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York (explorer)

York (1770–75 – after 1815) was an American explorer and historic figure, being the only African-American member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He participated in the entire exploration and made significant contributions to its success. He was the first African American to cross the continent and see the Pacific. He has become an American icon and several monuments depicting him have been erected honoring his legacy.

York was born enslaved, the son of Old York and Rose, who had been enslaved by John Clark III, William Clark's father. William inherited York from his father in 1799. York was a large man; his weight has been estimated as 200 lbs. He was about the same age as Clark, perhaps a few years older or younger, and naturally strong. His skin was dark: he was "black as a bear", said one who knew him, and his hair was short and curly. Like most of the enslaved, York was illiterate, and information about him is scant.

York expected to be given his freedom after the successful expedition was over, in view of what he called his "immense services", but Clark refused repeatedly and became angry when York would not go back willingly to his pre-expedition role of submissive body servant. He also expressed irritation at York's insistence on remaining in Louisville, where his wife and possibly children were. He whipped York and eventually sold him.

Documentation concerning York is lacking for the years immediately following the expedition. About 20 years later, Clark told Washington Irving that he had freed York and set him up in business, giving him six horses and a large wagon to start a drayage business moving goods between Nashville and Richmond. However, according to Clark as reported by Irving, York was lazy, would not get up in the morning, did not take good care of his horses, longed to return to slavery, and died of cholera. However, the credibility of this report is dubious.

Early life
York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. His skin was dark colored. He and several members of his family were enslaved by the Clark family. The will of John Clark III (father of George Rogers and William Clark) states: I give and bequeath to my son Edmund... three slaves, to wit Peter (Vegas child), and Scipio and Darathy (Rose's children)...

I give and bequeath to my son William... one black man named York, also old York and his wife Rose, and their two children, Nancy and Juba; also three old negroes, Tame, Cupid and Harry. The most plausible family tree based on this description and others is that York was the son of Old York, not by Rose, that Scipio (also spelled Sippo, Seppo, Sep, and Pipo, likely named the same as the Roman general Scipio Africanus) and Daphny (also spelled Dafney, Daphney, and Daphne) were Rose's children not by Old York, and that Nancy and Juba were Old York and Rose's biological children. This would make Scipio, Daphney, Juba, and Nancy the half-siblings of York.

William Clark called York his "playmate". He was Clark's "body servant".

The name "Ben"
There is a single, unsupported oral report, from 1965, that York also had the name Ben. The name never appears in any of the many records of the Lewis and Clark expedition, nor in any other document.

On the expedition
York "participated fully in the journey and contributed in significant ways to its success." The records of the well-documented trip do not reveal any racial bias against him. For all intents and purposes, York's role in Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery was equal to that of the expedition's white men. He could swim, which many of the troupe could not. He was allowed to use a rifle, something the enslaved were not ordinarily permitted. When a decision had to be made, York's vote counted equally with those of the white men. The expedition apparently held none of the enslaved's usual restrictions on movement, and while opportunities to escape may have appeared, York remained with the Corps of Discovery.

A modern writer has called York indispensable to the expedition. The journals are peppered with references to York's hunting prowess: he shot buffalo, deer, and geese alike. His use of a rifle is highly unusual and shows the trust expedition members had in him. His skill in hunting with a rifle may have antedated the expedition. He also kept his eye out for new species, for which the expedition was searching. He played a major role in the heavy work of paddling upstream, portaging, and building shelters. He aided in navigating trails and waterways.

York and Native Americans
York's most spectacular contributions were with the Native American tribes the expedition came into contact with, whose assistance was sometimes very necessary. According to the journals of the expedition, York's blackness served as a passport with them; they were impressed by such a "strange creature". According to Richard Betts, he was "the main attraction in Lewis and Clark's travelling magic show." York was a sensation.

The following excerpts are from the expedition's official report: "[October 9, 1804] The object which appeared to astonish the Indians most, was captain Clark’s servant [slave] York, a remarkable stout strong negro. They had never seen a being of that colour, and therefore flocked round him to examine the extraordinary monster. By way of amusement he told them that he had once been a wild animal, and caught and tamed by his master, and to convince them, showed them feats of strength, which added to his looks made him more terrible than we wished him to be."

"[October 10, 1804] ...after this the airgun was exhibited, very much to their astonishment, nor were they less surprised at the colour and manner of York."

"[October 12, 1804] These women are handsomer than the Sioux; both of them are however, disposed to be amorous, and our men found no difficulty in procuring companions for the night by means of the interpreters. These interviews were chiefly clandestine, and were of course to be kept a secret from the husband or relations. The point of honour indeed, is completely reversed among the Ricaras; that the wife or the sister should submit to a stranger's embraces without the consent of her husband or brother, is a cause of great disgrace and offence, especially as for many purposes of civility or gratitude the husband and brother will themselves present to a stranger these females, and be gratified by attentions to them. The Sioux had offered us squaws, but while we remained there having declined, they followed us with offers of females for two days. The Ricaras had been equally accommodating; we had equally withstood their temptation; but such was their desire to oblige that two very handsome young squaws were sent on board this evening, and persecuted us with civilities. The black man York participated largely in these favours; for instead of inspiring any prejudice, his colour seemed to procure him additional advantages from the Indians, who desired to preserve among them some memorial of this wonderful stranger. Among other instances of attention, a Ricara invited him into his house and presenting his wife to him, retired to the outside of the door: while there one of York’s comrades who was looking for him came to the door, but the gallant husband would permit no interruption before a reasonable time had elapsed. (Numerous other reports confirm that women of these tribes, with their husbands' encouragement, would seek to have sexual intercourse with white men. )"

"[October 15, 1804] [T]he fair sex received our men with more than hospitality. York was here again an object of astonishment; the children would follow him constantly, and if he chanced to turn towards them, run with great terror."

"[October 28, 1804] In the mean while we entertained our visitors by showing them what was new to them in the boat; all which, as well our black servant, they called Great Medicine, the meaning of which we afterwards learnt."

 * "The whole religion of the Mandans consists in the belief of one great spirit presiding over their destinies. This being must be in the nature of a good genius since it is associated with the healing art, and the great spirit is synonymous with great medicine, a name also applied to every thing which they do not comprehend."

"[March 9, 1805] In the course of the conversation, the chief observed that some foolish young men of his nation had told him there was a person among us who was quite black, and he wished to know if it could be true. We assured him that it was true, and sent for York: the Borgne [Indian chief] was very much surprised at his appearance, examined him closely, and spit on his finger and rubbed the skin in order to wash off the paint; nor was it until the negro uncovered his head, and showed his short hair, that the Borgne could be persuaded that he was not a painted white man."

"[August 17, 1805] They had indeed abundant sources of suspiscion in all they saw: the appearance of the men, their arms, their clothing, the canoes, the strange looks of the negro, and the sagacity of our dog, all in turn shared their admiration."

York is not mentioned by name, but at their 1805–06 winter camp on the Columbia River, Indians brought their women to market "for a fishinghook or a string of beads", resulting in cases of "venereal disease".

The memory of York persisted in Indian oral tradition until the 20th century.

Arriving at the Pacific and voting
On November 18, 1805, York accompanied Clark to a tree at Cape Disappointment State Park, Washington, where Clark added his name to Lewis's and carved in the tree "By Land from the U. States in 1804 & 1805". York became the first African-American man to reach the Pacific Ocean when he walked nineteen miles (30 km) from camp with Clark. In late November, all the members of a party, including York and Sacagawea, were consulted by the leaders as to where to camp for the winter. According to Martin Plamondon II, to call this a vote, as it is often called, is to create a myth; there is no implication that the vote of the majority would be followed. He calls it "polling" rather than voting. In a reply, Dayton Duncan notes that Clark wrote down the views on the question of every member of the expedition, including York and Sacagawea. This was itself very unusual. The men believed that they, not the leaders, had made the decision. According to Duncan, it was a vote. Glen Kirkpatrick disagrees.

