact, never a statutory county called "Caernarfonshire" with an f (in English).
 * However.... there was a move to use the "f" spelling informally. Having searched the London Gazette to see if there was any use of "Caernarfonshire" by any official body before 1974 (there wasn't), I found a few uses of "Caernarfonshire" as a postal county, the earliest being in 1972.
 * The town of Caernarfon seems to have officially changed the English spelling in 1974. The Royal Borough of Caernarvon (with a "v") existed up to 31 March 1974. On 1 April 1974 a community known as the Royal Town of Caernarfon appeared in its place, as far as I can tell. Hence the Local Authorities (Armorial Bearings) Order 1976, which transferred the coat of arms of the Corporation of the Royal Borough of Caernarvon to the council of the Royal Town of Caernarfon (S.I. 1976/767).
 * The spelling with an "f" seems to have become dominant over the years since the abolition of the county, and is used (anachronistically) by organisations of good standing e.g.  which talks about the records of the "Caernarfonshire Quater Sessions".
 * When local government was last reformed in Wales, there was very briefly a county of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire (now Gwynedd), which reinforces the "new" spelling's dominance.

 * I suppose there is no real problem in using a different spelling today to what was actually used when the county was extant. After all, we have articles on "Mercia" and "Wessex" which were not the exact names by which they were known at the time. Perhaps more relevantly, Hampshire was in law the "County of Southampton" until 1959, but we don't get too officious about that. I think it is a problem that can be easily solved by the use of piped links. If we are referring to an official body such as the quarter sessions named above in, say, the 19th century then it should in that instance be spelt Carnarvonshire, but linked to Caernarfonshire.

 * Perhaps someone could write a suitably neutral and well referenced paragraph on the English name/spelling, and hopefully save us all a lot of aggro?

Lozleader (talk) 09:21, 20 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Hmmmm. Just had a look at WP:NCGN and it says this:

"If the place does not exist anymore, or the article deals only with a place in a period when it held a different name, the widely accepted historical English name should be used."
 * Now I'm really confused.... I suppose the debate centres over 1.) the continued existence of Ca(e)rnar*onshire 2.) the wide acceptance or otherwise of any spelling. 3.) the article dealing with Ca(e)rnar*onshire only in the past or not
 * Aaargh! Lozleader (talk) 09:30, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

Thanks for your response. I'd be interested to hear what others think. (By the way, Caernarvon railway station changed its name from "Carnarvon" to "Caernarvon" on 27 March 1926, so I guess the town & county changed their spellings around that time too. I have already been bold and renamed that article which was until yesterday called "Caernarfon railway station (L&NWR)", a spelling that it never officially had before it closed in 1970.) --Dr Greg (talk) 12:38, 20 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Ah yes 1926 it was, according to the 1931 county census report: the borough was renamed on 14 January and the county on 1 July.Lozleader (talk) 13:25, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Caernarfonshire


text:
Talk:2004 NBA Finals

Picture selection.....
I don't have any better, but is it really a good idea to use the losing team in the picture to represent this event? Doesn't it miscontrue the event a tad? --MateoP 00:19, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I also think it should be added that this was one of the biggest upsets in the history of professional sports. It really was. Everyone was picking the Lakers. Not even the Detroit Free Press was picking the Pistons.

Fair use rationale for Image:KobeGameWinner.jpg
Image:KobeGameWinner.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 04:21, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

GA Review
Ok here's the review
 * First of all the image needs a fair use rationale
 * Use – for scores and year ranges
 * The reference section should have two columns
 * The article needs lots of references as at the momemt it's all POV
 * "star-studded Lakers" - remove POV
 * Try add more description to the games sections, as this is the main part of the article it's too short
 * Put the officials in a table
 * Remove the trivia section or incorporate it into the article
 * "The games were broadcast on ABC by Al Michaels and Doc Rivers. To promote the series, they used the Black Eyed Peas' song "Let's Get It Started", which they had also used throughout the 2004 NBA Playoffs." - this needs referencing
 * Don't wilink individual years

