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Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)

Kara Zor-El (Supergirl) also known by her adoptive names of Linda Lee Danvers, Kara Kent, Linda Lang, and Kara Danvers, is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. She was created by Otto Binder and designed by Al Plastino. Danvers first appeared in the story "The Supergirl from Krypton" in Action Comics #252 (May 1959). Kara is the biological cousin of Kal-El, who went on to adopt the name of Clark Kent and the superhero identity Superman. Her father, Zor-El, is the brother of Superman's father, Jor-El. During the 1980s and the revolution of the Modern Age of Comics, Superman editors believed the character's history had become too convoluted, thus killing Supergirl during the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths event and retconning her out of existence.

DC Comics Senior Vice President Dan DiDio re-introduced the character in 2004 along with editor Eddie Berganza and writer Jeph Loeb, with the Superman/Batman storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton". As the current Supergirl, Kara stars in her own monthly comic book series. With DC's The New 52 relaunch, Kara, like most of the DC Universe, was revamped. DC relaunched the Supergirl comic in August 2016 as part of their DC Rebirth initiative.

In live-action, Supergirl first appeared in the film Supergirl (1984), played by Helen Slater. She later appeared in the television series Smallville, played by Laura Vandervoort, and the Arrowverse series Supergirl, played by Melissa Benoist on the show and also appearing on other Arrowverse series. Sasha Calle appeared as Supergirl in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film The Flash (2023). The character will appear in the DC Universe (DCU) franchise portrayed by Milly Alcock, in the upcoming films Superman (2025) and the self-titled Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow (2026).

Early life
Although Kara Zor-El was the first character to use the name "Supergirl", DC Comics tested three different female versions of Superman prior to her debut. The first story to feature a female counterpart to Superman was "Lois Lane – Superwoman", which was published in Action Comics #60 (May 1943). In the story, a hospitalized Lois Lane dreams she has gained superpowers following a blood transfusion from Superman. She begins her own career as "Superwoman", complete with a version of Superman's costume.

In the Superboy #78 story entitled "Claire Kent, Alias Super-Sister", Superboy saves the life of an alien woman named Shar-La, who turns Superboy into a girl in retaliation for his disparaging thoughts about women drivers which she picked up telepathically. In Smallville, Clark claims to be Claire Kent, an out-of-town relative who is staying with the Kents. When in costume, he appears as Superboy's sister, Super-Sister, and claims the two have exchanged places. Once Superboy has learned his lesson about feeling more respect for women, Shar-La reveals the episode to be a dream which she projected into Superboy's mind.

In Superman #123 (August 1958), Jimmy Olsen uses a magic totem to create a "Super-Girl" as a companion and aid to Superman; however, the two frequently get in each other's way until she is fatally injured protecting Superman from a Kryptonite meteor. At her insistence, Jimmy wishes the dying girl out of existence. DC used this story to gauge public response to the concept of a completely new super-powered female counterpart to Superman.

The Kara Zor-El version of Supergirl finally appeared in Action Comics #252 (May 1959). Otto Binder wrote and Al Plastino illustrated her début story, in which Kara was born and raised in Argo City (unnamed until later issues), a fragment of Krypton that survived destruction. When the city is doomed by a meteor shower, Kara is sent to Earth by her parents, Zor-El and Alura In-Ze (the latter unnamed until later issues), to be raised by her cousin Kal-El, known as Superman. Supergirl adopted the secret identity of an orphan "Linda Lee", and made Midvale Orphanage her home. Supergirl promised Superman that she would keep her existence on Earth a secret, so that he may use her as a "secret weapon", but that didn't stop Supergirl from exploring her new powers covertly. Action Comics #255 published reader's letters-of-comment to Supergirl's first appearance; she had allegedly generated a sizeable and mostly positive reaction.

Supergirl, from her debut onwards, became a regular backup strip in Action Comics. She joined the Legion of Super-Heroes, like her cousin had done as a teenager, and in Action Comics #279 (July 1961) she was adopted by Fred and Edna Danvers, becoming "Linda Lee Danvers". Supergirl acted for three years as Superman's secret weapon, and her adventures during that time have been compared to contemporary developments in feminist thinking in work such as Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique. She was at last introduced by her super-powered cousin to an unsuspecting world in Action Comics #285 (February 1962).

During her first quarter of a century, Linda Danvers would have many professions, from student to student advisor, to actor, and even TV camera operator. She shared Action Comics with Superman until transferring to the lead in Adventure Comics at the end of the 1960s. In 1972 she finally moved to her own short-lived eponymous magazine, before DC merged its Supergirl, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen titles into a single anthology title named The Superman Family. In 1982 Supergirl was relaunched into her own magazine.

Death during Crisis on Infinite Earths
In 1985, the maxi-series Crisis on Infinite Earths was conceived as a way to reduce DC continuity to a single universe in which all characters maintained a single history. Despite Supergirl's continued popularity and status as a central member of the "Superman Family", the editors at DC Comics and the creators of the maxi-series decided to kill Supergirl off during the Crisis. According to Marv Wolfman, writer of Crisis on Infinite Earths:

"Before Crisis it seemed that half of Krypton had survived the explosion. We had Superman, Supergirl, Krypto, the Phantom Zone criminals, the bottled city of Kandor, and many others. Our goal was to make Superman unique. We went back to his origin and made Kal-El the only survivor of Krypton. That, sadly, was why Supergirl had to die. However, we were thrilled by all the letters we received saying Supergirl's death in Crisis was the best Supergirl story they ever read. Thank you. By the way, I miss Kara, too."

The idea of killing Supergirl was first conceived by DC's vice president/executive editor Dick Giordano, who lobbied for the death to DC's publishers. He later said he has never had any regrets about this, explaining, "Supergirl was created initially to take advantage of the high Superman sales and not much thought was put into her creation. She was created essentially as a female Superman. With time, writers and artists improved upon her execution, but she never did really add anything to the Superman mythos—at least not for me." The poor initial reception of the 1984 film Supergirl was also blamed by some sources.

In the 1989 tale "Christmas with the Super-Heroes" the soul of Kara appears to Boston Brand / Deadman, cheers him up, and then disappears from continuity until 2001 (see below).

Several characters unrelated to Superman soon took on the Supergirl persona, including the Matrix (a shapeshifting genetically engineered life-form that 'defaulted' as Supergirl), Linda Danvers (the result of Matrix merging with the dying Linda Danvers and becoming an Earth-bound angel of fire), and Cir-El (Superman's apparent daughter from a possible future).

A heroine resembling the pre-Crisis Kara would later appear in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #5, along with an entire army of Legionnaires gathered from alternate worlds, times, and realities, to battle the Time Trapper.

Two Supergirls meet
Prior to the post-Crisis introduction of Kara Zor-El into mainstream continuity, the pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El made an appearance in Peter David's Supergirl: Many Happy Returns. The then-current Supergirl series, at the time starring Linda Danvers, was in danger of being cancelled, and David thought a story arc involving Kara Zor-El would be enough to revitalize the series. In an interview with Cliff Biggers of Newsarama, David states:

"Although it had always been in the back of my mind that doing a Kara-related storyline might be fun, the impetus at this point was, frankly, sales… I was trying to figure out who currently wasn't reading the series, and came up with two groups that we'd have a shot at getting: Those who'd become bored with the current storyline, and those who didn't accept any Supergirl save Kara. By doing 'Many Happy Returns,' I sought to pull in both potential audiences."

In the Linda Danvers' Supergirl series issues 49 and 50 (October and November 2000), the original dead Kara appears as Linda's "guardian angel". Then in issues 75 to 80, "Many Happy Returns", a young Kara appears from an earlier time long before the Crisis. The paradox becomes a moral crisis for Linda who tries to take her place as the Crisis sacrifice, living for years in a Silver Age universe where "no one swears, the villains are always easy to defeat, and everything's very, very clean", eventually marrying the Silver Age Superman and having a daughter with him, before she is forced to return to her universe by the Spectre when he reveals that her efforts to replace Kara as the sacrifice will not succeed. This run was illustrated by Ed Benes who had also illustrated Gail Simone's Birds of Prey which had a similar whimsical camaraderie between its female leads.

Linda's inability to ultimately save Kara, coupled with the loss of her daughter, is so devastating that it ends her own career as Supergirl, Linda leaving a note for Superman where she explains that she feels that she has failed to live up to the standards of a true Supergirl and choosing to go somewhere she cannot be found. This story arc is usually cited as one of the best Supergirl stories ever written. The series ended with issue 80.

Revival
After the launch of the Superman/Batman comic book series, executive editor Dan DiDio had been looking for a way to simplify the Supergirl character from her convoluted post-Crisis history; the simplest version, of course, was Superman's cousin. Jeph Loeb and editor Eddie Berganza found an opening to reintroduce the character following the conclusion of the first story arc of Superman/Batman. Loeb states:

"It was the convergence of two trains heading on toward each other. I was working on the Superman monthly when Superman Group Editor Eddie 'Extravaganza' Berganza and I were kicking around an Armageddon-type story where this giant asteroid from Krypton was making its way toward Earth, and somewhere out past Neptune Superman was beginning to feel it. We figured we could tie it into 'The Fall of Luthor' since DC was very kind to let me both put Lex in the White House and figure out how to get him out. Eddie and I started giggling over the possibilities of there being 'something' in the asteroid. Or 'someone' in the asteroid—neither of us daring to speak her name, but we both knew who [we] were talking about."

The modern version of Kara Zor-El made her debut in Superman/Batman #8 (2004). Kara takes the mantle of Supergirl at the conclusion of the storyline. The Supergirl comic book series would later be relaunched, now starring Kara Zor-El as "The Girl of Steel". The first arc of the new series was written by Jeph Loeb and illustrated by Ian Churchill. Loeb would later describe the appeal of writing for Supergirl:

"I love that she has all this power and has to learn what it is to be a superhero in the DCU,' said Loeb. 'It's one thing to try that with Manhunter (which is terrific), but when you have an icon like Supergirl trying to find her way and, at the same time, at a power level that we haven't even begun to explore ... it should make for a bitchin' good time."

As the character continued to be reinvented, steps towards regarding the iconic character were some of the most prominent changes. Artist Jamal Igle and editor Matt Idleson moved to transition the character away from red panties under her skirt to biker shorts, feeling such a change was a logical progression and "more respectable".

The New 52
In September 2011, DC Comics began The New 52, a continuity reboot in which it canceled all of its monthly superhero titles and relaunched 52 new ones. One of the new titles was a new Supergirl series (Volume 6) that featured a new origin for Kara and was published between 2011 and 2015. Artist Mahmud Asrar designed a new costume for the character which strongly deviated from her classic, "cheerleader" suit, a change which generated criticism from some readers.