Mentions in Clark's journal
The name York is mentioned in the Lewis and Clark journals 135 times.
 * York is first mentioned in Clark's journal on December 26, 1803, when Clark mentions that York and Corporal Whitehouse had been working with the whipsaws, indicating that he was already working with the other men on the expedition.
 * Clark mentions York again in his journal on June 5, 1804, noting that York had swum to a sand bar from the keelboat in order to collect some greens for dinner. The majority of the men on the expedition could not swim.
 * Clark and another man said that, on June 20, 1804, York almost lost his eye during an assault/altercation when he had sand thrown at him.
 * York was mentioned again in Clark's journal after a small party including York descended the Spirit Mound Historic Prairie. Clark said that "York was nearly exhausted by the heat, thirst and fatigue". Clark said this was because York was too fat and unaccustomed to walking quickly.
 * In September 1804 it was noted that while on a hunting party York had killed an elk. There is no record of York having trained to use a firearm, which was not generally allowed for slaves.

After the expedition
All the men of the expedition except York received double pay according to rank, $5 to $30 per month, and each enlisted man was granted 320 acre of land. York, as a slave, received nothing.

Contrary to the general belief that Clark freed York immediately after their return, York remained enslaved and the property of Clark for at least five more years. He accompanied Clark on the latter's celebratory visit to Washington D.C. in 1807, and when Clark moved his family to St. Louis to take up his new position as brigadier general of the militia and Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the new territory.

Historian Robert Betts said the freedom York had during the Lewis and Clark expedition made resuming enslavement unbearable. York asked Clark for his freedom based upon his good services during the expedition.

"It is shown that York had gained a little freedom while on the expedition with Lewis and Clark. It is mentioned in journals that York went on scouting trips and going to trade with villages, experiencing freedom while doing that. Clark named two geographic discoveries after him; York's Eight Islands and York's Dry Creek, indicating that Clark may have respected him. When a poll was taken to decide where the group should stay over one winter, York's vote was recorded. He was also able to swim, unlike some of the men who were with them on their expedition."

William Clark's letters to his brother
In 1988, 47 letters written by Clark to his brother Jonathan were discovered; written between 1792 and 1811, they were published as a volume in 2002. Information concerning York was one of the main surprises in the letters, according to their editor James J. Holmberg. From them we learn the previously unknown fact that York had a wife, and that his marriage antedated the expedition,  which was deliberately made up primarily of unmarried men, like Lewis and Clark themselves. All that is known of his wife is that she was from the Louisville area, where Clark and York lived before the expedition, and that she was enslaved by someone other than Clark. York's attempts to persuade Clark to let him return to the Louisville area led to a serious falling-out between them in 1808.

That year Clark moved to St. Louis, to take up his new duties as US agent for Indian affairs. York and other household members moved with him. By November 1808, Clark was angered by York's refusal to accept the move to St. Louis and repeated requests that he be hired out in Louisville or sold to someone there. As Clark wrote his brother when finally giving in, he decided to

"send York...and promit him to Stay a few weeks with his wife. he wishes to Stay there altogether and hire himself which I have refused. he prefers being Sold to return[ing] here, he is Serviceable to me at this place, and I am determined not to Sell him to gratify him, and have derected him to return."

York was sent to work for a strict Louisville nephew, John H. Clark. A few weeks later, Clark mentions York again to his brother:

"I did wish to do well by him, but as he has got Such a notion about freedom and his emence [immense] Services, that I do not expect he will be of much Service to me again; I do not think with him, that his Services has [sic] been so great/or my Situation would promit me to liberate him."

Clark believed that York would not provide "service" in St. Louis, and this angered him. He wrote his brother again that he would have punished York, and that if he is hired out in Kentucky, it should be with a "Severe Master" so that after "a while he may do Some Service, I do not wish him again in this Country until he applies himself to Come and give over that wife of his—I wished him to Stay with his family four or five weeks only, and not 4 or 5 months."

York was forced to return to St. Louis, where Clark found him "insolent and sulky". To "mend" this, Clark whipped York ("gave him a Severe trouncing"). He put him in jail ("Caleboos", slang Spanish calabozo) in July 1809. By August Clark had decided "to hire or Sell him". This is the last mention of York in the letters written by William Clark. A 1811 letter from a Louisville relative reported that "I don't like him nor does any other person in this country", and also that the owner of York's wife was going to move to Natchez, Mississippi. York was hired out as a wagoner, making deliveries in Louisville; the last reference to him is from 1815. Another report has him transporting goods between Nashville and Richmond.

Washington Irving's report
None of the information in Clark's letters was known to the general public in the 19th and 20th centuries. During that long period, a report by Washington Irving provided the only account of York's later life. By then a successful writer, Irving visited Clark at his home near St. Louis in 1832. Irving may have been the one to ask about York, as his account labels York "the hero of the expedition", which Clark is unlikely to have stated:

"His slaves—set them free—one he placed at a ferry—another on a farm, giving him land, horses, &c.—a third he gave a large wagon & team of 6 horses to ply between Nashville and Richmond. They all repented & wanted to come back.

The wagoner was York, the hero of the Missouri expedition & adviser of the Indians. He could not get up early enough in the morning—his horses were ill kept—two died—the others grew poor. He sold them, was cheated—entered into service—fared ill. Damn this freedom, said York. I have never had a happy day since I got it. He determined to go back to his old master—set off for St Louis, but was taken with the cholera in Tennessee & died. Some of the traders think they have met traces of York's crowd, on the Missouri."

Historians have been unable to verify these claims. Manumission of a slave was a formal process that required documentation. No known documents exist confirming that Clark ever freed York. According to Darrell Millner, there is nothing to corroborate any of these claims, and York's alleged desire to return to slavery "lacks historical foundation". Clark's story is self-serving and reflects pro-slavery arguments that Africans were happy to be slaves and could not lead successful lives as free people. Millner further states that it is "much more likely" that York was never freed.

The Black man living with the Crow Indians
Zenas Leonard was a fur trader who in 1839 published a memoir of his travels over several years throughout the upper West. Modern scholars consider it highly reliable. (He was the first to see and publish a description of the huge trees we call redwoods.) He reported meeting twice, once outbound and again when returning, "a negro man" living well among the Crows of what is today north-central Wyoming. The identity of the Black man, who purportedly said he had returned from St. Louis after first visiting the area with Lewis and Clark, has been subject to speculation.

Passage 1 (1832)
In this village we found a negro man, who informed us that he first came to this country with Lewis & Clark—with whom he also returned to the State of Missouri, and in a few years returned again with a Mr. Mackinney [Kenneth McKenzie] a trader on the Missouri river, and has remained here ever since—which is about ten or twelve years. He has acquired a correct knowledge of their manner of living, and speaks their language fluently. He has rose to be quite a considerable character, or chief, in their village; at least he assumes all the dignities of a chief, for he has four wives, with whom he lives alternately. This is the custom of many of the chiefs.

Passage 2 (1834)
On the return, Leonard met the same man again, in 1834:

"It will be recollected that I was amongst these Indians once before, when some of our horses were stolen and we followed them into the Crow village, – where we found our horses and also a negro man, in the winter of 1832–33. This man we found to be of as great advantage to us now as on former occasions, as he has become thoroughly acquainted with their language, method of transacting their public and private business, and considered of great value by the Indians. He enjoys perfect peace and satisfaction, and has every thing he desires at his own command."