I'll fail it for now, once you have done all the above, message me on my talk page NapHit 17:16, 3 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Put the roster section into tables

Naphit I would disagree with the references one - (this article needs a lot of references) - most of the text either falls under common knowledge or no one would doubt their truthfulness - which is ok as according to WP:REF you only cite sources when material is "challenged or likely to be challenged." I'm not really sure what's challenge-able here (besides major pov like "star-studded")-- daniel  folsom  21:54, 3 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Ok - I just saw what you added as "cn" tags- and I'll find a source for it all - however some of the stuff I would again say falls under common knowledge. Almost everyone that knows anything about the NBA knows the Lakers won 3 in a row.-- daniel  folsom  20:10, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Done-- daniel  folsom  20:44, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, but anyone who doesn't know the NBA won't know the Lakers won three in a row. NapHit 14:45, 7 September 2007 (UTC)
 * The article is still not there just yet, it needs more description, especially the games section, for example game four has only one sentence NapHit 14:07, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:2004 NBA Finals


text:
George Coyne

George Vincent Coyne, S.J. (January 19, 1933 – February 11, 2020) was an American Jesuit priest and astronomer who directed the Vatican Observatory and headed its research group at the University of Arizona from 1978 to 2020.

From January 2012 until his death, he taught at Le Moyne College in Syracuse, New York. His career was dedicated to the reconciliation of theology and science, while his stance on scripture was absolute: "One thing the Bible is not," he said in 1994, "is a scientific textbook. Scripture is made up of myth, of poetry, of history. But it is simply not teaching science."

Early years and education
George Coyne was born in Baltimore on January 19, 1933, the third of eight siblings. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in Wernersville, Pennsylvania, after attending Loyola High School in Blakefield, Maryland, on scholarship and graduating in 1951. He earned his bachelor's degree in mathematics and his licentiate in philosophy at Fordham University in 1958.

He carried out a spectrophotometric study of the lunar surface to obtain his doctorate in astronomy from Georgetown University in 1962. He spent the summer of 1963 doing research at Harvard University, the summer of 1964 as a National Science Foundation lecturer at the University of Scranton, and the summer of 1965 as visiting research professor at the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (UA LPL). He obtained a licentiate in sacred theology at Woodstock College and was ordained a priest in 1966. Coyne was visiting assistant professor at the UA LPL in 1966-67 and 1968–69 and a visiting astronomer at the Vatican Observatory in 1967-68.

Director of Vatican Observatory
Coyne joined the Vatican Observatory as an astronomer in 1969 and became an assistant professor at the LPL in 1970. In 1976 he became a senior research fellow at the LPL and a lecturer in the UA Department of Astronomy. The following year he served as Director of the UA's Catalina Observatory and as Associate Director of the LPL. Pope John Paul I appointed him Director of the Vatican Observatory in 1978, and also Associate Director of the UA Steward Observatory. During 1979-80 he served as Acting Director and Head of the UA Steward Observatory and the Astronomy Department. He spent five months of the year in Tucson as adjunct professor in the University of Arizona Astronomy Department.

As Director of the Vatican Observatory he was a driving force in several new educational and research initiatives. He recruited young astronomers worldwide and established a program for non-resident adjunct appointments that allowed women to participate. Women accounted for almost half the participants in the biennial Vatican Observatory Summer School he established for astronomy graduate students. In the 1990s he organized conferences at the Observatory's headquarters in Castel Gandolfo, including one titled "God's Action in the Universe" sponsored jointly with the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences of Berkeley, California. One of his successors said Coyne only asked his hires to do "good science" and that "He created a space where we were all free to pursue that science. He acted as a firewall between us and the vagaries of the Vatican. He made us welcome and he made our collaborators and visitors welcome."