DC Rebirth
The 2016 DC Comics title relaunch Rebirth incorporates several elements (such as the costume, the name, the setting, and some characters) from the Supergirl television series. The DC Rebirth initiative undid the New 52's modern recreations, bringing DC's heroes back to their more classic iterations. Supergirl's new series (Volume 7) was titled Supergirl: Rebirth, written by Steven Orlando. The first arc was penciled by Brian Ching, who also redesigned Supergirl's costume in reference to a more classic look. In April 2018, it was announced that the title would be canceled after issue #20, only to be revived in August that year under a new creative team, with new writer Marc Andreyko and artist Kevin Maguire. The series ended with its 42nd issue.

Future State: Kara Zor-El, Superwoman
The Future State comics propose a possible future for Kara Zor-El, now an adult and having taken the alias of Superwoman. She leaves Earth to become a guardian of the Moon, which has become a refugee colony for aliens from the entire universe. The series was written by Marguerite Bennet and penciled by Marguerite Sauvage.

Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow
Under the Infinite Frontier brand, Kara's next series Woman of Tomorrow debuted in June 2021, written by Tom King and penciled by Brazilian artists Bilquis Evely and Mat Lopes. The arc introduces Supergirl to new character grounds as she begins the story as a young woman, celebrating her 21st birthday and helping a young alien in her quest for revenge. The "mentor-mentee journey on revenge" plot is, according to King, inspired by the original novel and both versions of True Grit.

In this series, the creators paid homage to Linda Danvers, as Kara manifests flame wings and powers after taking a red kryptonite drug to save her space bus crew from a Karpane dragon.

Silver Age
In her debut story, Kara Zor-El is the last survivor of Argo City of the planet Krypton. Although Argo, which had survived the explosion of the planet, drifted through space as a self-sustaining environment, the soil of the colony eventually turned into Kryptonite; and though Kara's father Zor-El placed lead sheeting above the ground to protect the citizens from radiation, meteorites pierced the sheeting, and the Kryptonians died of radiation poisoning instead of replacing the metal.

In Supergirl's subsequent backup feature in Action Comics drawn by artist Jim Mooney for ten years until 1968, Supergirl adopts the identity of Linda Lee, an orphan at Midvale Orphanage presided over by headmistress Miss Hart. She disguises herself by hiding her blond hair beneath a brunette wig; Supergirl interacts with humans on a person-to-person basis performing good deeds and saving the world by helping one person at a time, and she also devises clever schemes as "Superman's Secret Weapon", saving him many times and avoiding adoption before Superman can introduce her publicly.

While temporarily powerless due to the scheming of Kandorian scientist Lesla-Lar, who is out to supplant her on Earth, Linda allows herself to be adopted by engineer and rocket scientist Fred Danvers and his wife, Edna. In time, she reveals her secret identity to her adoptive parents on the same day her cousin Superman finally introduces her to the world in the finale of then-DC's longest playing series ever (eight chapters) aptly called "The World's Greatest Heroine".

When frequent dreams about her parents being alive turn out to be real, she builds a machine aided by her engineer father's talent, and brings them both back alive from the "Survival Zone" where they had both teleported during Argo City's final moments. Zor-El and Allura eventually end up living in Kandor, and when the city in the bottle is enlarged, they both go on to live in Rokyn/New Krypton, where they have the sad duty of receiving her mortal remains after "Crisis" for burial.

Graduating from high school in 1965, Linda Lee goes to college on a scholarship and stays in Stanhope College until she graduates in 1971. During this era, she is helped by her pet cat Streaky, her Super-Horse pet Comet, and befriends Lena Thorul, who had first appeared in the Lois Lane series. Kara is also a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, where she becomes close to Brainiac 5. In addition, Linda has boyfriends from the orphanage (Richard "Dick" Malverne) and from Atlantis (Jerro the merboy).

In 1967, Supergirl meets Batgirl for the first time in World's Finest Comics. Developing a strong friendship, the two characters teamed up many times again, as in Superman Family #171, or Adventure #381. In 1969, Supergirl left Action Comics and became a featured character in Adventure Comics beginning with issue #381 (June 1969).

During the 1970s, Supergirl's costume changed frequently, as did her career in her civilian life. In her secret identity as Linda Lee Danvers, Kara Zor-El took a variety of jobs including graduate student in acting, television camera operator, and student counselor, and finally became an actress on the TV soap Secret Hearts.

Bronze Age
After long-time Superman family editor Mort Weisinger retired in 1971, the character underwent revitalization under editor Joe Orlando and artist Mike Sekowsky. Wearing a series of new outfits, leaving her adopted foster home with the Danvers family, Linda goes on to San Francisco where she works for KSF-TV as a camera operator and develops a crush on her boss, Geoffrey Anderson. These stories introduced Supergirl's most memorable villain from this period: Lex Luthor's niece Nasthalthia, or Nasty. Nasty had made two appearances towards the end of Linda's college years, then pursued her to KSF-TV, trying to secure proof of her dual identity.

Supergirl starred in her first solo eponymous monthly series beginning in 1972 until October 1974, when her monthly title merged with Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, and Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen to produce a new title: then-highest DC selling series called The Superman Family, where she eventually became the steady lead story. Linda worked as a student advisor at New Athens Experimental School, before leaving for New York to follow a career in acting with daytime soap Secret Hearts.

In 1982 Supergirl received a second monthly solo series titled The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl, relocating the character to Chicago as Linda became a mature student of Psychology. Industry legend, and former DC Publisher, Carmine Infantino provided the penciled art (Bob Oksner inked). With issue 13 the title was revamped, with a new costume design (sporting a red headband) and the title shortened to just Supergirl. The series ran until sudden cancellation in 1984, only two months before the character's debut in a big-budget Hollywood film starring Helen Slater.

In the Crisis on Infinite Earths (1985), numerous heroes from across the multiverse join forces to defeat the Anti-Monitor. When Superman comes face to face with the Anti-Monitor and is knocked unconscious, Supergirl rushes to save him before he is killed. She is able to fight him off long enough for Dr. Light to carry her cousin to a safe distance, but is killed by the Anti-Monitor. A public memorial service for Supergirl takes place in Chicago, where Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) delivers the eulogy. In her remarks, she states "Kara is a hero. She will not be forgotten." Superman then gives his late cousin burial by taking her corpse to Rokyn/New Krypton to Zor-El and Allura. A Superman issue the next month reveals that Kara had experienced a premonition about her own passing. However, when the universe is rebooted, the timeline is altered. Kara Zor-El and all memory of her is erased from existence.

Echoes
After these events, the soul of Kara Zor-El made another appearance in continuity three years later in a story titled "Should Auld Acquaintance Be Forgot" in Christmas with the Super-Heroes #2 (1989). Within the story, Deadman tries to feel the warmth of Christmas by possessing revelers' bodies. Feeling guilty upon the realization that he has been stealing others' Christmases, he flies off feeling sorry for himself for being denied a reward after a year of helping people. A warmly dressed blonde woman approaches Brand, startling him. Somehow seeing the normally invisible Brand, she converses with him, reminding him,

"We don't do it for the glory. We don't do it for the recognition ... We do it because it needs to be done. Because if we don't, no one else will. And we do it even if no one knows what we've done. Even if no one knows we exist. Even if no one remembers we ever existed."

She reminds Brand that even though he is dead, he is still human, and he should rejoice because it means his spirit is still alive. As the woman leaves, Brand asks her who she is, to which she replies, "My name is Kara. Though I doubt that will mean anything to you." The story, written by Alan Brennert and penciled by Dick Giordano, is dedicated to Otto Binder and Jim Mooney, adding: "We still remember."

Finally, the soul of Kara Zor-El appeared twice during Peter David's run, specifically in issues #49 and #50 when she appears before a defeated and imprisoned then-Supergirl, Linda Danvers from Earth, and comforts her. Linda acknowledges she has been helped three times by her phantom-friend, and when she asks her name she is told by the smiling figure: "I have gone by many names, but the one I am most fond of is: Kara!"

Modern Age
In 2004, Jeph Loeb reintroduced Kara Zor-El into post-Zero Hour (Birthright timeline) continuity during a storyline in the series Superman/Batman. She is the biological cousin of Superman, and although chronologically older than him, the ship in which she traveled to Earth was caught in a large green Kryptonite meteorite which held her in a state of suspended animation for much of the journey, making her have the appearance of a 16-year-old girl. Still, Supergirl sometimes saw Superman as a child, due to last carrying him as a baby. DC Comics relaunched the Supergirl, the first story arc of which was written by Loeb. showcases Supergirl on a journey of self-discovery. Along her journey, she encounters Power Girl (Kara Zor-El's counterpart from another universe), the Teen Titans, the Outsiders, the Justice League of America, and arch-villain Lex Luthor.

During the company-wide crossover series Infinite Crisis (2005), a sequel to Crisis on Infinite Earths, Supergirl is transported to the 31st century, where she is revered as a member of the Superman family and joins the Legion of Super-Heroes. DC Comics renamed the monthly series Legion of Super-Heroes to Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes. Beginning with issue #16. In the limited series 52, which chronicles the events that took place during the missing year after the end of Infinite Crisis, Donna Troy recalls the original Kara Zor-El and her sacrifice to save the universe. Supergirl returns to the 21st century during the course of 52. After briefly filling in for a temporarily depowered Superman as guardian of Metropolis, she assumes the identity of Flamebird to fight crime in the bottle city of Kandor with Power Girl as Nightwing in Greg Rucka's arc Supergirl: Candor.

In 2007, Supergirl appeared in the miniseries Amazons Attack!. That same year, she joined the Teen Titans for five issues.

Conversations with other heroes who maintain secret identities lead Kara to the conclusion that she needs to make a deeper connection with human beings. She accepts Lana Lang's proposal to present her to the Daily Planet staff as "Linda Lang", Lana's teenaged niece.

In the 2008–2009 "New Krypton" story arc, in which Superman discovers and frees the real Kandor and a large number of its citizens, Supergirl is reunited with her father, Zor-El and mother, Alura, though Zor-El is killed by the villain Reactron. When a planet is formed that the Kryptonians call New Krypton, Kara is torn between her life on Earth, and her obligation to her mother, eventually joining the New Krypton Science Guild.

Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2009 miniseries Justice League: Cry for Justice, and the 2009–2010 storyline "Blackest Night". The New Krypton storyline would later be resolved in the "World of New Krypton", "Superman: Last Stand of New Krypton", "War of the Supermen" storylines, resulting in the destruction of New Krypton and seeing Supergirl mourn her people.

Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2010 "Brightest Day" storyline, the follow-up to "Blackest Night"., where she joins the Justice League along with Jesse Quick and Jade.