Passage 3
"Again and again did they return to the charge, but all was of no use — all their efforts were of no avail — confusion began to spread through their ranks — many appeared overwhelmed with despair — and the whole Crow nation was about to retreat from the field, when the negro, who has been heretofore mentioned, and who had been in company with us, advanced a few steps towards the Crows and ascended a rock from which he addressed the Crow warriors in the most earnest and impressive manner. He told them that they had been here making a great noise, as if they could kill the enemy by it — that they had talked long and loud about going into the fort, and that the white men would say the Indian had a crooked tongue, when talking about his war exploits. He told them that their hearts were small, and that they were cowardly — that they acted more like squaws than men, and were not fit to defend their hunting ground. He told them that the white men were ashamed of them and would refuse to trade with such a nation of cowards — that the Blackfeet would go home and tell their people that three thousand Crows could not take a handful of them, - that they would be laughed at, scorned, and treated with contempt by all nations wherever known — that no tribe would degrade themselves hereafter by waging war with them, and that the whole Crow nation, once so powerful, would forever after be treated as a nation of squaws. The old negro continued in this strain until they became greatly animated & told them that if the red man was afraid to go amongst his enemy, he would show them that a black man was not, and he leaped from the rock on which he had been standing, and, looking neither to the right nor to the left, made for the fort as fast as he could run. The Indians guessing his purpose, and inspired by his words and fearless example, followed close to his heels, and were in the fort dealing destruction to the right and left nearly as soon as the old man."

Edward Rose
Edward Rose was a fur trapper who lived for three years among the Crow and spoke their language. He was employed by Europeans as guide and interpreter. However, in a letter that only appeared in the late 1930s, Rose was killed by Indians during the winter of 1832–33, which means he could have not have been the black man Leonard saw in 1834. In addition, Rose's father was white and his mother was half Black and half Cherokee, so he was not "a negro man".

James Beckwourth
James Beckwourth, who left a lengthy autobiography, was a former slave who lived among the Crow much of the time between 1829 and 1836. However, Leonard refers to an "old negro", and Beckwourth was born in 1798 or 1800, so he would have been in his early 30s when Leonard came in contact with the old negro; according to Betts, this "all but rules him out". Beckwourth also would have been a small child at the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1803–1806. While Beckworth claims to have led the Crows' attack on the Blackfoot described by Leonard, he was "notorious" for "just plain lying" and claiming others' deeds as his own. He was called a humbug by one who knew him. "I knew Jim intimately and he was the biggest liar that ever lived." In addition, he was not negroid in appearance. His father was white, and the ethnicity of his mother is not known, but she may well have been no more than half or a quarter Black (quadroon). He never described himself as Black, and he "resembled an Indian so much as to pass for one." Three people who saw him mistook him for a white man. "On the basis of both age and appearance, Beckwourth having been Leonard's 'old negro' simply does not stand up."

John Brazeau
Historian William Gwaltney, in a study of black fur traders, asserts that the man was likely John Brazeau, a black Sioux war leader. "It was very likely that Brazeau told Zenas Leonard that he had come west with Lewis and Clark. As far as anyone can tell, Brazeau was telling a bald faced lie, probably for fun." A John Brazeau was an employee of the American Fur Company and founded Braseau's Houses, a trading post on the Yellowstone River. Frank Grouard, an interpreter, was said to have been "the son of an American Fur Company employee named John Brazeau."

York
The man described by Leonard, who is never named and presumably did not want his name known, fits York's description in size, complexion, and age. Besides the statement that he was big, the only thing known about York's appearance is that his skin was very dark. He was a Black man, which neither Rose nor Beckwourth was. The man's success and comfort living with the Crows also supports York's identification. After his wife was taken to Natchez, York no longer had a reason to remain in Louisville, and he was quite upset at Clark's refusal to grant him his freedom, given his "immense services" during the expedition. It may be supposed that York ran away from his owner and was able to travel from St. Louis up the Missouri to Montana, some 1500 mi.

Legacy
There is no doubt from the journals written during the expedition that York played a vital role in its success. Not only did he fulfill his duties as a laborer along the expedition, the journals also suggest that the color of York's skin intrigued the Native tribes so much they seemingly gave the expedition a pass through the land as well as commencing with trade. The journals also suggest that York had gained the respect of many of the men who were part of the expedition as well.

The Sambo and the superhero
Darrell Millner has studied how York has been shaped and presented over 200 years. He classifies scholarly treatment of York into what he calls two broad categories: the Sambo school, which has been the main trend until very recently, and the superhero school.

The Sambo version of York presents him as a happy slave, but, like all slaves, much in need of a white owner to run his life better than he could himself. In the Sambo tradition, York is neither manly nor heroic, qualities only whites can have. His role and contributions are systematically reduced to behavior that was considered fitting and appropriate for a negro, ignoring the positive aspects of York's character and his contributions, distorting some incidents to cast them in the most unfavorable light possible, and projecting onto York unsubstantiated qualities, such as a thick "Negro" dialect and an insatiable sexual appetite.

In contrast, the superhero presentation of York has elevated him "to near superhuman status and his contributions to the expedition were unsurpassed by others in the Corps of Discovery. The superhero York is the quintessential role model, a courageous, ingenious, brave, and self-sacrificing black hero who has overcome all of the obstacles that slavery and a hostile frontier threw at him. This York ultimately prevails; he is a figure not only for blacks to admire but also for them to emulate."

Creative works based on York

 * In 1972, one of the six sections of Peter Michaelson's poem/essay "Bestride the Mighty and Heretofore Deemed Endless Missouri: An Essay on the Corps of Discovery", deals with York.
 * As part of the Lewis and Clark bicentennial celebrations of 2003, the opera York was presented at the Penn State Opera Theater. Composer was Bruce Trinkley and librettist was Jason Charnesky.
 * A one-man play, York, was created by playwright Bryan Harnetiaux in collaboration with actor and African drummer David Casteal, and premiered at Spokane Civic Theatre, Spokane, Washington, on April 29, 2005, directed by Susan Hardie and performed (with African drumming) by Casteal. According to author Harnetiaux, "One element you see is the affinity between York’s African drumming experience and the Native American drumming". There were off-Broadway performances in New York City in July 2006, and a short production run in 2008. In commemoration of Black History Month, the play was again presented in Spokane on February 27–28, 2016, again with David Casteal. It was repeated February 2, 2018.
 * Kentucky poet Frank X Walker has written two books of poetry about York: Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York (2004), and When Winter Come: The Ascension of York (2008). According to the publisher, the University of Kentucky Press, "This collection of persona poems tells the story of the infamous Lewis & Clark expedition from the point of view of Clark's personal slave, York. The poems form a narrative of York's inner and outer journey, before, during and after the expedition—a journey from slavery to freedom, from the plantation to the great northwest, from servant to soul yearning to be free." The books were very well received: "Singly and together, these books are a great success: they portray the complex character of York, [and] they enrich our understanding of an important chapter in American history", wrote William Joliff in a review article.

In his novel Little Big Man, Thomas Berger mentions York as having possibly been the father of some dark-skinned Indians.