In 2002, he co-authored with Alessandro Omizzolo, a priest-astronomer on the staff of the Observatory, Wayfarers in the Cosmos: The Human Quest for Meaning. He also took on a public role as an expert on the intersection of science and Catholicism. In 1994 he said that he was open to the existence of extraterrestrial life and that Christianity could reconcile its theology with such a discovery. He criticized the Church's lukewarm acceptance of responsibility for its prosecution of Galileo in the early seventeenth century.

Coyne was a vocal proponent of the view that a scientific view of evolution in its classic form, including its random nature, is compatible with Catholic teaching. In August 2005, he sharply critiqued an op-ed column in which Cardinal Christoph Schönborn appeared to question that position. He wrote that "If they respect the results of modern science, and indeed the best of modern biblical research, religious believers must move away from the notion of a dictator God or a designer God, a Newtonian God who made the universe as a watch that ticks along regularly.” He proposed an alternative view of God's role as creator: "God in his infinite freedom continuously creates a world that reflects that freedom at all levels of the evolutionary process to greater and greater complexity. He is not continually intervening, but rather allows, participates, loves." In November 2005, he said that "Intelligent design isn't science even though it pretends to be. If you want to teach it in schools, intelligent design should be taught when religion or cultural history is taught, not science."

From 2007 to 2011 Coyne directed the Vatican Observatory Foundation.

Scientific research
Coyne's research interests were in polarimetric studies of the interstellar medium, stars with extended atmospheres, and Seyfert galaxies, which are a class of spiral galaxies with very small and unusually bright star-like centers. Polarimetry studies can reveal the properties of cosmic dust and synchrotron radiation regions in galaxies and other astronomical objects. In later years he studied the polarization produced in cataclysmic variable stars, or interacting binary star systems that give off sudden bursts of intense energy, and dust about young stars. The asteroid 14429 Coyne is named for him.

Coyne was an active member of the International Astronomical Union, the American Astronomical Society, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, the American Physical Society and the Optical Society of America.

In 1985, Coyne, along with Remo Ruffini (University of Rome "La Sapienza"), Riccardo Giacconi (Nobel Prize for Physics 2002), Abdus Salam (Nobel Prize for Physics 1979), Paul Boynton (University of Washington), Francis Everitt (Stanford University), Fang Li-Zhi (University of Science and Technology of China) founded the International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics (ICRA) in order to collaborate and exchange ideas among astrophysicists around the world.

Retirement
Coyne's tenure at the Vatican Observatory ended with the appointment of Argentine astronomer José Gabriel Funes to succeed him on August 19, 2006. Funes rejected tabloid speculation that Coyne's dispute with Schönborn had anything to do with his retirement. Coyne, then 73, said the idea was "simply not true".

In retirement, Coyne discussed that he did not, and other Christians should not, have problems reconciling his faith in Christ with contemporary scientific topics. In 2008, with Michael Heller, he co-authored Comprehensible Universe: The Interplay of Science and Theology.

Interviewed in the 2008 documentary film Religulous by political commentator Bill Maher, Coyne said that since all of the scriptures are written around/between 2000 BC and 200 AD, and modern science has only come into existence in the last couple of hundred years, the scriptures contain no science and should not be taught as science. He said: "How in the world could there be any science in Scripture? There can not be, 'cause the two historical periods (Scripture and Modern Science) are separated by so much. The Scriptures are not teaching science. It's very hard for me to accept not just a literal interpretation of Scripture, but a fundamentalist approach to religious belief. It's kind of a plague. It presents itself as science, and it's not."

In 2015 Coyne applauded Pope Francis for discussing the importance of caring for the environment and addressing the need for Christians to tackle the issue of climate change caused by human activity. He described Francis' encyclical Laudato Si' as "probably the most challenging encyclical since the great social encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius XI in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which discussed the rights and duties of capital and labor". Coyne thought it "may very well provoke one of the most important dialogues between science and religion since the days of Charles Darwin".

Coyne died of bladder cancer on February 11, 2020, at a hospital in Syracuse at the age of 87.