The New 52
In this continuity, Kara's ship lands in Smallville, but hurtles through the Earth and emerges in Siberia.

Kara has no memory of Krypton's destruction, and believes it is only three days since her spacecraft was launched. She learns the truth about Krypton's destruction from Superman, and later journeys through a wormhole to Argo City, which she finds in orbit around a blue sun. She finds the city in ruins, with no explanation of how it met that fate, and is attacked by a female Worldkiller named Reign before the city plummets into the sun. When Reign and her fellow Worldkiller plan to enslave the Earth, Supergirl returns there to defeat them, and thus adopts Earth as her new home.

After several battles with supervillains, including the Worldkillers, superweapons of Kryptonian design, she accepts Krypton's destruction, but continues to grapple with her grief. Her desire to restore Krypton results in her being manipulated into nearly destroying the Earth by another Kryptonian whom she falls in love with. Upon realizing his manipulation, she kills him by driving Kryptonite through his heart, and succumbs to Kryptonite poisoning.

Following her poisoning, Supergirl departs the Earth to die alone. While adrift in interstellar space, she encounters a planet under attack by monsters, and quickly intervenes to save them, unaware that the entire planet is a trap by Brainiac. She is captured and restrained by Cyborg Superman, but after a struggle, manages to escape both Brainiac and Cyborg Superman. Returning to Earth, she is sent into the past by the Oracle alongside Superman and Superboy, where she ensures that a resurrected H'el cannot save Krypton, and sacrifices the planet and her family to save the universe.

Back on Earth, she encounters the assassin Lobo. Initially eager for a peaceful resolution, seeing a kind of kinship with him in their both being lone survivors of their respective worlds (although not truly aware of Lobo's circumstances), Kara's encounter with the Czarnian would reveal deep mental wounds that attracted a Red Lantern ring to her. Driven insane by rage, Kara wanders space, attacking everyone in her way, until captured by several Green Lanterns and brought to Hal Jordan. Immediately recognizing a Kryptonian and unable to remove the power ring without killing her, he brings her to Guy Gardner, the leader of one of the two Red Lantern factions, who restores her sanity.

After some time under Guy Gardner's tutelage and protecting the galaxy as a Red Lantern, Kara is discharged from the Red Lantern Corps. On her way back to Earth, she encounters the leader of the Worldkillers, who are revealed to be parasitic suits of armor. He attempts to assimilate Kara as his host, but she voluntarily subjects herself to Kryptonite poisoning to stop him, and flies into the Sun, killing her and removing him from her body. However, Kara is revealed to be immortal while in the Sun's core and is revived, immediately destroying the Worldkiller. She later helps Guy against Atrocitus and his Red Lantern splinter group.

Convergence and return of the Pre-Crisis version
During the Convergence story arc, the original Kara Zor-El who had sacrificed her life during Crisis on Infinite Earths makes an appearance on the amalgamated planet of Telos. At the end of the saga she volunteers herself to once again fight the Anti-Monitor but this time, with the help of her timeline's Barry Allen, the Pre-Flashpoint Superman (in tow with his pregnant wife, Lois Lane), and a repentant Parallax (Zero Hour Hal Jordan), vows to defeat him for the sake of the multiverse's continued existence. Without it being seen, those left on Telos discover the group was successful and all previous timelines (with the mysterious exception of the pre-Flashpoint/pre-New 52 DC universe) from DC history had been re-established, though the fate of the original Kara Zor-El and her fellows went unmentioned.

A few more details of the battle against the Anti-Monitor are later revealed during the New 52 comic mini-series (leading into DC's Rebirth event). After the defeat of Anti-Monitor, Pre-New 52 Clark and Lois decide to start life anew in the closest universe they can find (mysteriously yet unable to see their old universe even though the rest of the multiverse had been restored) while pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El, along with her contemporary Barry Allen and Zero Hour Parallax/Hal Jordan, decide to find their place in the universe and go off to do so. Her fate as of that story arc is yet to be revealed.

DC Rebirth
After the events that led to the death of the New 52 version of Superman, 16-year-old Kara lives in National City with her adoptive parents, D.E.O. agents Jeremiah and Eliza Danvers, where she attends high school and works with the agency as led by Cameron Chase. As part of her civilian identity, Kara receives special glasses that darken her blond hair when posing as Kara Danvers. Kara also goes on an internship at Cat Grant's CATCO alongside Ben Rubel, whom she befriends.

In her opening arc "The Reign of the Cyborg Supermen", Kara discovers that the cyborg Zor-El, whom she had battled in her New 52 title, is still active and has rebuilt other Kryptonians (her mother Alura included), planning to take over Earth. Supergirl defeats them but vows to help her father regardless of his actions. After National City discovers Supergirl has kept Zor-El's "living" status a secret, they become mistrustful of her. Director Bones takes advantage of the heroine's unpopularity and, after taking control of the D.E.O., sends villains in an attempt to bring Kara down. She defeats all of them and regains trust from National City with Ben's help.

The Supergirl Who Laughs
Kara is later infected by The Batman Who Laughs' toxin, causing her to turn evil and joining other infected as part of his Secret Six before later being cured. She is fired from CatCo by Cat Grant and starts working at S.T.A.R. Labs.

Woman of Tomorrow
Journeying throughout the universe with Krypto, Kara celebrates her 21st birthday alone on a distant planet. Drunk in a bar, she is approached by a little girl named Ruthye and is asked to kill Krem (her father's murderer) in vengeance. Supergirl refuses but, when she is about to leave the planet, Krem attacks and severely wounds both her and Krypto, fleeing in Kara's ship. Kara begins her journey alongside Ruthye and, powerless, saves her space bus crew from a Karpane dragon by taking a red kryptonite drug which causes her to manifest flame wings.

Powers and abilities
A yellow sun gives her the powers akin to that of Superman. Like all Kryptonians under a yellow sun, the current version of Kara Zor-El possesses virtually unlimited strength, stamina, and invulnerability. She is able to fly and with super speed that she can also use on foot like Superman but unable to match speedsters like The Flash (who are empowered by an interdimensional source called the Speed Force). Also like Superman, Supergirl possesses super senses, super-breath, and freeze breathe, as well as multiple forms of supervision (including X-Ray, Heat, Telescopic, and Microscopic). Kara also has a bio-electric aura that enhances her near invulnerability and also protects her skin and her costume from dirt and tear; as such, Kara is perpetually clean. The Sun also provides Kara with a longer lifespan than that of a human being, to the point that she is effectively a biological immortal. Kara doesn't require food, water, or sleep to survive. She is also immune to most diseases, mental and physical, and would require a very strong strain to have a chance at affecting her.

In the rare instances that Kara is harmed by someone matching her strength or by the use of one of her weaknesses, she can heal almost instantaneously. Her power surpasses most other beings, though she can be overpowered by those who rival her strength such as Black Adam, Darkseid, Despero, Doomsday, Bizarro, Wonder Woman, and Superman.

In reality, Kara is actually older than her cousin, Clark, and spent time on Krypton before its destruction. As such (unlike Superman), she possesses memories of Kryptonian culture as well as her cousin's parents.

Continued exposure to a yellow Sun will slowly increase abilities. Many characters in the DC Universe have noted that Supergirl appears, at times, to be even more powerful than Superman himself. In answer to this, Superman states that this is because he has spent his entire life subconsciously suppressing his full powers to avoid hurting others, having been absorbing solar radiation since his infancy. Kara, not having such practice or experience, simply uses the full magnitude of her powers.

Martial artistry
Unlike her cousin, Kara was taught to fight in Krypton as part of her tests, and at the Crucible Academy, being adept at various Kryptonian fighting styles like Klurkor and Torquasm Rao. Supergirl also learned the art of Bagua under I-Ching's instructions. She practiced how to manipulate her Chi or Qi to gain better control of her powers due to them becoming overwhelmed after her conflict with the Fatal Five. Superman recommended guardianship with I-Ching to Supergirl first. In addition to training in Krypton, Kara was trained by Batman in advanced martial arts and trained with the Amazons in Themyscira in unarmed and armed combat, Amazonas martial arts, fencing, Shield handling, and other Amazon weapons. She trained with Wonder Woman and Artemis extensively.

Other versions
There are numerous alternate versions of Supergirl. The most notable is Power Girl (real name Kara Zor-L, also known as Karen Starr) who first appeared in All Star Comics #58 (January/February 1976).

Power Girl is the Earth-Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal-L, Superman of the pre-Crisis Earth-Two. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two.

She has superhuman strength and the ability to fly and is the first chairwoman of the Justice Society of America. She sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume; and has an aggressive fighting style. Throughout her early appearances in All Star Comics, she is often at odds with Wildcat because his penchant for talking to her as if she were an ordinary human female rather than a superpowered Kryptonian annoys her.

She also fought alongside the Sovereign Seven team, replacing Rampart after his death though that series is not considered to be part of canon in the DC universe.

The 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths eliminated Earth-Two, causing her origin to change; she became the granddaughter of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion. However, story events culminating in the 2005–2006 Infinite Crisis limited series restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe.

Like the original Kara's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in Wonder Woman #600.

Reception
This version of Supergirl is ranked as the 153rd-greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine.

IGN also ranked this version of Supergirl as the 94th-greatest comic book superhero, stating "for a character born of the Silver Age that saw everything from a Super Baby to a Super Monkey, Kara Zor-El grew into something much more than simply another marketing ploy to slap an 'S' on." In 2013 IGN ranked Supergirl as the 17th-greatest DC comic superhero, stating "she was an early example of a female sidekick developing a large fanbase in her own right", and "Supergirl has been one of DC's most powerful heroes, and a standard to hold other female heroes against."

Pre-Crisis

 * 1959 to 1969: Action Comics #252 to #376.
 * 1969 to 1972: Adventure Comics #381 to #424.
 * 1972 to 1974: Supergirl #1 to #10.
 * 1974 to 1982: Her comic merges with Jimmy Olsen's and Lois Lane's to become Superman Family #164 to #222.
 * 1982 to 1984: The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl #1 to #13, Supergirl (vol. 2) #14 to #23.
 * 2015: Convergence

Kara Zor-El appeared in over 750 stories published by DC from 1959 to 1985.

Post-Crisis

 * 2004 to 2005: Superman/Batman #8 to #13 and #19
 * 2005 to 2011: Supergirl (vol. 5) #0 to #67
 * 2006 to 2008: Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes (Legion of Super-Heroes vol. 5) #16 to #37
 * 2007: Action Comics #850
 * 2008: Final Crisis
 * 2011 to 2015: New 52: Supergirl (vol. 6) #1 to #40
 * 2016 to 2020: Rebirth: Supergirl (vol. 7) #1 to #42
 * 2021-2022: Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow #1 to #8

Kara Zor-El also appears as a supporting character in several issues of other DC Comics, including Superman, Action Comics, Teen Titans, Amazons Attack, World War III, and Wonder Girl. She has also appeared in many issues of Superman, Action Comics, and Superman New Krypton starting with the World Without Superman event in 2009, and continuing with the World Against Superman event going into 2010.