Honors (in chronological order)

 * York appears in several paintings by Western artist Charles Marion Russell. In the painting commonly known as Lewis and Clark meeting the Mandan Indians, 1897, York is well and distinctively dressed. In the painting Louis and Clark on the Lower Columbia, 1905, he is seen from the back, working, and in plain slave clothing. In York, 1908, no European Americans are present. York meets with Native Americans, who are curious about him, examining his dark skin.
 * "Bilalian Odyssey", by Isaka Shamsud-din (1983) "transfers York from the periphery to the center of the dramatic story of which he is a part."
 * In 1988, the sculpture The Naming of Mt. Jefferson, by Michael Florin Dente, was erected on the campus of the University of Portland. It portrays William Clark, York, and an unnamed Native American. According to the artist, the work stands as "a visual reminder that three races contributed to the success of the Lewis and Clark Expedition—symbolic of the first integrated society in the Oregon country." In 2020, the statue of York was removed from the sculpture.
 * In July 1989, a statue group by sculptor Bob Scriver, "Explorers at the Portage", was erected in Overlook Park in Great Falls, Montana. It depicts Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, York, and the expedition's dog, Seaman, surveying the junction of the Missouri and Sun rivers. Scriver donated a copy of the work, now with Sacagawea added (photo above), to the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Interpretive Center, located near the city on the Crooked Falls of the Great Falls of the Missouri River.
 * In 1989, the Oregon Historical Society commissioned Richard Haas to create eight-story-high murals for the former Sovereign Hotel, which at the time it owned. One mural depicts the people of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, including York and Sacagawea.
 * York's Stripes, by Porter Williams, 1998, shows the stripes of York's whipping on his back. link
 * In 2000, Yorks Islands was accepted by the U.S. Board of Geographic Names as designation for an archipelago of islands in the Missouri River in Broadwater County, Montana, which were named for York by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The privately owned islands were called by Clark "York's 8 Islands", but have since become known as "York's Islands" or simply "Yorks Islands". A small tributary of the Yellowstone River was also named for York.
 * Western artist Michael Haynes in 2000 produced "Proud Hunter", an illustration of York alone, carrying a small deer. link
 * 2000: Eugene Daub, Lewis and Clark Statue, at Clark's Point, in Case Park on Kansas City, Missouri. Depics Lewis, Clark, York, Sacajawea, and Seaman. link
 * In 2000, York was mentioned on a historical marker at the former location of Mulberry Hill, Clark's family home in Louisville. link
 * In 2001, President Bill Clinton posthumously granted York the rank of honorary sergeant in the United States Army.
 * In 2001, York was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners at the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
 * The City Council of Portland in 2002, voted to affirm that "York Street", the origins of which name are unknown, is to be understood as referring to this York.
 * In 2003, a statue of York, by sculptor Ed Hamilton, with plaques commemorating the Lewis and Clark Expedition and his participation in it, was placed on Louisville's Riverfront Plaza/Belvedere, next to the wharf on the Ohio River.
 * Also in Louisville in 2003, the Kentucky Historical Society and the Kentucky Department of Highways erected a historical marker along the Ohio River. link
 * York has a prominent place in the 2005 mural of the expedition by David McClain, in Liberty, Missouri. link
 * 2008: Lewis and Clark Trailhead Monument, by Sabra Tull Meyer, Jefferson City, Missouri. Group depicts, left to right, York, Lewis, Seaman, Clark, and interpreter George Druillard. Funding problems had delayed it since 2002.   link
 * 2010: York: Terra Incognita, a 6 ft bronze statue by Alison Saar, was installed on the campus of Lewis and Clark College, in Portland, Oregon. Since we do not know what York looked like, the artist focused instead on the statue's back, making it a focal point. The back is "scarred" with sections of William Clark's maps. The project was begun by four law students.
 * In 2021, a 4 ft bust of York on a pedestal, which formerly contained a statue of anti-Native American pioneer Harvey W. Scott, was secretly installed in Mount Tabor Park, Portland, Oregon, Attached to the pedestal was a paper plaque describing York's role in the Lewis and Clark expedition. The artist at first was unknown, but he subsequently revealed that he was Todd McGrain. The bust was toppled and seriously damaged in July 2021. A white supremacist group, Patriot Front, is suspected.

Writings about York
There are no writings by York, as he was illiterate. The bitterness between him and Clark prevented him from telling his story for publication as a slave narrative.
 * General
 * Screenplay
 * Children's books
 * Screenplay
 * Children's books
 * Children's books
 * Children's books

Videos

 * 2005: York, the slave of William Clark. 16:34. Produced for the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial by Executive Productions, Seattle.
 * 2009: Searching for York. 29:01. Oregon Public Broadcasting.

 * 2017: York: One Man's Story. 6:56. Lewis and Clark National Historical Park.
 * 2018: York: American's Forgotten Explorer. 18:48. Stefan Milo.
 * 2020: A Conversation with Hasan Davis: York, Equity, Race and the Lewis and Clark Story. 58:28. Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, National Park Service.
 * 2020: York: The African American Man Traveling with the Lewis & Clark Expedition. 8:16. BrightRoad2Success.

 * 2021: Lewis & Clark State Historic Site, Illinois Department of Natural Resources.
 * York Before the Expedition. 9:16.
 * Building the Team VII: York On the Expedition. 8:30.
 * York After the Expedition 10:40.

title: York (explorer)


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Please develop Erco-nomics a little further, so people at Votes for deletion can see where you meant to go with it. Gazpacho 16:32, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Ssmith2k


text:
User:ChewT

Welcome to my userpage. Everything I like is the in the boxes. Contact me via my talk page.

title: User:ChewT


text:
Radagaisus

Radagaisus (died 23 August 406) was a Gothic king who led an invasion of Roman Italy in late 405 and the first half of 406. A committed pagan, Radagaisus evidently planned to sacrifice the Senators of the Christian Roman Empire to the gods, and to burn Rome to the ground. Radagaisus was executed after being defeated by the general Stilicho. 12,000 of his higher-status fighters were drafted into the Roman army and some of the remaining followers were dispersed, while so many of the others were sold into slavery that the slave market briefly collapsed. These Goths later joined Alaric I in his conquest of Rome in 410.

Invasion
Radagaisus's force probably consisted of about 20,000 fighting men. Many of the fighters were accompanied by their families and other noncombatants, meaning that the total size of Radagaisus's group may have approached 100,000.

Radagaisus, whose early career and ultimate origins are unknown, fleeing Hunnic pressures, invaded Italy without passing through the Balkans, which indicates that his invasion began somewhere on the Great Hungarian Plain, west of the Carpathian Mountains. Archaeological finds of coin hoards, buried by residents who were apparently aware of Radagaisus's approach, suggest that his route passed through southeastern Noricum and western Pannonia. About this time Flavia Solva was burned out and largely abandoned and Aguntum was devastated by fire. An indeterminate number of refugees fled ahead of his army as it marched over the Alps. It was said by contemporaries that Arian Christians swelled his forces.

The Western Roman Empire under Stilicho mobilized thirty numeri (about 15,000 men) from the Italian field army in response to Radagaisus's invasion. A second contingent of Roman troops, possibly recalled from the Rhine frontier, complemented the Italian forces. In addition, they received help from Gothic foederati under Sarus and Hunnic forces under Uldin. Alaric I remained inactive through the whole episode, committed by treaty to Illyricum.

Radagaisus's army had the run of northern Italy for at least six months while the Empire mobilized its forces. They eventually made their way to the bridgehead community of Florentia. They blockaded the city, where no less than a third of the Goth's troops and allies were killed.

Capture, death, and aftermath
Stilicho's army relieved the siege of Florentia as the city was approaching the point of surrender. The Roman counterattack was extremely successful, and Radagaisus was forced to retreat into the hills of Fiesole, about 8 km away. There, Radagaisus abandoned his followers and tried to escape, but was captured by the Romans. Historian Peter Heather hypothesizes that Radagaisus's escape attempt may have been compelled by a revolt within his forces. He was executed on 23 August 406. 12,000 of his higher-status fighters were drafted into the Roman army. Some of the remaining followers were dispersed, while so many of the others were sold into slavery that the slave market briefly collapsed.

Ancient sources

 * History of Orosius
 * History of Zosimus
 * Chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine
 * Chronicle of Marcellinus Comes
 * Augustine of Hippo, City of God, Book 5, Chapter 23

Other accounts

 * Edward Gibbon in the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776), Chapter 30

title: Radagaisus


text:
Ambrogio Fogar

Ambrogio Fogar (13 August 1941 – 24 August 2005) was an Italian sailor, writer, rally driver, adventurer, and television presenter. He was a Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, gold medal for athletic value, gold medal for marine value, gold medal to memory and other.