Honors
Coyne received an honorary doctorate by Le Moyne College of Syracuse, New York, a Jesuit institution, on May 17, 2009, in recognition of "his tireless effort to promote an open dialogue between philosophy, theology, and the sciences" as part of his work "to bridge the gap between faith and science."

In 2008 Villanova University awarded Coyne the Mendel Medal, which recognizes outstanding scientists who have advanced the cause of science and demonstrated that between true science and true religion there is no intrinsic conflict.

In 2010 he was awarded the George Van Biesbroeck Prize by the American Astronomical Society.

Coyne received honorary degrees from St. Peter's University (1980), Loyola University Chicago (1994), the University of Padua (1995), the Pontifical Theological Academy of the Jagellonian University (1997), Marquette University (2005), and Boston College (2007).

Select writings
The Vatican Observatory Foundation hosts some of Coyne's writings and videos online.

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title: George Coyne


text:
Reg Gorman

Reg Gorman (2 August 1932 – 5 August 2021) was an Australian television and film actor, and comedian, he was known best for his role in TV serial The Sullivans, as Jack Fletcher. and children's series Fergus McPhail as Harry Patterson.

Gorman was also active in radio dramas and theatre and was one of the last active vaudeville performers in Australia.<ref name="Conquest"

Personal life
Reg Gorman, trained with Hayes Gordon and J.C. Williamson Theatre Company, he was married to fellow actor Judith Roberts. The couple had three children: Kate, Karl and Charmaine. They raised their children together while working in the theatre, television and film industries.

Television roles
While having his comedy roots in vaudeville, Gorman began his television career with appearances on the Australian television series Consider Your Verdict in 1964 and again in 1966. His first recurring star role in a series was the ATN series Mrs. Finnegan as Darby Finnigan in 13 episodes from 1970 to 1971.

In 1976, he joined the cast of The Sullivans and remained in his role of Jack Fletcher for the series' entire 1976–1983 run. Gorman played the guest role of Bert Gibbs in Prisoner in 1984, and appeared in several episodes of the series The Henderson Kids (1985). In 1985 he guested in four episodes in Neighbours as Wally Walters, returning to the series again in 1999 in a different role.

He starred as Reg Hide in the 1987 series pilot Jackal and Hide alongside Norman Yemm, his former co-star from The Sullivans, who co-starred in the pilot as the character of Norm Jackal. In 1994, he played the role of Mr. Fowler in the Hugh Jackman vehicle Snowy River: The McGregor Saga. In 1997 he held the role of Grandpa in seven episodes of The Wayne Manifesto.

From 2000 through to 2001, he appeared in the series Something in the Air in four episodes as Ken. He also appeared as Harry Patterson in all 26 episodes of the 2004 comedy series Fergus McPhail.

Film roles
Gorman was also involved in numerous films, beginning in 1968 as Otto in the western drama (released in English as The Drifting Avenger), and up to his later projects, Animals and the short film Like It Was Yesterday (both 2012).

Gorman was described as being one of the last Australian vaudeville performers.

Death
Gorman died from cancer at The Alfred Hospital in Melbourne, aged 89, on 5 August 2021.

title: Reg Gorman


text:
Talk:Okayu

Merge
Should this article be merged into rice congee? Or should each of the variants of congee merits its own entry? — Instantnood 09:17, August 31, 2005 (UTC)

 * If this article stay apart, we need to move this to Kayu because "O" is only prefix that has almost no meaning. --Ypacaraí 03:48, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

 * That's not valid if "okayu" is in fact the most frequently used name. Just like "ocha", the "o" is just honorific formalities, but "ocha" is used far often than merely "cha".  I'm not too familiar with Japanese; anyone knows definitively whether the common term is "kayu" or "okayu"? 24.19.184.243 06:00, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Okayu


text:
Christopher George

Christopher John George (February 25, 1931 – November 28, 1983) was an American television and film actor who starred in the 1960s television series The Rat Patrol. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1967 as Best TV Star for his performance in the series. He was also the recipient of a New York Film Festival award as the Best Actor in a Television Commercial. George was married to actress Lynda Day George.