Collected editions
Listed in chronological order. All ages titles are not in continuity with the original or modern Kara.

Live-action

 * Kara Zor-El / Supergirl appears in Smallville, portrayed by Laura Vandervoort. This version is a Kandorian.
 * Kara Zor-El / Kara Danvers / Supergirl appears in series set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Melissa Benoist.

Animation

 * Kara Kent / Supergirl appears in series set in the DC Animated Universe (DCAU), voiced by Nicholle Tom.
 * First appearing in Superman: The Animated Series, this version is not related to Superman and originally came from Krypton's sister planet, Argo, which was knocked out of orbit following Krypton's destruction. Kara and her family placed themselves in suspended animation to survive the planet's gradually decreasing temperatures, but the stasis chambers failed over time, leaving her as the sole survivor. Upon discovering her, Superman brings her to Earth, where she is adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent and becomes Supergirl.
 * Supergirl appears in The New Batman Adventures episode "Girl's Night Out".
 * Supergirl appears in Justice League Unlimited. As of this series, she has joined the Justice League before eventually joining the Legion of Super-Heroes.
 * Supergirl appears in the "Super Best Friends Forever" segment of DC Nation Shorts, voiced by Nicole Sullivan.
 * Supergirl appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Joanne Spracklen.
 * Supergirl appears in Teen Titans Go!, voiced again by Nicole Sullivan.
 * Supergirl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Young Justice: Phantoms episode "Death and Rebirth". This version was imprisoned in the Phantom Zone before being rescued by and recruited into the Female Furies.
 * Supergirl appears in DC Super Hero Girls (2019), voiced again by Nicole Sullivan.
 * Supergirl appears in the Harley Quinn episode "Getting Ice Dick, Don't Wait Up", voiced by Lacey Chabert. This version is an ophthalmologist.
 * Kara Zor-El / Supergirl appears in My Adventures with Superman, voiced by Kiana Madeira. This version is initially a warrior for the Kryptonian Empire and brainwashed servant of Brainiac, who she believes is her father. Following encounters with Jimmy Olsen and Superman, she eventually breaks free of Brainiac's control.

Live-action

 * Kara Zor-El / Linda Lee / Supergirl appears in a self-titled film, portrayed by Helen Slater.
 * In August 2018, a film centered around Supergirl was announced to be in development, with Oren Uziel hired as screenwriter for the project. The studio intended to hire a female director, with Reed Morano—who has expressed interest in the project—being its top choice. Filming was expected to start production in early 2020.
 * An alternate universe variant of Kara Zor-El / Supergirl appears in The Flash, portrayed by Sasha Calle. Additionally, an A.I.-based recreation of Helen Slater's incarnation of Supergirl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance.
 * Kara Zor-El / Supergirl will appear in the DC Universe film Superman (2025), portrayed by Milly Alcock.
 * Kara Zor-El / Supergirl will appear in the DC Universe film Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow (2026), portrayed again by Milly Alcock.

Animation

 * Supergirl appears in Superman/Batman: Apocalypse, voiced by Summer Glau.
 * Supergirl appears in Superman: Unbound, voiced by Molly Quinn. This version is from Kandor, which she and her parents escaped from before Brainiac shrunk and stole it.
 * Supergirl appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Cosmic Clash, voiced by Jessica DiCicco.
 * Kara Zor-El appears in films set in the Tomorrowverse:
 * Kara as Supergirl first appears in Legion of Super-Heroes, voiced by Meg Donnelly. This version was sent to the 31st century to attend the Legion Academy due to her difficulty living on Earth. There, she comes into conflict with Brainiac 5, though they later reconcile and enter a relationship while fighting the Dark Circle together.
 * Kara makes a minor appearance in Justice League: Warworld, voiced by Kari Wahlgren. As of this film, she was transformed into the Harbinger.
 * Supergirl / Harbinger appears in Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths – Part One and Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths – Part Two, voiced again by Meg Donnelly.

Video games

 * Supergirl appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Adriene Mishler.
 * Supergirl appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Bridget Hoffman.
 * Supergirl appears as a support card in the mobile version of Injustice: Gods Among Us.
 * Supergirl appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
 * Supergirl appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Kari Wahlgren.
 * Supergirl appears as a playable character in Infinite Crisis, voiced by Camilla Luddington.
 * An alternate universe variant of Supergirl appears as a playable character in Injustice 2, voiced by Laura Bailey. After being found by Black Adam and Wonder Woman, she is trained to help Superman's Regime. Amidst Brainiac's attack on Earth, Supergirl comes to realize Superman's tyranny and defects to Batman's Insurgency.
 * Kara Zor-El as Supergirl and in her Red Lantern form appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced again by Kari Wahlgren.
 * Supergirl appears as a playable character in DC Unchained.
 * Supergirl appears in the PSP version of Justice League Heroes.
 * Supergirl appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains via the "DC TV Super-Heroes" DLC.

Miscellaneous

 * The Smallville incarnation of Kara Zor-El / Supergirl appears in Smallville Season 11.
 * Supergirl appears in DC Super Hero Girls (2015), voiced by Anais Fairweather. This version is a rebellious "cool kid" and student at Super Hero High School.

title: Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Live birth

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was merge to birth. [[smoddy ]] 17:10, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

Live birth
Article is close to a dicdef and is redundant with childbirth, birth and the other pregnancy related articles. Tznkai 19:17, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Merge: perhaps merge the info there with birth. Fang Aili 19:36, 24 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, notable division in childbirth statistics. Kappa 20:47, 24 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to birth because that's the most commonly used term for people being born alive. It's superfluous to mention the fetus is alive when only deadborn infants have a specific name. Mgm|(talk) 20:53, August 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: birth is a disambiguation page, but childbirth doen't seem a particularly appropriate place to merge this; the information isn't really relevant to childbirth itself. Flowerparty  talk 23:24, 24 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge. Radiant_ >|< 14:07, August 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: I chose Delete over Merge because I felt that there was nothing new to merge.--Tznkai 22:38, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
French Renaissance literature

French Renaissance literature is, for the purpose of this article, literature written in French (Middle French) from the French invasion of Italy in 1494 to 1600, or roughly the period from the reign of Charles VIII of France to the ascension of Henry IV of France to the throne. The reigns of Francis I (from 1515 to 1547) and his son Henry II (from 1547 to 1559) are generally considered the apex of the French Renaissance. After Henry II's unfortunate death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, and although the Renaissance continued to flourish, the French Wars of Religion between Huguenots and Catholics ravaged the country.

The word "Renaissance"
The word Renaissance is a French word, whose literal translation into English is "Rebirth". The term was first used and defined by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) in his 1855 work Histoire de France (History of France). Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. As a French citizen and historian, Michelet also claimed the Renaissance as a French movement. His work is at the origin of the use of the French word "Renaissance" in other languages.

Introduction
The 16th century in France was a remarkable period of literary creation (the language of this period is called Middle French). The use of the printing press (aiding the diffusion of works by ancient Latin and Greek authors; the printing press was introduced in 1470 in Paris, and in 1473 in Lyon), the development of Renaissance humanism and Neoplatonism, and the discovery (through the wars in Italy and through Henry II's marriage with Catherine de' Medici) of the cultivated refinement of the Italian courts (Baldassare Castiglione's book The Courtier was also particularly important in this respect) would profoundly modify the French literary landscape and the mental outlook (or "mentalité") of the period. There is a slow evolution from the rude warrior class to a cultivated noble class (giving rise to the idea of the "honnête homme" in the 17th century). In all genres, there is a great interest in love (both physical and Platonic) and in psychological and moral analysis.

This period saw a proliferation of pamphlets, tracts, satires, and memoirs; the success of short-story collections ("nouvelles") as well as collections of oral tales and anecdotes ("propos" and "devis"); a public fascination with tragic tales from Italy (most notably those of Bandello); a considerable increase in the translating and publishing of contemporary European authors (especially Italians and Spaniards) compared to authors from the Middle Ages and classical antiquity; an important increase in the number of religious works sold (devotional books would exceed the "belles-lettres" as the most sold genre in France at the beginning of the 17th century); and finally, the publication of important works of moral and philosophical reflection.

The history of literature of the Renaissance is not monolithic: the royal court, the universities, the general public, the "noblesse de robe", the provincial noble, and the humanist all encountered different influences and developed different tastes. Humanist theater would come slowly to the general public; the old warrior class discovered court etiquette and polished manners only over time; and the extravagance of the Italian-inspired court was frequently criticized by detractors. Literacy itself is an important issue in the dissemination of the texts of the Renaissance: the culture of the 16th century remains profoundly oral, and the short story, the chivalric novel and Rabelais's works make this orality a central part of their style. Finally, the Renaissance book was a physical and economic object of great scarcity and – depending on its size and illustrations – of great prestige. A library such as Montaigne's was a rare occurrence for people other than lawyers and members of parliament who had had an elite education in the universities; for the public, the broadsheet or penny press (with woodcut illustrations) sold door to door by colporters would have been their only access to the written word.

Poetry
Poetry in the first years of the 16th century is characterised by the elaborate sonorous and graphic experimentation and skillful word games of a number of Northern poets (such as Jean Lemaire de Belges and Jean Molinet), generally called "les Grands Rhétoriqueurs" who continued to develop poetic techniques from the previous century. Soon however, the impact of Petrarch (the sonnet cycle addressed to an idealised lover, the use of amorous paradoxes, like Jacques LeOriell (1498-1565) much practiced), Italian poets in the French court (like Luigi Alamanni), Italian Neoplatonism and humanism, and the rediscovery of certain Greek poets (such as Pindar and Anacreon) would profoundly modify the French tradition. In this respect, the French poets Clément Marot and Mellin de Saint-Gelais are transitional figures: they are credited with some of the first sonnets in French, but their poems continue to employ many of the traditional forms.

The new direction of poetry is fully apparent in the work of the humanist Jacques Peletier du Mans. In 1541, he published the first French translation of Horace's Ars poetica and in 1547 he published a collection poems Œuvres poétiques, which included translations from the first two cantos of Homer's Odyssey and the first book of Virgil's Georgics, twelve Petrarchan sonnets, three Horacian odes and a Martial-like epigram; this poetry collection also included the first published poems of Joachim Du Bellay and Pierre de Ronsard.