Biography
His exploits included a number of successful long-distance sailing feats, such as becoming the first Italian to sail single-handedly from east to west around the world, starting and ending his journey in Castiglione della Pescaia, Tuscany. In 1978, after being capsized by orcas, he survived more than ten weeks in a life raft in the South Atlantic along with a friend, journalist Mauro Mancini, who died of pneumonia two days after the two were rescued. Another venture was Fogar's solo sled expedition to the North Pole. He competed several times in the Dakar Rally and in the Rallye des Pharaons.

In 1992, Fogar was paralyzed from the neck down following a jeep accident while rallying in Turkmenistan. This did not end his adventurous spirit, and in 1997, in a wheelchair, he competed in a round-Italy yacht race.

He died in 2005 of a heart attack and is buried at the Monumental Cemetery of Milan, Italy.

Personal life
Fogar was the father of Rachele and Francesca Fogar. Rachele Fogar was born in Milan on 31 July 1991 and Francesca Fogar was born in Tradate on 17 November 1975.

Television

 * Jonathan - Dimensione avventura (Canale 5, 1984–1986; Italia 1, 1986–1991)
 * Antologia di Jonathan (Canale 5, 1984–1986; Italia 1, 1986–1991)
 * Parliamone - talk of Buongiorno Italia (Canale 5, 1987–1988)
 * Campo base - Il mondo dell'avventura (TV Koper-Capodistria/Canale 5, 1989–1991; TELE+2, 1990–1991)
 * Speciale campo base (TV Koper-Capodistria/Canale 5, 1989–1991; TELE+2, 1990–1991)

Radio documentary

 * Poli Mirabilia - La marcia sul pack e altre meraviglie (Rai Radio 1, 1984)

Documentary

 * Ambrogio Fogar - il viaggio (Italia 1, 1998)
 * Ambrogio Fogar, l'ultimo eroe (Rete 4, 2005)

title: Ambrogio Fogar


text:
Talk:Data center

Fire Protection
This is incorrect. The standard isn't having non-working fire protection "plans" on municipal papers. The law requires qualified electricians, not PC people, to insure the wiring is safe to it's ampacity and proper fused. Then also the fire marshal agrees the equipment doesn't catch itself on fire nor can it catch neighbor equipment on fire. Those are non-pc "non-electronics" skills. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:143:480:A4C0:4ECC:6AFF:FE8E:47D (talk) 22:40, 8 February 2022 (UTC)

47.204.241.60 here
Fixed your grammar mistakes, created an account, and then fixed the rest. Any major errors should hopefully be fixed (used Grammarly and my own common sense here) if you have any problems with my edits, reply to this with them, please. Grammer Nerd (talk) 01:07, 21 April 2022 (UTC)

 * My edits have, thus far, reached up to Uptime Institute – Data center Tier Classification Standard, please verify that my edits are correct both in relation to the subject matter and also grammatically. Grammer Nerd (talk) 00:54, 22 April 2022 (UTC)

"Air flow management" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_flow_management&redirect=no Air flow management] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 19:19, 27 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data center


text:
Tecumseh, Kansas

Tecumseh is a census-designated place (CDP) in Shawnee County, Kansas, United States, and situated along the Kansas River. As of the 2020 census, the population was 696. The community and township are both named for the Shawnee chief.

Tecumseh is part of the Topeka, Kansas Metropolitan Statistical Area.

History
By September 1, 1854, Thomas Stinson platted the townsite of Tecumseh, having settled in the area within the Kansas Territory. It was settled by pro-slavery partisans in the turbulent days of Bleeding Kansas. It temporarily served as the pro-southern capital of the territory and prospered, even having a newspaper. The town's post office opened in March 1855. In 1886, the brick courthouse was sold for US$500 1886 and removed. After the Civil War, the town rapidly declined and remained so for the next ninety years.

Construction of the Kansas Power & Light Co. power plant in 1924 and 1925. In 1958, DuPont established a cellophane plant east of town which created a minor boom. As Topeka grew in the 1950s, Tecumseh again started to grow, this time as a suburb of Topeka, with numerous suburban housing subdivisions. In 2018, the Tecumseh Energy Center owned by Westar (later Evergy) closed the plant and the facility was demolished.

Geography
Tecumseh is located in Section 36, Township 11 south, Range 16 east. It is situated south of the Kansas River between Tecumseh Creek to the east and Stinson Creek to the west. Contained entirely within Tecumseh Township, it is about 2 miles east of the Topeka city limits. U.S. Route 40 passes the south side of Tecumseh. A BNSF rail line—running between Lawrence and Topeka—passes north of the town between it and the river.

Economy
The community includes a public school (part of USD 450), two churches, a post office, and a cellophane factory.

Education
The community is served by Shawnee Heights USD 450 public school district.

title: Tecumseh, Kansas


text: User talk:142.176.45.131

title: User talk:142.176.45.131


text:
User talk:Enfresdezh

I really need to figure out the weird tags in the "Edit this page" one day. For now I end up copying, painstakingly, from others' code.

See also: My personal blog Saluton!.

Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off
Sorry, I just reverted you by accident. I hit the wrong link & did a rollback without meaning to. I switched it back to your version. Just thought I'd let you know in case you see the history and wonder what's up. -- JLaTondre 14:25, 5 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It's alright. At least someone's looking at the edits. :) Honestly, I was surprised to receive a message. My first, in fact. So sending a message is editing the user's talk page? --Enfresdezh 14:34, 5 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Woah. "Reverted edits by Enfresdezh (talk) to last version by AntiVandalBot" sounds so scary. Thanks for informing me! --Enfresdezh 14:44, 5 November 2006 (UTC)
 * That edit summary is automatically generated by a rollback and that's why I left you the note. Yes, if you edit a user's talk page, they will see the message box on subsequent page views until they actually check their talk page. If you ever have questions, feel free to drop me a note and ask. -- JLaTondre 14:57, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

Autoblocks =(
I am increasingly frustrated that my block has not been lifted because of the stupid IP address autoblock.

Either there is a genuine delay (for whatever reasons) or Singapore users who have been autoblocked, like me, should just give up editing Wikipedia for now.

Please. Fix. This. PLEASE!

Thank you very much for unblocking.

title: User talk:Enfresdezh


text:
Talk:Platypus (band)

My removal of the Dream Theater template
In my revision of the Platypus (band) article, I removed the Dream Theater template from the bottom of the page. This was done on the grounds of the fact that I see no reason why Dream Theater's discography, videography and past and current lineup should be in an article only partly related to Dream Theater. This has been discussed (and agreed on) on Plattopus' talk page. Plattopus was the user who created the Dream Theater template, and implemented it on the Platypus page in the first place. Lappado 16:36, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Fine. I just added it because the list of side projects was featured in the templates, so I figured that pages linked in the template should have the template in them too, but either way is fine with me. --LodeRunner 04:40, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Platypus (band).jpg
Image:Platypus (band).jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 00:53, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Platypus (band). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050829035218/http://www.johnmyung.com/ to http://www.johnmyung.com/
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title: Talk:Platypus (band)


text:
Category talk:Novels by year

August 2005
Is the category Books by year not sufficient? Brz7 16:36, 30 August 2005

title: Category talk:Novels by year


text:
User talk:Big Joe~enwiki

Welcome, for Journalist
Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!  Journalist ''' C./ Holla @ me! |undefined
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Image Tagging for Image:Tony_Harnell.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Tony_Harnell.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the source and creator of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. If you don't indicate the source and creator of the image on the image's description page, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
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This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see User talk:Carnildo/images. 14:00, 9 March 2006 (UTC)
 * We'll also need sources for Image:P1010104.jpg, Image:Jorn Lande.jpg, and Image:Dave.jpg. Chick Bowen 05:33, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

License tagging for Image:TonyMAIN.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:TonyMAIN.jpg. Wikipedia gets thousands of images uploaded every day, and in order to verify that the images can be legally used on Wikipedia, the source and copyright status must be indicated. Images need to have an image tag applied to the image description page indicating the copyright status of the image. This uniform and easy-to-understand method of indicating the license status allows potential re-users of the images to know what they are allowed to do with the images.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
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This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. If you need help on selecting a tag to use, or in adding the tag to the image description, feel free to post a message at Media copyright questions. 20:19, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Big Joe. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Big Joe~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:32, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 11:02, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Big Joe~enwiki


text: User talk:209.215.160.95

title: User talk:209.215.160.95


text:
User talk:Llagerlof

Welcome, for Journalist
Welcome!