Early life
Christopher George was born in Royal Oak, Michigan, on February 25, 1931, the son of Greek immigrants John George (Ιωάννης Γεωργίου) and Vaseleke (Vassiliki) George (Βασιλική Γεωργίου). His father was born in Thebes and his mother in Athens.

George did not speak English until he was six years old, because his family only spoke Greek at home. His father was a traveling salesman during his childhood. He accompanied his father on selling trips to cities such as Akron, New York City, Chicago, St. Louis, Memphis, and Detroit.

From Michigan, the family moved to Mountain Lakes, New Jersey. Once he began learning to speak English, his father enrolled him in Greek school in addition to his regular school so that he would not forget the Greek language. That was where George first became interested in acting; at Greek school they performed Greek plays and recited Greek poetry.

When he was 14, he and his family moved to Miami, Florida. As a child, he lived in the Coconut Grove section of Miami and attended Shenandoah Elementary School and Miami Senior High School. In school, he played soccer, football and baseball and ran track. While in Florida, he used to hunt for alligators in the Everglades. After obtaining his driver's license, he worked for his father, driving trucks between Miami and other cities along the Eastern seaboard.

When he was young, George felt bound to become a priest in the Greek Orthodox Church, and his family prepared him for it; his brother Nick said that all through his childhood, Christopher was an altar boy and a choir boy and that his parents and the priest were trying to groom him to become a priest. He served as an altar boy at St. Sophia Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Miami.

Military service
George enlisted in the United States Marine Corps (USMC) on October 13, 1948, at Jacksonville, Florida, at age 17. He lied about his age on his recruitment form by giving his year of birth as 1929, which then stuck with him for most of his adult life. He attributed his enlistment to being inspired by John Wayne, saying, "You know, he caused the enlistment of hundreds of kids in the Marines and I was one of them." According to his military record at the National Personnel Records Center, he attended boot camp at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, and graduated with a meritorious promotion to private first class on December 31, 1948.

His first duty station was Headquarters Squadron, Marine Corps Air Station Quantico, Virginia. In April 1950, he transferred to Aircraft Engineering Squadron 12 (AES-12), also located at Quantico. AES-12 maintained the aircraft for school pilots and also used them as a demonstration squadron for members of the United States Congress, demonstrating new rockets and bombs. While assigned to AES-12, he rose to the rank of sergeant. He had forced landings in airplanes while he was in the Marines, and while stationed at Quantico, was very sick, lying in the hospital with "a 110-degree fever."

While stationed at Quantico, George was a passenger in an aircraft flown by one of AES-12's officers The weather was clear and sunny that day when both of the engines failed at approximately 8000 ft above the Carolinas. Both pilots worked to get the engines restarted, dipping to an altitude of about 1000 ft before they succeeded. Another time, an aircraft caught fire; he had to bail out, in the first parachute jump of his life.

During the Korean War, George commanded a Marine Corps crash boat, and served as gunner aboard the type of rescue aircraft used to fly wounded out of Korea. He completed a three-year enlistment with the Marines and stayed for an additional year, before requesting an honorable discharge and returning home to Miami. He left active service on August 29, 1952.

After that, as a sergeant in the Marine Corps Reserves, he joined Marine Fighter Squadron 142 (VMF-142) of the Marine Air Reserve Training Command, Marine Corps Air Station Miami, Florida. He also served in the 4th Supply Company, in Stockton, California. Finally, he reverted to inactive reserve status and was assigned to Headquarters, 6th MCR&RD (Marine Corps Reserve and Recruiting District), Atlanta, Georgia, until completing his enlisted service and receiving a discharge on September 3, 1956.

While in the Marine Corps, his superior officers encouraged him to apply for flight school and a commission; instead, he chose to receive a discharge so he could return to school. He passed a high school equivalency exam.