Around Ronsard, Du Bellay and Jean Antoine de Baïf there formed a group of radical young noble poets of the court (generally known today as La Pléiade, although use of this term is debated). The character of their literary program was given in Du Bellay's manifesto, the "Defense and Illustration of the French Language" (1549) which maintained that French (like the Tuscan of Petrarch and Dante) was a worthy language for literary expression and which promulgated a program of linguistic and literary production (including the imitation of Latin and Greek genres) and purification. For some of the members of the Pléiade, the act of the poetry itself was seen as a form of divine inspiration (see Pontus de Tyard for example), a possession by the muses akin to romantic passion, prophetic fervor or alcoholic delirium.

The forms that dominate the poetic production of the period are the Petrarchan sonnet (developed around an amorous encounter or an idealized woman) and the Horace/Anacreon ode (especially of the carpe diem – life is short, seize the day – variety). Ronsard also tried early on to adapt the Pindaric ode into French. Throughout the period, the use of mythology is frequent, but so too is a depiction of the natural world (woods, rivers). Other genres include the paradoxical encomium (such as Remy Belleau's poem praising the oyster), the "blason" of the female body (a poetic description of a body part), and propagandistic verse.

Du Bellay's greatest poems were written during his long stay in Rome; his discovery of the ruined city, dismay at the corruption of the Papal court and loneliness gave rise to a sonnet cycle of remarkable sadness and severity (partially inspired by Ovid's Tristia).

Although Ronsard attempted a long epic poem of the origins of the French monarchy entitled La Franciade (modeled on Virgil and Homer), this experiment was largely judged a failure, and he remains most remembered today for his various collections of Amours (or love poems), Odes and Hymnes.

Jacques Pelletier du Mans later encyclopedic collection L'Amour des amours, consisting of a sonnet cycle and a series of poems describing meteors, planets and the heavens, would influence the poets Jean Antoine de Baïf and Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (whose Semaine is a Baroque description of the creation of the world).

Several poets of the period – Jean Antoine de Baïf (who founded an "Académie de musique et de poésie" in 1570), Blaise de Vigenère and others – attempted to adapt into French the Latin, Greek or Hebrew poetic meters; these experiments were called "vers mesurés" and "prose mesuré" (for more, see the article "musique mesurée").

Although the royal court was the center of much of the century's poetry, Lyon, the second-largest city in France in the Renaissance, also had its poets and humanists, most notably Maurice Scève, Louise Labé, Olivier de Magny, and Pontus de Tyard. Scève's Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu, composed of 449 ten-syllable ten-line poems (dizains) and published with numerous engraved emblems, is exemplary in its use of amorous paradoxes and (often obscure) allegory to describe the suffering of a lover.

Similarly, Madeleine Des Roches and her daughter Catherine Des Roches were the center of a literary circle based in Poitiers between 1570 and 1587, and which included the poets Scévole de Sainte-Marthe, Barnabé Brisson, René Chopin, Antoine Loisel, Claude Binet, Nicolas Rapin and Odet de Turnèbe.

Poetry at the end of the century was profoundly marked by the civil wars: pessimism, dourness and a call for retreat from the world predominate (as in Jean de Sponde). However, the horrors of the war were also to inspire one Protestant poet, Agrippa d'Aubigné, to write a brilliant poem on the conflict:Les Tragiques.

Principal French poetry collections published in the 16th century:
 * Clément Marot Adolescence clémentine (1532)
 * Various Blasons du corps féminin (1536)
 * Clément Marot Psaumes (1541) – translation of the Psalms
 * Maurice Scève Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu (1544)
 * Pernette Du Guillet Rimes (1545)
 * Jacques Peletier du Mans Œuvres poétiques (1547)
 * Mellin de Saint-Gelais Œuvres (1547)
 * Joachim du Bellay Olive (1549–50) and the manifesto "Défense et illustration de la langue française" (1549)
 * Pierre de Ronsard Odes (1550)
 * Pontus de Tyard Le Solitaire premier (1552)
 * Jean Antoine de Baïf Les Amours (1552)
 * Pierre de Ronsard Les Amours (1552)
 * Pierre de Ronsard Hymnes (1555–1556)
 * Jacques Peletier du Mans "L'Amour des amours" and a manual on poetic composition "Art poétique français" (1555)
 * Louise Labé Œuvres (1555)
 * Pontus de Tyard Livre de vers lyriques (1555)
 * Jean Antoine de Baïf Amour de Francine (1555)
 * Remy Belleau Petites inventions (1556)
 * Joachim du Bellay Antiquités de Rome (1558)
 * Joachim du Bellay Songe (1558)
 * Joachim du Bellay Regrets (1558)
 * Remy Belleau 'La Bergerie (1565–1572)
 * Etienne de La Boétie Vers français (1571)
 * Pierre de Ronsard La Franciade (1572)
 * Philippe Desportes Premières œuvres (1573)
 * Étienne Jodelle Œuvres et mélanges poétiques (1574)
 * Agrippa d'Aubigné First draft of Les Tragiques (1575)
 * Nicolas Rapin Les Plaisirs du gentilhomme champestre (1575)
 * Remy Belleau Pierres précieuses (1576)
 * Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas La Semaine (1578)
 * Etienne de La Boétie Sonnets (1580)
 * Jacques Peletier du Mans "Louanges" (1581)
 * Jean Antoine de Baïf Chansonnettes mesurées (1586)
 * Jean de Sponde Poèmes chrétiens (1588)
 * Jean-Baptiste Chassignet Le Mépris de la vie (1594)
 * Marc de Papillon Œuvres (1597)
 * Jean de Sponde Poésies posthumes (1597)

Long prose fiction
In the first half of the century, the novel in France was still dominated by the chivalric novels of the Middle Ages (in their prose versions) such as: Les Quatre fils Aymon (or Renaud de Montauban), Fierabras, Ogier le Danois, Perceforest and Galien le Réthoré. From 1540 on however, the genre was dominated by foreign productions, most notably the Hispano-Portuguese multi-volume adventure novels Amadis de Gaule, Palmerin d'Olive, Primaléon de Grèce and others like them. The first of these, Amadis of Gaul – in its celebrated French translation/adaptation by Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts – became the de facto code of conduct of the French court from Francis I through Henry IV and was emulated in jousts and in manners. Of similar tone and content (albeit in verse), the Italian epic poems Roland amoureux (Orlando Innamorato) by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Roland furieux (Orlando furioso) by Ludovico Ariosto (and, at the end of the century, Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered) were also enormous successes (French translations of these works were often in prose). Finally, the Italian Luigi Pulci's Morgant le géant, a comic version of the chivalric novel, was an important model for Rabelais's giants.

The most notable French novels of the first half of the century are François Rabelais's masterpieces Pantagruel, Gargantua and their sequels. Rabelais's works blend both humanism (Erasmus, Thomas More) and medieval farce (giants, heroic battles, scatological humor) in a manner that is grotesquely extravagant (the language and humor were often viewed as coarse by later centuries), but along with the buffoonery there is a keen satire of religious hypocrisy, political injustice and human doubt.

Alongside the chivalric, French literary tastes of the period were drawn to the amorous and pathetic, especially as depicted in the novels of Spaniards Diego de San Pedro and Juan de Flores, themselves inspired by Boccaccio's Lady Fiammeta and its psychologically insightful portrayal of a woman spurned. This sentimental vein would find admirable expression in parts of Hélisenne de Crenne's Les Angoisses douloureuses qui procèdent d'amours which blends sentimental and chivalric elements, humanist scholarship, orality and eloquence.

The foreign adventure novel would start to face competition from domestic French production in the second half of the century in the long works of authors Béroalde de Verville and Nicolas de Montreux. These authors (largely unread today) – like the authors of the later volumes of the Amadis cycle – abandoned many of the traditional chivalric modes, replacing them with techniques and incidents borrowed from two new sources of inspiration: the ancient Greek novel (Heliodorus, Longus and Achilles Tatius) and the mixed-form (prose and verse) pastoral novel from Italy and Spain (Jacopo Sannazaro and Jorge de Montemayor).

The novelty and inventiveness of the last years of the century are best seen in the anonymous La Mariane du Filomene (1596) which mixes the frame-tale, amorous sentiment, dreams, and pastoral elements to tell the story of a man wandering through the Parisian countryside trying to forget the woman who betrayed him.

Notable works of long prose fiction, including translations (preceded by an --) published in France in the 16th century:

 * Jean Lemaire de Belges Les Illustrations de Gaule (1510)
 * -- Diego de San Pedro  La Prison d'Amour laquelle traite l'amour de Leriano et Laureole  (13 editions between 1526–1604)
 * -- Juan de Flores Le Judgement d'Amour or Histoire d'Aurelio et d'Isabelle (1530)
 * François Rabelais Pantagruel (1532)
 * -- Boccaccio Complainte des tristes amours de Fiammette (1532)
 * François Rabelais Gargantua (1534)
 * -- Juan de Flores La Déplourable fin de Flamète (translation by Maurice Scève, 1535)
 * -- Baldassare Castiglione Le Courtesan (1535)
 * Hélisenne de Crenne (Marguerite Briet) Les Angoysses douloureuses qui procedent d'amours (1538)
 * -- Diego de San Pedro Les Amours d'Arnalte et de Lucenda or L'amant mal traicté de s'amye (14 editions from 1539–1582)
 * -- Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo Amadis de Gaule (first books translated by Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts, starting from 1540; for more on its sequels and translations, see the article on "Amadis of Gaul")
 * -- Jacopo Sannazaro Arcadia (1544)
 * -- Ariosto Roland furieux (prose translation, 1544)
 * François Rabelais Le tiers livre (1546)
 * -- Francesco Colonna Songe de Poliphile (with engravings attributed to Jean Goujon, 1546)
 * -- L'histoire de Palmerin d'Olive  (translated by Jean Maugin, 1546)
 * -- Heliodorus of Emesa L'histoire aethiopique (translated by Jacques Amyot, 1547)
 * François Rabelais Le quart livre (1552)
 * "Théodose Valentinian" L'Histoire de l'amant resuscité par la mort d'amour (partly inspired by Diego de San Pedro, 1555)
 * -- Longus Les Amours pastorales de Daphnis et de Chloé (translated by Jacques Amyot, 1559)
 * François Rabelais (attributed) Le cinquième livre (1564)
 * -- Achilles Tatius Les Amours de Clitophon et de Leucippe (translated by François de Belleforest, 1568)
 * François de Belleforest La Pyrénée (or La Pastorale amoureuse) (1571)
 * -- Jorge de Montemayor La Diane (1578)
 * Nicolas de Montreux Les Bergeries de Juliette (1585–98)
 * -- Tasso Jérusalem délivrée (prose translation, 1587)
 * Béroalde de Verville Les Avantures de Floride (1593–1596)
 * Nicolas de Montreux Les chastes et delectables Jardins d'Amour (1594)
 * Nicolas de Montreux L'Œuvre de la Chasteté (1595-9)
 * (Anon) La Mariane du Filomene (1596)
 * (Anon) Les chastes amours d'Helene de Marthe(1597)
 * Nicolas de Montreux Les Amours de Cleandre et Domiphille (1597)
 * Béroalde de Verville Le Restablissement de Troye (1597)

The short story
The French Renaissance is dominated by the short story (under various names: "conte", a tale; "nouvelle", a short story like the Italian novella; "devis" and "propos", a spoken discussion; "histoire", a story). For the period, part of the attraction of the dialogued short story and the frame tale (with its fictional speakers discussing each other's stories) lies in their "performability" by someone reading out loud to a non-literate public and in their grab-bag and (frequently) digressive structure: these tales are capable of taking on all kinds of material, both sophisticated and vulgar.