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title: User talk:Llagerlof


text:
Setting Free the Bears

Setting Free the Bears is the first novel by American author John Irving, published in 1968 by Random House.

Irving studied at the Institute of European Studies in Vienna in 1963, and Bears was written between 1965 and 1967 based largely on Irving's understanding of the city and its rebellious youth of the 1960s. The original manuscript for the book was submitted as his Master's thesis at the University of Iowa's Writer's Workshop in 1967, and was later expanded and revised to its published version.

Synopsis
The book's central plot concerns a plan to liberate all the animals from the Vienna Zoo as happened just after the conclusion of World War II. Irving's two protagonists—Graff, a young Austrian college student, and Siggy, an eccentric motorcycle mechanic-cum-philosopher—meet and embark on an adventure-filled motorcycle tour of Austria before the novel's climax: "the great zoo bust".

Toward the middle of the book, the two protagonists go their separate ways, and a large section of the novel is given over to "The Notebook"—a chronicle of the Siggy character's family from pre-World War II through the occupation of the Soviets to the late 1960s. Siggy is killed in a motorcycle accident, and the grief-stricken Graff then continues with their plan to free the inhabitants of the Vienna Zoo with Siggy's voice echoing in his head. This ends in catastrophic results.

title: Setting Free the Bears


text: User talk:65.125.115.30

title: User talk:65.125.115.30


text:
Ludmila Belousova

Ludmila Yevgenyevna Belousova (Людмила Евгеньевна Белоусова; 22 November 1935 – 26 September 2017) was a Soviet and Russian pair skater who represented the Soviet Union. With her partner and husband Oleg Protopopov, she was a two-time Olympic champion (1964, 1968) and four-time World champion (1965–1968). In 1979, the pair defected to Switzerland and became Swiss citizens in 1995. They continued to skate at ice shows and exhibitions through their seventies.

Career
Belousova started skating relatively late, at age 16. after having seen the ice revue movie "Springtime on ice" with Olympic runner-up and European Champion Eva Pawlik of Austria. She trained in Moscow where she met Oleg Protopopov in the spring of 1954. She moved to Leningrad in 1955 and began training with Protopopov in 1956 following his navy discharge. The pair trained at the VSS Lokomotiv sports club and competed internationally for the USSR. They were coached initially by Igor Moskvin and then by Pyotr Orlov, but parted ways with Orlov after a number of disagreements. The pair then trained without a coach at a rink in Voskresensk, Moscow Oblast. In 1961, they decided to work with Stanislav Zhuk to raise their technical level.

Belousova and Protopopov debuted at the World Championships in 1958, finishing 13th. They competed at their first Olympics two years later, placing ninth. In 1962, they made the World Championship podium for the first time, earning the silver medal. They were the first pair from the Soviet Union or Russia to win a world medal after the pair skating discipline was introduced at the 1908 World Championships (in which only three pairs competed). Later in 1962, they won silver at the European Championships, becoming the second Soviet pair to medal after Nina Zhuk and Stanislav Zhuk (who won silver in 1958, 1959, and 1960).

The pair's first major international gold medal came at the 1964 Winter Olympics. It was the first Olympic pairs gold for the Soviet Union. Belousova and Protopopov began the forty-year Soviet/Russian gold medal streak in pair skating, the longest in Olympic sports history, from 1964 to 2006. They won their first World and European gold medals in 1965, becoming the first Soviet/Russian pair to win those titles.

They became Olympic champions for the second time at the 1968 Winter Olympics. At 32 and 35 years old, respectively, they were among the oldest champions in figure skating. The following season, they won the silver medal at the European Championships and bronze at the World Championships as Irina Rodnina began her reign with her first partner, Alexei Ulanov. Those were the pair's final appearances at major international competitions but they continued competing in the Soviet Union until 1972.

In total, Belousova and Protopopov won two Olympic titles and medalled eight times at both the World and European Championships, including four consecutive World and European gold medals. After retiring from competition, they continued to skate together in shows for many years. In September 2015, they renewed their long-standing tradition of skating in a charitable exhibition in Boston, Massachusetts, at an event called "Evening with Champions".

Belousova and Protopopov contributed to the development of pair skating, including the creation of three death spirals: the backward inside (BiDs), the forward inside (FiDs), and the forward outside (FoDs), which they respectively dubbed the "Cosmic spiral", "Life spiral", and "Love spiral". Dick Button stated: "The Protopopovs are great skaters not only because they were the finest of Olympic champions, but also because their creative impact was extraordinary." Figure skating writer and historian Ellyn Kestnbaum stated that they "raised by several degrees the level of translating classical dance to the ice". As Kestnbaum stated, "Their performances set a benchmark for romantic heterosexuality on the ice and for classical line and expressiveness that influenced not only pair skating but also singles and [ice] dance".

Personal life
Belousova studied engineering at university. She married Protopopov in December 1957. Although she kept her maiden name after their marriage, the pair were commonly referred to as "The Protopopovs". Eager to keep skating, the couple decided not to have children.

On 24 September 1979, Belousova and Protopopov defected to Switzerland while on tour and applied for political asylum. They settled in Grindelwald and received Swiss citizenship in 1995. Switzerland remained their winter home while their summer home and training center was Lake Placid, New York. On 25 February 2003, they visited Russia after a 23-year asylum, on the invitation of Viacheslav Fetisov. They had their last exhibition dance in 2016, when Belousova was 80 years old.

title: Ludmila Belousova


text:
Sadaf Manzil

Sadaf Manzil is the name of a four-storey residential building in Nagpada, Mumbai which collapsed on 23 August 2005 killing 11 residents and leaving 24 others injured. It was a 100-year-old building; the area including it passed an inspection by two MHADA engineers three days before the collapse. The engineers were convicted of negligence charges in 2008 and each sentenced to a 4.5 year prison sentence.

title: Sadaf Manzil


text:
List of collegiate a cappella groups in the United States

This is a list of collegiate a cappella groups in the United States.


text:
User talk:Scyther mantis

Welcome, for Journalist
Welcome!

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Beanie tunes
A tag has been placed on Beanie tunes, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done because the article is a repost of either already posted material, or of material that was previously deleted under Wikipedia's criteria for speedy deletion. If you can indicate how Beanie tunes is different from all other articles, or if you can indicate why this article should not be deleted, I advise you to place the template hangon, and also put a note on Talk:Beanie tunes saying why this article should stay. An admin should check for such edits before deleting the article. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. Please read our criteria for speedy deletion, particularly item 11 under General criteria. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself. We welcome your help in trying to improve Wikipedia, and we ask you to follow these instructions. Accurizer 21:43, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Articles for deletion/Beanie Tunes
See the above discussion for further details. (aeropagitica) 21:44, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Scyther mantis


text:
User talk:Byrdiecj

Welcome to Wikipedia!
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips:
 * Take a look at the Simplified Ruleset.
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 * Be bold
 * Ignore all rules

If you feel a change is needed, feel free to make it yourself! Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone (yourself included) can edit any article by following the  link. Wikipedia convention is to be bold and not be afraid of making mistakes. If you're not sure how editing works, have a look at How to edit a page, or try out the Sandbox to test your editing skills.

If, for some reason, you are unable to fix a problem yourself, feel free to ask someone else to do it. Wikipedia has a vibrant community of contributors who have a wide range of skills and specialties, and many of them would be glad to help. As well as the wiki community pages there are IRC Channels, where you are more than welcome to ask for assistance.