During the summer of 1976, he appeared in a recruiting film made for the Marine Corps Air Reserve. On May 5, 2009, the Marine Corps flew a flag over the Iwo Jima Memorial in honor of his service in the Corps.

Military awards
George earned the Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal and the National Defense Service Medal. These awards are documented in his official military personnel file available at the National Archives and Records Administration.

University education
After completing his enlistment, George attended the University of Miami from 1953 to 1958, where he earned a Bachelor's in Business Administration degree from the school of business. He was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon, along with his brother Nick, who also attended the University of Miami.

Non-acting jobs
George held down a variety of jobs before he began acting for a living, including working as a private investigator and as a bartender in a Miami bar. He owned and operated eateries and beer bars, one called the Dragnet Drive-In in Miami and another in Stockton, California. The inn in Stockton where he worked for five months during a break from college had been owned by his late uncle for seven years and was off-limits to Marines. He held black belts in karate and judo. He worked as a bouncer in tough restaurants and held a pilot's license.

George was hired by a friend who owned a 110-foot converted Canadian gunboat and transported cargo through the Caribbean for two years. Before graduating from the University of Miami, he had a job lined up with a big investment company; however he instead turned to acting after completing a vocational test battery that indicated that he should work in drama.

Acting career
After graduating from college, George began acting in New York City, where he performed on the stage and in television commercials. His big break came when he was working as a bouncer at a New York waterfront bar and producer Robert Rafelson convinced him to begin an acting career. He studied acting under Wynn Handman and landed roles in Off-Broadway productions of popular plays of the day. Small theater productions in which he appeared while he was studying drama included All My Sons, The Moon Is Blue, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Stalag 17 and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? Under drama coach Wynn Handman, he landed a sixteen-week engagement in the play Mr. Roberts with actor Hugh O'Brian; parts in Shakespeare and Tennessee Williams works followed.

His career took off after he made a 60-second TV commercial for shaving cream, where he played the young man in the "Good morning, Mr. Gray" shaving spot, and won the New York Film Festival Award for best actor in a commercial. During this 1962 shaving-cream commercial, George played a groom lathering up before his first honeymoon night, with a line where he said, "It's all for you." The commercial earned him over $30,000. He also appeared in roles on the television series Naked City and Bewitched. While in New York City, George played in the Lemos Greek Repertory Theater because he could speak Greek fluently.

He first appeared on the screen when he landed a role in the film In Harm's Way (1965), playing a dying sailor for 30 seconds. This gave him his first opportunity to meet and work with John Wayne, who had been his boyhood idol and who would become a lifelong friend. He first rose to prominence playing a supporting role in the Howard Hawks-directed Western film El Dorado (1966, released in 1967), also for Paramount Pictures starring both John Wayne and Robert Mitchum in the lead roles. George and Wayne became friends while shooting the film and would co-star in additional Westerns, including Chisum (1970) and The Train Robbers (1973). George had the lead in William Castle's spy-fi Project X released in 1968.

The Rat Patrol
From 1966 to 1968 over the course of two seasons and 58 episodes, George played the lead role of Sergeant Sam Troy on The Rat Patrol. The television series followed the exploits of four Allied soldiers who were part of a long range desert patrol group in the North African campaign during World War II. Along with fellow Rat Patrol members, he appeared in the April 1967 Cherry Blossom Festival and Parade in Washington, D.C. While starring in The Rat Patrol, Chris also served as an awards presenter at the 1966 Washington, D.C. local version of the Emmy Awards, hosted at the Washington, D.C. Sheraton Park Hotel.

While filming a scene on January 4, 1967, George, as well as fellow cast members Justin Tarr and Gary Raymond, were injured when the Jeep Tarr was driving overturned on a dry lakebed at Rosamond, California as they made a tight turn. George sustained a concussion, tearing something in his neck and injuring his back. Doctors at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in California were able to determine that his back had been badly sprained, not fractured, as they had initially feared.