The Decameron, the short story collection by the Italian author Boccaccio, with its frame tale of nobles fleeing the plague and telling each other stories, had an enormous impact on French writers. The sister of Francis I, Marguerite of Navarre, who was the center of a progressive literary circle, undertook her own version (the Heptaméron) which, although incomplete, is one of the masterpieces of the century. Other important writers of short stories include Noël du Fail and Bonaventure des Périers. As the century progressed, the use of oral discourse, multiple voices and table talk led to a dialogued form which often seems revolutionary and chaotic to modern ears.

The French reading public was also fascinated by the dark tragic novellas ("histoires tragiques") of Bandello which were avidly adapted and emulated into the beginning of the seventeenth century (Jacques Yver, Vérité Habanc, Bénigne Poissenot, François de Rosset, Jean-Pierre Camus).

Short story collections in France in the Renaissance:
 * Anon. Cent nouvelles nouvelles (1462)
 * Philippe de Vigneulles Nouvelles (c. 1515) - most are lost
 * Anon. Le Paragon des nouvelles honnestes et délectables (1531)
 * Nicolas de Troyes Le grand paragon des nouvelles nouvelles (c1533-37)
 * Bonaventure des Périers Cymbalum mundi (1537)
 * Giovanni Boccaccio Le Décaméron - Antoine Le Maçon, translator  (1545)
 * Noël du Fail Propos rustiques de maistre Léon Ladulfi (1547)
 * Noël du Fail Les Baliverneries ou contes nouveaux d'Eutrapel (1548)
 * La Motte-Roullant 'Les fascetieux devitz des cent nouvelles nouvelles, tres recreatives et fort exemplaires... (1549) - (109 tales, mostly versions of Cent nouvelles nouvelles)
 * Bonaventure des Périers Les Nouvelles récréations et Joyeux devis (90 tales) (1558)
 * Pierre Boaistuau, ed. Histoires des Amans fortunez (1558) - truncated version of l'Heptaméron (67 tales) without dialogues between the stories
 * Marguerite de Navarre L'Heptaméron Claude Gruget, ed. (1559)
 * Pierre Boaistuau Histoires tragiques extraictes des oeuvres italiennes de Bandel.... (1559) - translation of Bandello.
 * François de Belleforest Continuation des histoires tragiques, contenant douze histoires tirées de Bandel.... (1559) - translation of Bandello.
 * Pierre Viret Le Monde à l'empire (date?) satirical pamphlet
 * Pierre Viret Le Monde démoniacle (1561) satirical pamphlet
 * François de Belleforest and Pierre Boaistuau Histoires tragiques -  7 vols.  Belleforest's continuation of the translation of Bandello, published with Boaistuau's (1566–1583)
 * Jacques Tahureau Les dialogues, Non moins profitables que facetieux (1565)
 * Henri Estienne Apologie pour Hérodote (1566)  (includes 180 tales)
 * Estienne Tabourot des Accords Les Bigarrures (1572)
 * Jean Bergier Discours modernes et facecieux (1572) - (13 tales)
 * Jacques Yver Le Printemps d'Yver, contenant plusieurs histories discourues en cinq journées (1572)
 * Duroc Sort-Manne (pseudo. for Romannet Du Cros) Nouveaux recits ou comptes moralisez  (1573)
 * Jeanne Flore Comptes amoureux  (1574) (7 tales)
 * Antoine Tyron Recueil de plusieurs plaisantes nouvelles, apaphthegmes et recreations diverses  (1578)
 * Bénigne Poissenot L'été (1583)
 * Gabrielle Chappuys Cent excellentes nouvelles  (1583) - translation of the Hecatommithi by Italian Giovanni Battista Giraldi (also known as Cintio)
 * Gabrielle Chappuys Les facétieuses journées (1584) -  translation of Italian tales
 * Antoine du Verdier Le compseutique ou Traits facétieux (1584) -  mostly lost
 * Guillaume Bouchet Les sérées  (1584, 97, 98)
 * Estienne Tabourot des Accords Apophtegmes du Sieur Gaulard (1585)
 * Noël Du Fail Les contes et discours d'Eutrapel (1585)
 * De Cholières Les matinées (1585)
 * Vérité Habanc Nouvelles histoires tant tragiques que comiques (1585).
 * Bénigne Poissenot Nouvelles histoires tragiques (1586).
 * De Cholières Les après-dînées (1587)
 * Estienne Tabourot des Accords Les Escraignes dijonnaises (1588)

Theatre
16th-century French theater followed the same patterns of evolution as the other literary genres of the period.

For the first decades of the century, public theater remained largely tied to its long medieval heritage of mystery plays, morality plays, farces, and soties, although the miracle play was no longer in vogue. Public performances were tightly controlled by a guild system. The guild "les Confrères de la Passion" had exclusive rights to theatrical productions of mystery plays in Paris; in 1548, fear of violence or blasphemy resulting from the growing religious rift in France forced the Paris Parliament to prohibit performances of the mysteries in the capital, although they continued to be performed in other places. Another guild, the "Enfants Sans-Souci" were in charge of farces and soties, as too the "Clercs de la Basoche" who also performed morality plays. Like the "Confrères de la Passion", "la Basoche" came under political scrutiny (plays had to be authorized by a review board; masks or characters depicting living persons were not permitted), and they were finally suppressed in 1582. By the end of the century, only the "Confrères de la Passion" remained with exclusive control over public theatrical productions in Paris, and they rented out their theater at the Hôtel de Bourgogne to theatrical troupes for a high price. In 1599, they abandoned this privilege.

It is of note that, alongside the numerous writers of these traditional works (such as the farce writers Pierre Gringore, Nicolas de La Chesnaye and André de la Vigne), Marguerite of Navarre also wrote a number of plays close to the traditional mystery and morality play.

As early as 1503 however, original language versions of Sophocles, Seneca, Euripides, Aristophanes, Terence and Plautus were all available in Europe and the next forty years would see humanists and poets both translating these classics and adapting them. In the 1540s, the French university setting (and especially — from 1553 on — the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theater (in Latin) written by professors such as George Buchanan and Marc Antoine Muret which would leave a profound mark on the members of La Pléiade. From 1550 on, one finds humanist theater written in French.

The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. His plays — which were essentially chamber plays meant to be read for their lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory — brought to many humanist tragedies a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action.

Humanist tragedy took two distinct directions:
 * Biblical tragedy : plots taken from the bible — although close in inspiration to the medieval mystery plays, the humanist biblical tragedy reconceived the biblical characters along classical lines, suppressing both comic elements and the presence of God on the stage. The plots often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters and one finds both Protestant and Catholic playwrights.
 * Ancient tragedy : plots taken from mythology or history — they often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters

During the height of the civil wars (1570–1580), a third category of militant theater appeared:
 * Contemporary tragedy : plots taken from recent events

Along with their work as translators and adaptors of plays, the humanists also investigated classical theories of dramatic structure, plot, and characterization. Horace was translated in the 1540s, but had been available throughout the Middle Ages. A complete version of Aristotle's Poetics appeared later (first in 1570 in an Italian version), but his ideas had circulated (in an extremely truncated form) as early as the 13th century in Hermann the German's Latin translation of Averroes' Arabic gloss, and other translations of the Poetics had appeared in the first half of the 16th century; also of importance were the commentaries on Aristotle's poetics by Julius Caesar Scaliger which appeared in the 1560s. The fourth century grammarians Diomedes and Aelius Donatus were also a source of classical theory. The 16th-century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on French theater. Lodovico Castelvetro's Aristote-based Art of Poetry (1570) was one of the first enunciations of the three unities; this work would inform Jean de la Taille's Art de la tragedie (1572). Italian theater (like the tragedy of Gian Giorgio Trissino) and debates on decorum (like those provoked by Sperone Speroni's play Canace and Giovanni Battista Giraldi's play Orbecche) would also influence the French tradition.

In the same spirit of imitation — and adaptation — of classical sources that had informed the poetic compositions of La Pléiade, French humanist writers recommended that tragedy should be in five acts and have three main characters of noble rank; the play should begin in the middle of the action (in medias res), use noble language and not show scenes of horror on the stage. Some writers (like Lazare de Baïf and Thomas Sébillet) attempted to link the medieval tradition of morality plays and farces to classical theater, but Joachim du Bellay rejected this claim and elevated classical tragedy and comedy to a higher dignity. Of greater difficulty for the theorists was the incorporation of Aristotle's notion of "catharsis" or the purgation of emotions with Renaissance theater, which remained profoundly attached to both pleasing the audience and to the rhetorical aim of showing moral examples (exemplum).

Étienne Jodelle's Cléopâtre captive (1553) — which tells the impassioned fears and doubts of Cleopatra contemplating suicide — has the distinction of being the first original French play to follow Horace's classical precepts on structure (the play is in five acts and respects more or less the unities of time, place and action) and is extremely close to the ancient model: the prologue is introduced by a shade, there is a classical chorus which comments on the action and talks directly to the characters, and the tragic ending is described by a messenger.

Mellin de Saint-Gelais's translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino's La Sophonisbe — the first modern regular tragedy based on ancient models which tells the story of the noble Sophonisba's suicide (rather than be taken as captive by Rome) — was an enormous success at the court when performed in 1556.