If you have any questions, feel free to ask me on my talk page. Thanks and happy editing, Alf 16:41, 30 August 2005 (UTC).

title: User talk:Byrdiecj


text:
1910 South African general election

General elections were held in South Africa on 15 September 1910 to elect the 121 members of the House of Assembly. They were the first general election after the Union of South Africa was created on 31 May 1910.

The elections were held alongside the first election to the provincial councils of Cape Province and Transvaal. Those councils used the same electoral districts as those for the House of Assembly seats in the province. The first election for the provincial councils of Natal and Orange Free State, which did not use the same constituency boundaries as the House of Assembly, took place at a later date.

Although the Unionist Party received the most votes, the alliance of parties led by General Louis Botha won a slim majority. The Unionist Party became the official opposition. Botha's alliance would later unite as the South African Party.

Electoral system
The South Africa Act 1909 provided that the franchise in each province should be the same as that in the corresponding colony before the Union, until altered by the Union Parliament. The Act included entrenching clauses, providing that black and coloured voters could only be removed from the common voters roll in the Cape of Good Hope, by legislation passed by a two-thirds majority by both houses of Parliament in joint session.

The franchise, in all parts of the Union, was limited to men over the age of 21. There were some additional qualifications and disqualifications which varied between provinces.

The franchise in the Orange Free State and Transvaal was limited to white men. The traditional "Cape Qualified Franchise" system of the Cape of Good Hope was based on property and wage qualifications, equally open to people of all races. At the time of the National Convention in 1908, which drafted the terms of what became the South Africa Act, "22,784 Native and Coloured persons out of a total of 152,221 electors" were entitled to vote in Cape elections.

Natal had a theoretically non-racial franchise, but in practice few non-white electors ever qualified. It was estimated, in 1908, that "200 non-Europeans out of a total of 22,786 electors had secured franchise rights".

The South Africa Act 1909 provided for single member electoral divisions, with members of the House of Assembly being elected using the relative majority (also known as first past the post) electoral system. The act also provided for a delimitation commission to define the boundaries for each electoral division.

South African National Party
The first Union Prime Minister (and former Transvaal Prime Minister), General Botha, assembled an electoral alliance before the first Union election. This grouping was composed of the governing parties of three of the colonies being united and some individual politicians from Natal (which did not have a pre-Union party system).

The colonial parties involved were:
 * the South African Party of the Cape Colony (itself largely based on the Afrikaner Bond)
 * Het Volk from the Transvaal
 * Orangia Unie from the Orange River Colony (which was restored to its pre-1902 name of Orange Free State as a province of the Union).

Unionist Party
The 'Unionist Party of South Africa was formed, in May 1910, under the leadership of Leander Starr Jameson (a former Prime Minister of Cape Colony), by the merger of the three colonial opposition parties joined by some individual politicians from Natal.

The parties merged into the Unionist Party were the:
 * Unionist Party of Cape Colony (formerly known as the Cape Progressive Party)
 * Constitutional Party of the Orange River Colony
 * Progressive Party of Transvaal

The party was a pro-British conservative party. It favoured the maintenance of a pro-British political culture in South Africa similar to that present in the other 'white dominions'.

Labour Party
The South African Labour Party, formed in March 1910 following discussions between trade unions, the Transvaal Independent Labour Party and the Natal Labour Party, was a professedly socialist party representing the interests of the white working class. The party leader was Colonel F. H. P. Creswell.

Results
Two Independent Unionists were elected unopposed.

title: 1910 South African general election


text:
List of professional a cappella groups

This is a list of notable professional a cappella groups that have an article in Wikipedia.

A

 * Acappella
 * Anonymous 4
 * Acappella Vocal Band
 * Amarcord
 * Ambassadors of Harmony
 * ARORA (formerly SONOS)
 * Acoustix
 * Anthem Lights
 * Acapop! KIDS

B

 * Bella Voce
 * Berywam
 * The Blanks
 * The Blenders
 * Blue Jupiter
 * The Bobs
 * Bounding Main
 * Brothers in Harmony
 * The Buzztones

C

 * Cadence (disbanded in 2020)
 * Cantabile - The London Quartet
 * Cantus
 * Cappella Romana
 * Chanticleer
 * Chapter 6 (band)
 * Chicago a cappella
 * Club for Five
 * The Coats
 * Coco's Lunch
 * Committed (vocal group)
 * Cosmos (band)
 * CU Buffoons

D

 * Danny & The Memories (1963-1967)
 * Da Vinci's Notebook (disbanded in 2004)
 * DCappella
 * Duwende

E

 * The Essentials (disbanded in 2011)

F

 * FACE
 * The Filharmonic
 * Five O'Clock Shadow
 * The Flying Pickets
 * Fool Moon

G

 * Gas House Gang (disbanded in 2005)
 * The Gesualdo Six
 * GLAD

H

 * The Hilliard Ensemble
 * Home Free
 * The House Jacks
 * The Hyannis Sound

I

 * The Idea of North

K

 * The King's Singers
 * The Kwartet

L

 * Ladysmith Black Mambazo
 * The Longest Johns

M

 * The Maccabeats
 * Maybebop
 * Maytree
 * The Magnets
 * The Manhattan Transfer
 * Metro Vocal Group
 * Metropolitan Male Quartet
 * MICappella
 * Monkey Puzzle
 * Mosaic

N

 * Naturally 7
 * Neri per Caso
 * Nota
 * The Nylons
 * New Recording 47

O

 * Octappella
 * Out of the Blue
 * Overboard

P

 * Pentatonix
 * Perpetuum Jazzile
 * The Persuasions
 * Pieces of 8
 * Pikkardiys'ka Tertsia
 * Die Prinzen
 * The Puppini Sisters

R

 * Rajaton
 * The Real Group
 * Rescue
 * Riltons Vänner
 * Rockapella

S

 * Seminaarinmäen mieslaulajat (Semmarit)
 * Singer Pur
 * Die Singphoniker
 * Six Appeal
 * Six13
 * The Soil
 * SONO
 * Starling Arrow
 * Straight No Chaser
 * Street Corner Symphony
 * Streetnix
 * Svetoglas
 * Sweet Honey in the Rock
 * Sweet Sorrow
 * Swingle Singers

T

 * Take 6
 * The King's Singers
 * Tonic Sol-fa
 * Toxic Audio

U

 * Urban Zakapa

V

 * Van Canto
 * Vive
 * Voca People
 * Vocal Point
 * Vocal Sampling
 * vocaldente
 * Voces8
 * Voctave
 * Voice Male
 * VoicePlay

W

 * Wise Guys
 * Witloof Bay

title: List of professional a cappella groups


text:
Jan Mostaert

Jan Mostaert (c. 1475 – 1552/1553) was a Dutch Renaissance painter who is known mainly for his religious subjects and portraits. One of his most famous creations was the Landscape with an Episode from the Conquest of America.

There are very few details about the life of Jan Mostaert that are known with any certainty. The traditional account of his life was based on the biography written by the 16th century Flemish artist and art historian Karel van Mander and included in his Schilder-boeck, published in Haarlem in 1604. Modern scholarship questions many of the assertions about the life of Mostaert made by Karel van Mander.

One of these is van Mander's assertion that he was appointed 'painctre aux honneurs' ("painter with honors") by Margaret of Austria, the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands; it does not seem that he became Margaret's court painter, although there are two mentions of him in her accounting records. Recent art historians think he probably worked in the provincial town of Haarlem, some way from the larger cities of the southern Netherlands, for all or most of his career.

Life
Mostaert was born in Haarlem as the son of a mill owner also named Jan and Alijt Dircx. Karel van Mander stated that Mostaert was a pupil of Jacob van Haarlem, the artist who painted the altarpiece of the Carrier's guild in the St. Bavochurch of Haarlem.