USO Tour in 1967
George also joined actor Lawrence P. Casey on a USO tour of Vietnam, Japan and Thailand, which lasted for almost a month and which started on November 12, 1967, and went into December 1967.

During the tour of Vietnam, he visited III Corps Headquarters at Bien Hoa Army Base and used the III Corps signal switchboard to place a telephone call to his girlfriend and future wife, Lynda Day. While in Vietnam, he did not confine himself to the rear echelon, but instead pressed his escorts to allow him to go as far out into the field as they would permit; at one time, they were even pinned down by the Viet Cong.

In November 1967, the USO and the Air Force sent him and several other Hollywood celebrities to visit a military hospital in San Antonio, where military personnel returning from Vietnam with serious burns were being treated. The visit, to Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, was arranged by Johnny Grant, a Hollywood radio personality who had taken troupes of performers to Vietnam; during the visit George and some of the actresses, including his future wife Lynda Day, spent over an hour with a wounded veteran who had been previously uncommunicative and got him to talk.

Post-Rat Patrol
Following the cancellation of The Rat Patrol, George played the lead role in several genre films of the 1960s, including Tiger by the Tail (1968, released in 1970) co-starring Tippi Hedren. The Devil's 8 (1969) co-starring Fabian and Mickey Spillane's The Delta Factor (1970), directed by Tay Garnett who co-wrote the film with Raoul Walsh. He narrated a documentary about the careers of Craig Breedlove and Lee Breedlove, a husband-and-wife auto racing team, The Racers: Craig and Lee Breedlove (1968).

In September 1969, he portrayed Ben Richards in the television pilot movie for The Immortal which ran on the ABC Movie of the Week. The pilot is based on the science fiction novel The Immortals, by James Gunn. The film was picked up as a television series and ran for 15 episodes from 1970 to 1971. Although the series was cancelled mid-season, episodes were rerun by ABC in the summer of 1971. It was later shown in reruns on the Syfy channel.

During this time, he played Dan August in the television film House on Greenapple Road (1970), which evolved into the television series Dan August starring Burt Reynolds. In addition, he starred in an unsold series pilot, Escape with Avery Schreiber and Huntz Hall, which ABC released in 1971 as a television movie. In it, he portrayed Robin Hood–like escapologist and nightclub owner Cameron Steele.

He continued his television work throughout the 1970s with guest roles on many popular series, including Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law, Police Story, S.W.A.T., Charlie's Angels, and Fantasy Island. In 1973, he starred opposite Jim Brown in I Escaped from Devil's Island. He also surprised fans by posing nude for Playgirl magazine in the June 1974 issue. In 1976, he played a supporting role as Lieutenant Commander Wade McClusky in the all-star World War II epic Midway. That same year, he played the lead role of Ranger Michael Kelly in the Film Ventures International independent film Grizzly. A thinly veiled Jaws clone, the killer animal horror/thriller film became one of the most popular films of George's career, earning more than $39 million at the box office.

He followed that success with a busy string of horror, action, splatter and slasher B movies over the next seven years, including Dixie Dynamite (1976) co-starring Warren Oates; Day of the Animals (1977); City of the Living Dead (1980); Graduation Day (1981); Enter the Ninja (1981); Pieces (1982) and Mortuary (1983).

Recruiting film for the United States Marine Corps Reserve
In the summer of 1976, prior to returning to MCAS Quantico for a visit, George traveled to Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland to appear in a recruiting video for the U.S. Marine Corps Air Reserves. This video featured Marines assigned to Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 321 just returned from their annual training tour as reservists. The commander of the unit at the time was LtCol Charles McLeran. It was filmed by the J. Walter Thompson advertising company and provided to recruiters in 1978. Archive records show that George was under contract with J. Walter Thompson for this work.