Select list of authors and works of humanist tragedy:
 * Théodore de Bèze
 * Abraham sacrifiant (1550)
 * Étienne Jodelle
 * Cléopâtre captive (1553)
 * Didon se sacrifiant (date unknown)
 * Mellin de Saint-Gelais
 * La Sophonisbe (performed 1556) - translation of the Italian play (1524) by Gian Giorgio Trissino
 * Jacques Grévin
 * Jules César (1560) - imitated from the Latin of Marc Antoine Muret
 * Jean de la Taille
 * Saül, le furieux (1563–1572)
 * Guillaume Le Breton
 * Adonis (1569)
 * Robert Garnier
 * Porcie (published 1568, acted in 1573),
 * Cornélie (acted in 1573 and published in 1574)
 * Hippolyte (acted in 1573 and published in 1574)
 * Marc-Antoine (1578)
 * La Troade (1579)
 * Antigone (1580)
 * Les Juives (1583)
 * Pierre Matthieu (1563–1621)
 * Clytemnestre (1578)
 * Esther (1581)
 * Vashti (1589)
 * Aman, de la perfidie (1589)
 * La Guisiade (1589)
 * Nicolas de Montreux
 * Tragédie du jeune Cyrus (1581)
 * Isabelle (1594)
 * Cléopâtre (1594)
 * Sophonisbe (1601)

(See the playwrights Antoine de Montchrestien, Alexandre Hardy and Jean de Schelandre for tragedy around 1600-1610.)

Alongside tragedy, European humanists also adapted the ancient comedic tradition and as early as the 15th century, Renaissance Italy had developed a form of humanist Latin comedy. Although the ancients had been less theoretical about the comedic form, the humanists used the precepts of Aelius Donatus (4th century A.D.), Horace, Aristotle and the works of Terence to elaborate a set of rules: comedy should seek to correct vice by showing the truth; there should be a happy ending; comedy uses a lower style of language than tragedy; comedy does not paint the great events of states and leaders, but the private lives of people, and its principal subject is love.

Although some French authors kept close to the ancient models (Pierre de Ronsard translated a part of Aristophanes's "Plutus" at college), on the whole the French comedic tradition shows a great deal of borrowing from all sources: medieval farce (which continued to be immensely popular throughout the century), the short story, Italian humanist comedies and "La Celestina" (by Fernando de Rojas). The most prolific of the French Renaissance comedic authors, Pierre de Larivey, adapted Italian comedies of intrigue by the authors Ludovico Dolce, Niccolò Buonaparte, Lorenzino de' Medici, Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Vincenzo Gabbiani, Girolano Razzi, Luigi Pasqualigo, and Nicolὸ Secchi.

Select list of authors and works of Renaissance comedy:
 * Étienne Jodelle
 * L'Eugène (1552) – a comedy in five acts
 * Jacques Grévin
 * Les Ébahis (1560)
 * Jean Antoine de Baïf
 * L'Eunuque (1565), a version of Terence's Eunuchus
 * Le Brave (1567) – a version of Plautus's Miles gloriosus
 * Jean de la Taille
 * Les Corrivaus (published in 1573) – an imitation of Boccaccio and other Italians
 * Pierre de Larivey – Larivey was an important adapter of the Italian comedy
 * Le Laquais (1579)
 * La Vefve (1579)
 * Les Esprits (1579)
 * Le Morfondu (1579)
 * Les Jaloux (1579)
 * Les Escolliers (1579)
 * Odet de Turnèbe
 * Les Contents (1581)
 * Nicolas de Montreux
 * La Joyeuse (1581)
 * Joseph le Chaste (?)
 * François d'Amboise (1550–1619)
 * Les Néapolitaines (1584)

In the last decades of the century, four other theatrical modes from Italy — which did not follow the rigid rules of classical theater – flooded the French stage:

 * the Commedia dell'arte — an improvisational theater of fixed types (Harlequin, Colombo) created in Padua in 1545; Italian troupes were invited in France from 1576 on.
 * the Tragicomedy — a theatrical version of the adventurous novel, with lovers, knights, disguises and magic. The most famous of these is Robert Garnier's Bradamante (1580), adapted from Ariosto's Orlando furioso.
 * the Pastoral — modeled on Giambattista Guarini's "Pastor fido" ("Faithful Shepard"), Tasso's "Aminta" and Antonio Ongaro "Alceo" (themselves inspired by Jacopo Sannazaro and Jorge de Montemayor). The first French pastorals were short plays performed before a tragedy, but were eventually expanded into five acts. Nicolas de Montreux wrote three pastorals: Athlette (1585), Diane (1592) Arimène ou le berger désespéré (1597).
 * the Ballet de cour — an allegorical and fantastic mixture of dance and theater.  The most famous of these is the "Ballet comique de la reine" (1581).

By the end of the century, the most influential French playwright — by the range of his styles and by his mastery of the new forms — would be Robert Garnier.

All of these eclectic traditions would continue to evolve in the "baroque" theater of the early 17th century, before French "classicism" would finally impose itself.

Other literary forms
The French Renaissance was rich in a whole body of moral, literary, philological and philosophical writing. Michel de Montaigne was the first essayist of modern times (The Essays) and a remarkable writer on the human condition. Étienne Pasquier's Recherches de la France was another monumental compendium of historical, political and cultural observations.

Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme wrote biographical sketches of the men and women of the court.

Jean Bodin wrote a number of important works on political science.

Henri Estienne and his son Robert Estienne were among the most important printers in France in the 16th century, and Robert Estienne's edition of the Bible was the first to use chapter and verse divisions.

The Catholic/Huguenot and civil/political conflicts of the last half of the century—the French Wars of Religion—generated a great deal of political, religious and satirical writing, including the Monarchomachs' libels.

The Satire Ménippée (1593/1594) written by Nicolas Rapin, Jean Passerat and Florent Chrestien, and edited/revised by Pierre Pithou was a political and satirical work in prose and verse which criticized the excesses of the Catholic League during the Wars of Religion.

title: French Renaissance literature


text: User talk:70.24.173.12

title: User talk:70.24.173.12


text:
Christopher Woodhouse, 6th Baron Terrington

Professor Christopher Richard James Woodhouse, 6th Baron Terrington (born 20 September 1946), is a British peer and Emeritus Professor of Adolescent Urology, University College London.

Terrington was born in 1946, the elder son of Montague Woodhouse, 5th Baron Terrington, and Lady Davidema Katharine Cynthia Mary Millicent Bulwer-Lytton, a daughter of Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton. He was educated at Winchester College and Guy's Hospital Medical School. Throughout his academic career he was an avid coxswain, steering Winchester College, University of London and Leander Club crews.

Terrington became a urological surgeon in 1970. He was senior registrar at the Institute of Urology from 1977 to 1981 and senior lecturer from 1981 until 1997. In the latter year he moved to University College Hospital as Reader in Adolescent Urology, and professor from 2006. He has been Clinical Director of Urology at the same institution since 2001. He was a consultant at St George's Hospital from 1985 to 1995 but did most of his work at St James' Hospital SW12 until it was closed and has occupied the same position at the Royal Marsden Hospital since 1981 as well as that of honorary consultant at Great Ormond Street Hospital since 1981.

He became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1975. In addition, Terrington has been an honorary member of the Australasian Urological Association since 1999, Chairman of the British Journal of Urology since 2000 and President of Genito-Urinary Reconstructive Surgeons (USA) since 2002.

He inherited his title when his father died in 2001. He was an unsuccessful candidate for election as a crossbench hereditary peer in the House of Lords by-election held in May 2008.

Marriage and children
Terrington married Hon. Anna Margaret Philipps, the daughter of Hugo Philipps, 3rd Baron Milford, on 27 February 1975. They have two children:

 * Hon. Jack Henry Lehmann Woodhouse (born 7 December 1978), heir apparent to the barony.
 * Hon. Constance Margaret Davina Woodhouse (born 1 January 1982)

Publications

 * With F. D. Thompson: Disorders of the Kidney and Urinary Tract (1987) ISBN 0-7131-4412-2
 * Long-Term Paediatric Urology (1991) ISBN 0-632-02936-6
 * With others: Management of Urological Emergencies (2004) ISBN 1-84184-177-3


text:
Talk:Paul Dresser

Reference and citation correction requested
All the citations and the reference to an unnamed article by James A. Woodburn in the Indiana Magazine of History used in this Wiki article are incorrect. There is no Indiana Magazine of History article in the June 1931 issue for the pages cited. Volume 36 does not cover the year 1931 (it covers 1940). Online searches for any IMH article related to Dresser and articles written by Woodburn did not locate anything that would include the page numbers referenced in this Wiki article. Does anyone know what the correct article and the page numbers should be? Rosalina523 (talk) 22:48, 29 January 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Paul Dresser


text:
Ricky Carmichael

Richard Joseph Carmichael (born November 27, 1979) is an American former professional motocross and stock car racing driver. He competed in the AMA Motocross Championships from 1997 to 2007 and in NASCAR from 2008 to 2011. His unrivaled successes in the sport of motocross earned him the nickname "The GOAT"; standing for Greatest of All Time. He won 15 AMA championships (1st), 10 in Motocross (1st), five in Supercross (2nd); scored 150 wins (1st), 102 in Motocross (1st), 48 in Supercross (4th); had two perfect Motocross seasons; was never beaten in 125 Supercross; and was a five-time winner of the AMA's Rider of the Year award.

His NASCAR career began with him competing full-time in the East Series in 2008 for Ken Schrader Racing, as well as part-time in what is now the ARCA Menards Series for Kevin Harvick Incorporated. He drove in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series full-time for three years, first with KHI for most of his rookie season in 2009, and then the rest of his time there with Turner Motorsports. He also made select starts in what is now the Xfinity Series as well as ARCA for Turner in 2010 and 2011.

Motocross/supercross
After a dominant amateur career, Carmichael made his professional debut in 1997 for the Splitfire Pro Circuit Kawasaki team. In his rookie Supercross effort, he showed promising speed, winning multiple main events. However, crashes and inconsistency ultimately cost him the title of Suzuki's Tim Ferry. Outdoors, Carmichael was more consistent, beating defending champion Steve Lamson for the overall win at round 1, and went on to win the overall 125cc title.

In 1998 Carmichael proved his ability to dominate indoors as well, winning all 8 of the 125cc East coast Supercross rounds, as well as the "East/West Shoot-Out" event. Outdoors, he defended his title comfortably despite early challenges from Lamson, John Dowd, and Mike Brown.

Carmichael jumped to the 250 class for Supercross in 1999 with the Factory Kawasaki team. He had moderate success in the early rounds, including top 5 finishes, but frequent crashes throughout the remainder of the season resulted in a finish outside of the top 10 of the final standings. For the outdoor season, he remained in the 125cc class, which he won handily for a 3rd consecutive year. In 2000, Carmichael moved to the 250 class full-time. He showed more consistency in Supercross, getting his first premier class race win at Daytona. He finished 5th overall in the final standings. Carmichael again displayed his outdoor prowess in the 2000 AMA Motocross championship, winning the title in his rookie year despite challenges from Sebastien Tortelli.