Mostaert's name first appeared in city records in 1498, the year he bought a house in his birthplace. The artist is documented in Haarlem almost every year from 1498 to 1552 except for a ten-year period between 1516 and 1526. In 1500 Mostaert was commissioned to paint the shutters for a receptacle housing the relics of Saint Bavo in the Groote Kerk, Haarlem. From this date he began to be listed in the records of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke, and continued to be frequently listed until 1549. He became deacon of the painters' guild in 1507, and again in 1543 and 1544.

Margaret of Austria, the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, appointed Mostaert 'painctre aux honneurs' (painter with honors) in March 1518. Van Mander wrote that he worked for Margaret for 18 years and was commissioned by her to create portraits. As there is no evidence that he was her court painter, there is no reason to trust Van Mander's statement that he worked at Margaret's court in Mechelen for 18 years. He is missing from the records in Haarlem for a string of only 10 years, and only two documents from 1519 and 1521 give any mention that he was working at her court at the time.

The current view of art historians is that Mostaert worked his entire life in Haarlem. Since his house was rented to others in 1553 and payments to him stopped around Easter 1553, it is believed that he died early in 1553 or perhaps late in 1552. In 1554 his name was crossed out from the list of members of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke.

Mostaert married Angnyese (Agnes) Martijnsdr, the widow of Claes Claesz Suycker, before 8 June 1498. His wife died before July 1532. Mostaert was commercially successful and owned multiple houses in Haarlem.

Van Mander states that Mostaert had a son who was a common painter. It is no longer believed by art historians that Frans Mostaert and Gillis Mostaert were the grandsons of Jan Mostaert.

Works

Mostaert was principally a painter of portraits and religious subjects. He also had a fascination with primitive peoples and lands, as seen from his West Indies Landscape. At around 1520–25 he presented the family life of Adam and Eve in First Family as primitives working on their land. Mostaert was interested in combining pagan and Christian interpretations of humanity's origins. Mostaert's teacher Jacob van Haarlem may have actually been the anonymous Master of the Brunswick Diptych. Karel van Mander described several works in detail, including his strange landscape of the West Indies, which he considered to be an unfinished work. Much of Mostaert's work was destroyed in the great fire of Haarlem in 1576, and some paintings once attributed to him are now attributed to Adriaen Isenbrant.

His earliest works are noticeably influenced by Geertgen tot Sint Jans, an earlier Haarlem artist. Some believed that Mostaert was actually apprenticed to Geertgen but it is doubtful that the artist had any apprentices or workshop assistants during his career. From Geertgen, Mostaert adopted a refined style and thoughtful compositions for his works, as well as the stiff, angular look of his figures.

Between 1510 and 1516, Mostaert developed a delicate style where his doll-like figures inhabited bright, blue-skied landscapes, as for example in his Adoration of the Magi (c. 1520–25, Rijksmuseum). His refined brushwork is precise, with an almost religious attention to detail. Also of note is the landscape, which demonstrates his leanings towards more romantic views with expansive hills. During the 1520s Mostaert was also influenced by Joachim Patinir's take on landscapes. Mostaert's St. Christopher, a painting with a landscape that features a river receding into an expansive and hilly background, was once even attributed to Patinir.

Mostaert's portrait work of this earlier period includes a piece entitled Portrait of Abel van den Coulster (c. 1500–10), in which an elegant, thin-faced man is situated in equally elegant surroundings. This painting also contains one of Mostaert's favorite themes, i.e. the Vision of Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl. The scene appears in the courtyard in the background of the Portrait of Abel van den Coulster. Another version can be seen in the grisaille reliefs on the pillar and architrave of the gate in his Adoration of the Magi (c. 1520–25, Rijksmuseum). Mostaert was known for copying original portraits for some of his courtly commissions but, as is the case with the Portrait of Abel, he also painted figures from life and added aristocratic touches. He was known for presenting his portrait sitters in three-quarter-length and placing their hands on cushions.

Being an accomplished court painter allowed for Mostaert to make a living off his art and to gain a steady patronage. The last documented reference to him is in 1549 when he petitioned the Haarlem town council for permission to live in Hoorn so that he could complete an altarpiece there.

As was common practice in 15th and 16th century Netherlands, Mostaert frequently reproduced portraits of political figures based on original models. In 1521, Mostaert gave Margaret a portrait of her third husband, Duke Philibert of Savoy, as a New Year's present. The portrait was made sixteen years after Duke Philibert's death.

Portrait of an African Man
Mostaert painted The Portrait of an African Man, which is one of the earliest and the only individual portrait of a black African that has survived. Painted around 1525–30 the work is in the collection of the Rijksmuseum. It is not known exactly who this man was but there are indications that he was either associated with Margaret's court or was an attendant of her nephew, Charles V, who had a black archer, Christophle le More, among his bodyguards. The man wears rich clothes, gloves, and holds a sword, all indicative of his important status. The insignia on his hat and bag allude to possible Spanish or Portuguese origins. Many of the Africans who arrived in Europe in late medieval and early Renaissance times were scholars and advisers.

West Indies Landscape
Mostaert's most famous work is the West Indies Landscape (c. 1535, Rijksmuseum ), which is believed to be a view of the Zuni pueblos in New Mexico. Having never travelled to the Americas, Mostaert had to imagine what the New World looked like. There was speculation that the artist may have seen sketches of the landscapes but this is unlikely since most pictorial documentation of the times was of exotic animals, tools or costumes, rather than panoramic views. Also, the fanciful cliffs seem to be influenced by Patinir's landscape style rather than authentic renderings. It is believed that Mostaert created the painting based on either written or oral accounts of the newly discovered area to which he would have been privy thanks to his contacts at the court of Margaret of Austria, the aunt of Charles V.

Although the narrative in the painting was thought to depict a number of different events, including Columbus on the island of Guanaja, Hernán Cortés in Mexico, and the Portuguese invasion of Brazil, it is actually the story of Coronado's search for the Seven Cities of Gold in the Zuni village of Cibola in New Mexico and Arizona in 1540–42.

The best evidence that the picture is based on Coronado's story can be found on the right side of the painting, by the base of the cliffs. On his travels, Coronado was stoned at the entrance to the village by the native Indians. He was rescued by two of his officers who came to his aid and warded off the incoming Indians. Mostaert may have added the event to the landscape to lend it a measure of credibility.

The landscape's terrain, as well as the look of the natives, also matches the descriptions of Pedro de Castañeda, a member of Coronado's team, made during his travels. According to him, the land was full of cliffs, some with ladders on them reaching to different levels, the people were tall and naked, and their huts were built into the ground and made of straw, the roofs protruding from the ground.

Mostaert devotes only a small section of the painting to Coronado and his men, showing us instead the unity and strength of the native peoples fighting for their land. The painting is one of the earliest depictions of the Europeans' invasions of the Americas and of the "noble savage."

Return of looted work

Mostaert's Portrait of a Courtier, a painting that until 2005 had been in the collection of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts since 1949, was found to have been confiscated by Nazi forces in 1941 from its rightful owners in Poland. It had come from a collection of artworks amassed by princess Izabela Fleming née Czartoryska. The paintings were moved to Warsaw as war loomed but were inevitably seized by the Germans.

The VMFA made the decision to deaccession and transfer the work to the Polish Embassy, acting on behalf of the rightful owners' family. The family donated the painting to the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków, Poland.

The small, oil-on-panel portrait is known to have had at least three different titles: Duke of Burgundy, Portrait of Charles VIII, and Portrait of a Courtier. It was once paired with a portrait of a lady, thought to be Anne of Brittany, the wife of Charles VIII, King of France.

title: Jan Mostaert


text: User talk:64.228.197.110

title: User talk:64.228.197.110


text:
User:Singie

Hi! My name is Nick and I'm a a high school student. I live in Sydney, Australia. I don't really know what I'm doing here and I always get complaints when I try to do something so I'm just going to lay low for a while.

title: User:Singie