Work with his wife
George co-starred with his wife Lynda in multiple television films, including Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976) and Cruise Into Terror (1978). They also worked together in episodes of The F.B.I. (1970), Mission: Impossible (1971), McCloud (1975), Wonder Woman (1976), Love Boat (1977) and Vega$ (1978). In addition, George and his wife Lynda co-starred in the feature film, Day Of The Animals (1977).

One of his last film roles was a supporting role in the horror film Mortuary. Released in September 1983, it was actually filmed in 1981, more than two years prior to his death.

Personal life
George first met actress Lynda Day in New York where they were doing a fashion layout; prophetically, she was modeling the bride's outfit and he was the groom. They met again later when they starred together in the independent film The Gentle Rain (1966). They would appear in supporting roles together four years later in Chisum starring John Wayne, where they fell in love. On May 15, 1970, they were married in an Episcopal ceremony in a judge's chamber in Palm Beach, Florida. They had two children together — a daughter, Casey and a son, Nicholas.

George's niece is Wheel of Fortune hostess Vanna White. According to White, although George was not a biological relation of hers, her mother grew up with his family and, years later in Los Angeles, he and his wife took her under their wing.

Death
George died of a heart attack at age 52 in the late evening of November 28, 1983, at Westside Hospital in Los Angeles. After dinner at home with his wife, he felt sudden chest pains and was taken by ambulance to the hospital. He later went into cardiac arrest and was pronounced dead at 10:35 p.m., over three hours after he was admitted, while under the care and observation of his cardiologist, Dr. Pearl McBroom. His age at the time of his death was listed as 54, due to an incorrect year of birth (1929), which he listed on his military recruitment form for the U.S. Marines.

Although several sources in the last two decades cite his Rat Patrol injuries as a contributing factor to his death, George was a frequent smoker of cigars, a heavy drinker, had known heart disease and had undergone coronary bypass surgery about five years prior to his death.

A Greek Orthodox mnemósynon (Greek: μνημόσυνον) service was conducted at Westwood Memorial Park and a private funeral was held at Saint Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church in Northridge on December 1.

On May 5, 2009, the Marine Corps flew a flag over the Iwo Jima Memorial in honor of his service in the Corps.

title: Christopher George


text:
User talk:Chanueting

'''I don't watch this page very often, could you mind leaving me a message in my Chinese talk page. Thank you.'''? Martin 16:51, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

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Afrikakorps image
Thanks for reply on my talk page, Each image should have a tag, looking at other regiments badge images like and,  seems to be the right one to use. I'll add that marker to the file. If you need a hand putting the picture into the article you wanted it for, let me know. Alf melmac 07:53, 17 September 2005 (UTC)

About the Image:GooseStepping.JPG
I want to know that why do you state that "Copyright © 2005 by Estate of Leni Riefenstahl" ? Chanueting 13:42, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

 * There's a lot of debate about the copyright status of "Triumph of the Will". Either it's A) PD B) owned by the state of Germany or C) owned by the estate of Leni Riefenstahl.  It all comes down to Nazi copyright law and how the Bundesrepulik Deutschland either honors or does not honor it.  To the best of my knowledge, there hasn't really been any litigation to guide us either.  Long story short, I made a judgement call. Palm_Dogg`

Image:Boniface8.gif
The was the duplicate of, which was deleted for having no source. Conscious 04:54, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Re: About Image:China Airlines B-18616 fire.jpg
Well, since he is claiming to be the creator ("This photo was taken by Thomas Mitchell and uploaded by the creator.") and that I couldn't find any similar image on the net, I think it is safe to assume good faith. But that's my mere opinion :) -- lucasbfr talk 08:14, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chanueting


text: Category:Philippine student societies

title: Category:Philippine student societies


text: Category:Tortricidae

title: Category:Tortricidae


text:
Talk:Offset

Too many defs in this one article
We obviously need to split this article into several, and make a disambig page. I'll do it myself if nobody beats me to it. --Wernher 09:21, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Offset (rapper) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 17:46, 8 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Offset