Leading into the 2001 Supercross season, Carmichael showed a newfound commitment to his physical conditioning, bringing on former professional cyclist Aldon Baker to oversee his training regimen. After contests in the early rounds from defending 250 Supercross Champion Jeremy McGrath, Carmichael established himself as the new leader of the class, winning 13 of 15 rounds along with the championship. He then continued his streak of outdoor titles as well, fending off challengers Sébastien Tortelli and Kevin Windham.

Carmichael moved to a new manufacturer, Honda, for the 2002 season. Despite a violent crash in round 1 of Supercross, he quickly rebounded and went on to win 11 of 16 rounds, as well his second 250 title over runner-up David Vuillemin. In the 2002 outdoor championship, Carmichael won an unprecedented 24 of 24 motos to take his third consecutive 250 outdoor title.

2003–2007
In 2003, Carmichael won both Supercross and National titles again; winning 7 races indoors where he faced a stiff challenge from Chad Reed. He won the National title again with 9 race wins over Windham.

In 2004, Carmichael was injured for the Supercross season, he had a knee injury (torn ligaments/meniscus) but came back for the Motocross season to record his second perfect season; winning 24 of the 24 motos he raced and all 12 overalls on his Honda CRF 450; his first effort on a 4-stroke bike.

Carmichael entered the 2005 season as the underdog, due to missing the prior season with the knee injury, now as a Suzuki factory rider. In what was projected as "the perfect storm", James "Bubba" Stewart made his debut in the premier 250cc class, along with perennial contenders Chad Reed and Kevin Windham, Carmichael triumphantly regained his Supercross title, with seven victories to Reed's five, Stewart's three, and Windham's one. Later that summer, Carmichael won all 12 events in the 250cc Outdoor National Championship again; winning 22 of 24 motos on an RMZ450. Carmichael also scored the US Open of Supercross title and led Team USA to a convincing victory at the Motocross des Nations.

Carmichael campaigned the 2006 Supercross season aboard an RMZ450; his first attempt at indoor competition on a four-stroke. It was the most exciting series battle in recent memory. There were multiple points lead changes and race winners, and Carmichael, Reed, and Stewart all entered the Las Vegas finale within 5 points of each other. With Carmichael and Reed tied for the lead (316 points), and Stewart (311) only 5 points behind them, it was a close race. Carmichael rode to a safe second-place finish behind Stewart and ended the series with 6 victories and his fifth Supercross championship. He indicated that 2006 would be his last full-time season and planned to retire the following year.

In the 2006 Outdoor National Championship season, Carmichael once again dominated all comers, including James Stewart, in winning 9 races and placing second twice. However, at the season finale at Glen Helen Raceway, Carmichael suffered a bad crash while challenging James Stewart for the win and was unable to finish the race. Carmichael had already clinched the overall championship at the prior round. In the crash, he sustained a shoulder injury and was unable to compete in the Motocross of Nations race in England. Ivan Tedesco replaced him on Team USA and helped lead the American team to victory.

As planned, Carmichael raced only a partial schedule in 2007. He would only race select events for Team Makita Suzuki while pursuing his new stock car career. Carmichael finished with two Supercross wins and six Outdoor National wins, winning every race he entered. Carmichael capped his career with a winning performance at the X-Games and a victory with Team USA at the Motocross of Nations in Budds Creek, Maryland.

X Games
Carmichael won the gold in Supercross at the X Games in 2007, won gold in Step Up in 2008, was jointly given the gold medal in the same event in 2009 with Ronnie Renner. In 2019, he won the bronze medal in Real Moto.

Stock car racing
In 2007, Carmichael signed a driver development contract with Ginn Racing, which would later be merged with Dale Earnhardt, Inc. Under the tutelage of veteran Mark Martin, Carmichael started his transition to stock cars by racing late models throughout the country. With backing from Monster Energy, Carmichael later transitioned to Ken Schrader Racing, and ran a few races in the Camping World East Series, including the prestigious Toyota All-Star Showdown at Toyota Speedway in Irwindale, California. In 2009, Carmichael was tabbed by Sprint Cup Series driver Kevin Harvick to drive the No. 4 Chevrolet Silverado in 18 races for Harvick's team, Kevin Harvick, Inc. Though the transition wasn't easy, Carmichael finished 22nd in Truck Series points that year. In 2010, Carmichael and Monster left KHI and went to Turner Motorsports, where he would gain 9 top tens en route to finishing 13th in the points. Carmichael also made his Nationwide Series debut at Kansas Speedway, starting 12th and finishing 18th. Carmichael returned to Turner for 2011, and split the No. 30 Chevrolet in the Nationwide Series with teammates James Buescher, Reed Sorenson, Jason Leffler and Mark Martin.

On September 2, 2011, Carmichael achieved his first career pole at Atlanta Motor Speedway in the Camping World Truck Series.

Consulting
On July 19, 2021, Carmichael entered into a partnership with Triumph Motorcycles. Along with World Enduro champion Ivan Cervantes, they are tasked with helping develop the prototypes for the new line of off-road motorcycles by Triumph for use in motorcross and supercross.

Current

 * Fox Racing
 * Monster Energy (2006–present)
 * Triumph Motorcycles (2021–present)

Past

 * Kawasaki motorcycles (1997–2001, 2020–2021)
 * Suzuki (2005–2020)
 * Honda Racing Corporation (2002–2004)

Other activities
In 2009, for the BBC show Top Gear, Ken Block took James May out for Gymkhana-style driving at Block's stunt course at Inyokern Airport; an operational California airport. Carmichael appeared in a supporting role, to which Block described Carmichael as 'a good friend'.

He currently works on AMA Monster Energy SuperMotocross Broadcasts on NBC with Leigh Diffey, Jason Weigandt, James Stewart, Jason Thomas, and Will Christien.

Awards
He was voted 2009 Camping World Truck Series Most Popular Driver.

In 2015, he was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America.

AMA Motocross / Supercross

 * *Ricky retired from full time racing at the end of 2006. In 2007, he raced a partial schedule in both SX and MX as a farewell tour.

 * Titles

 * 1997 AMA 125cc/Lites Outdoor National Motocross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 1998 AMA 125cc/Lites East Coast Supercross Champion (Kawasaki) - Perfect season: 8-0
 * 1998 AMA 125cc/Lites Outdoor National Motocross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 1999 AMA 125cc/Lites Outdoor National Motocross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 2000 AMA Motocross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 2001 AMA Supercross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 2001 AMA Motocross Champion (Kawasaki)
 * 2002 AMA Supercross Champion (Honda)
 * 2002 AMA Motocross Champion (Honda) - Perfect season: 24-0
 * 2003 AMA Supercross Champion (Honda)
 * 2003 AMA Motocross Champion (Honda)
 * 2004 AMA Motocross Champion (Honda) - Perfect season: 24-0
 * 2005 AMA Supercross Champion (Suzuki)
 * 2005 AMA Motocross Champion (Suzuki)
 * 2006 AMA Supercross Champion (Suzuki)
 * 2006 AMA Motocross Champion (Suzuki)

 * Wins

 * 12 Wins in 125/250 AMA Supercross
 * 26 Wins in 125/250 AMA Motocross: 8 (1997), 8 (1998), 9 (1999), 1 (2001),
 * 48 Wins in 250/450 AMA Supercross: 1 (2000), 14 (2001), 11 (2002), 7 (2003), 7 (2005), 6 (2006), 2 (2007)
 * 76 Wins in 250/450 AMA Motocross: 9 (2000), 7 (2001), 12 (2002), 9 (2003), 12 (2004), 12 (2005), 9 (2006), 6 (2007)
 * 162 Wins in AMA SX/MX: 8 (1997), 8 (1998), 9 (1999), 10 (2000), 22 (2001), 23 (2002), 12 (2004), 19 (2005), 15 (2006), 8 (2007)

Other motocross / supercross

 * 2000 Motocross des Nations Champion (Team USA)
 * 2001 U.S. Open of Supercross Champion
 * 2005 FIM SX1 World Supercross Champion
 * 2005 Motocross des Nations Champion (Team USA)
 * 2005 U.S. Open of Supercross Champion
 * 2007 Motocross of Nations Champion (Team USA)

NASCAR
(key) ( Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led. )

ARCA Racing Series
(key) ( Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led. )

title: Ricky Carmichael


text:
CEPES

Centro Peruano de Estudios Sociales (Peruvian Center for Social Studies) is a civil society organization specializing in rural development based in Peru.

The CEPES was founded in 1976. Its multi-disciplinary staff come from backgrounds which include economics, law, social science and communication and the information sciences.

CEPES conducts research and disseminates information on rural development which seeks to contribute to the inclusion of peasants and small farmers in the process of modernization and democratization of rural society and economy, through the generation of proposals and the development of political influence, with a strong commitment to a national, decentralized, and equitable democratic development.

Its activities include creating and disseminating information and knowledge through publications, magazines, electronic bulletins and radio broadcasts. Its publications include:

 * Debate Agrario (a research journal)
 * La Revista Agraria (a magazine focusing on agrarian and rural development issues)
 * Informativo Legal Agrario (a legal review published three times a year)
 * Notiagro, an online daily round-up of agrarian and rural news
 * electronic bulletins on the coffee-growing, livestock-farming and milk-producing industries in Peru.

The CEPES website is in Spanish and includes agrarian and rural statistics; rural and agrarian news; audio from radio broadcasts; and downloadable articles from La Revista Agraria and Debate Agrario. The Centre is in Lima.

title: CEPES


text:
Rahmane Barry

Rahmane Barry (born 30 June 1986) is a Senegalese former footballer who played as a defender. Between 2005 and 2006, he made 9 appearances for the Senegal national team.

Club career
Barry was born in Dakar, Senegal. A product of the Marseille youth system, he made his debut in the club's victory over Toulouse on 20 December 2003. He spent two seasons in the senior team before being loaned out to Lorient in August 2005 to gain more playing time.

His contract with the Côte d'Azur side expired in the summer of 2007, and in June of that year he joined Ligue 2 outfit Sedan on a permanent two-year deal. He was then loaned to Gueugnon for six months from 16 January 2008, before returning Sedan. At the end of the 2008-2009season he found himself without a contract.

In October 2010, Barry signed for Championnat National club Beauvais.

In the summer of 2011, he went on trial with Thai club Bangkok United, hoping to rejuvenate his career and "return in six months to Europe". He played friendlies with the club, but a dispute over contract length and agent payments meant he returned to France. He was without a club for the rest of the year and gave up his professional status.

Rahmane joined French amateur side Montagnarde, who were playing in the Championnat de France Amateur 2, in the summer of 2012. He was still playing there as of October 2020.

International career
Barry played international football for Senegal national team and was part of the squad for the 2006 African Cup of Nations in Egypt. Between 2005 and 2006, he made 9 appearances for Senegal.

Honours
Marseille
 * UEFA Intertoto Cup: 2005

title: Rahmane Barry