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Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford

Humphrey (VIII) de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford, 5th Earl of Essex (6 December 1309 – 15 October 1361) of Pleshy Castle in Essex, was hereditary Constable of England. He distinguished himself as a captain in the Breton campaigns of the Hundred Years' War, playing a part in winning the Battle of Morlaix (1342) and the Battle of La Roche-Derrien (1347).

Origins
He was the son and heir of Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford by his wife Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I and Queen Eleanor of Castile. He was a younger brother of John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (d. 1336), whom he succeeded as Earl of Hereford and Essex and hereditary Constable of England, the seventh-highest office of the State.

Poem William of Palerne
In about 1350 he commissioned an alliterative English translation of the French verse romance William of Palerne composed in about 1200, commissioned by Countess Yolande (who is generally identified as Yolande, daughter of Baldwin IV, Count of Hainaut). He is referred to as having ordered the translation as follows:

"At Glouseter that ligges" (lies) is believed not to mean "lies buried" but rather "who lives at Gloucester", probably at his manor house of Wheatenhurst. Although many of his ancestors were buried in Llanthony Secunda Priory in Gloucester, the 6th earl was buried at the Austin Friars, London, which he himself had rebuilt. The poem later clarifies that he was alive at the time of its composition, as it concludes by urging the reader to pray to God to give the earl a "good life". He also had a neighbouring manor house at Haresfield, where Fosbrooke states the Bohuns had a castle, and where a low castle mound survives.

Death and burial
He died at Pleshey and was buried in the Austin Friars, London, founded by his ancestor Humphrey IV de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford, 1st Earl of Essex (1204–1275). The earldoms of Hereford and Essex passed to his nephew, Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford, the son of his deceased younger brother, William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton.

title: Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford


text:
User talk:Lecar

Our forum
Welcome to the Romanian Wikipedia notice board! This page is a portal for all Romanian-related topics and a place for Romanian editors to gather and socialize and debate. Discussions are encouraged, in both English and Romanian. Post any inquiry under their relevant cathegory.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Romanian_Wikipedian%27s_notice_board

--Anittas 18:04, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

Alexander for Admin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_adminship/Alexander_007 ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_adminship#Alexander_007. I've nominated User:Alexander_007 as admin. Let's vote for him! -- Bonaparte  talk  &  contribs  18:17, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:UK LS Headingley.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:UK LS Headingley.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikipedia are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

I'd suggest using.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me. Thank you. Dethomas 05:33, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Spiritismo
Ciao, Alexrap! Mi puoi dire se c'è un articolo su questo nella Wikipedia rumena? Se non c'é, mi puoi aiutare a tradurlo? Grazie! Arges 03:08, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

Mãlina Olinescu spelling
Salut,

Please note the question at Talk:Mãlina Olinescu.

Thanks! --Amir E. Aharoni 10:17, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Problem already solved by ---Andrei. --Alex 15:12, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

I'm not suprised that only a romanian can disturbed by a video about the Hungarian justice in Transylvania... Yes, propaganda movie... only the official report of the ragain of Transylvania... Ununderstandable... Time to exterminate all the Magyars....? And from the Tisa to the Nistru...

Vino la pagina de discutii Transistria
În 17 septembrie va fi referendum în Transnistria legat de independenţa regiunii. Cu această ocazie probabil multă lume va căuta pe Wikipedia informaţii despre Transnistria. Am încercat să adaug în articol nişte informaţii legate de acest referendum, anume:

- faptul că mai multe organizaţii antiseparatiste au lansat un apel la boicotare, considerînd referendumul "farsă"

- faptul că din 46 de ţări membre ale Consiliului Europei, 45 sînt împotriva recunoaşterii referendumului, numai RUsia are altă părere

- faptul că datele Comisiei Electorale Centrale din Tiraspol au fost schimbate în mod ciudat, anume numărul total de alegători s-a micşorat cu 7% faţă de 2005, ceea ce ridică suspiciuni asupra unei încercări de creştere artificială a prezenţei la vot prin raportarea unui număr mai mic de alegători înregistraţi.

Totdeauna am dat lincurile care dovedesc cele scrise de mine, n-am născocit nimic din burtă.

Userul Willian Mauco, care pare fan Tiraspol, mereu mi-a şters adăugirile. (vezi istoria paginii)

Puteţi vedea la pagina de discuţii Transnistria ce argumente a adus. Anume: ăia care cer boicotarea referendumului din Transnistria sînt foşti KGB-işti, că aşa zice o organizaţie rusească de analiză (a dat un linc pentru asta). Întîi a spus că respectivii nici nu sînt din Transnistria, ci doar din Basarabia, dar i-am dovedit că unii dintre semnatarii apelului la boicot sînt transnistreni. Am fost împăciuitor, i-am zis că n-are decît să adauge părerea organizaţiei ruseşti că antiseparatiştii sînt foşti KGBişti, că n-are decît să-i considere pe cei care vor boicotarea referendumului drept băieţi răi, dar faptul în sine, că s-a cerut boicotarea referendumului, trebuie menţionat. Degeaba, mereu mi s-au şters adăugirile - pentru celelalte 2 fapte nici n-a adus argumente.

A mai fost o adăugire care a şters-o, despre arestarea a 4 persoane din Transnistria care sînt împotriva separatismului (între timp li s-a dat drumul). În cazul ăsta am renunţat eu să mai insist pentru includerea informaţiei în articol (deşi informaţia e incontestabilă), tocmai fiindcă n-am vrut să mă cert prea mult.

În perioada asta cînd agenţiile de ştiri vor menţiona referendumul de la Tiraspol, se va citi articolul Transnistria în Wikipedia poate mai mult decît într-un an întreg. De aia acum e nevoie să existe în articol informaţii despre contestarea corectitudinii referendumului. Nu cer să se menţioneze ca adevăr absolut faptul că referendumul e incorect, ci doar că există unii (OSCE, 45 din 46 ţări ale Consiliului Europei, unele organizaţii din zonă şi din Basarabia) care consideră asta. Vă cer de aceea sprijinul ca să interveniţi pe pagina de discuţii Transnistria pentru a susţine rămînerea informaţiei în pagină şi să repuneţi informaţia atunci cînd Mauco o şterge (eu nu pot să verific chiar 24 de ore din 24). Evitaţi atacurile suburbane, păstraţi ton civilizat. mulţumesc.

Who is William Mauco Here is an article about a Wikipedia celebrity, William Mauco, and his relations with the International Council for Democratic Institutions and State Sovereignty (ICDISS), an organisation "which seems to be a front organisation for a Kremlin-backed rogue statelet called Transdniestria" (quote from the article) http://0.bypass-filter.com/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZGx1Y2FzLmJsb2dzcG90LmNvbS8yMDA2LzA4L2dvdGNoYS0yLmh0bWw%3D

Edward Lucas wrote about Mauco: "The other lead is William Mauco. He has an extensive record of posting intelligent and fairly neutral entries on Wikipedia, not only about TD but about other unrecognised statelets. Crucially, these predate ICDISS's birthday of January 2006. And he also claims to have been at their conference in Mexico City in April of this year. I have written to him asking to get in touch, and had a friendly email in reply. I am planning to follow up this research in an article in European Voice at the end of August, so watch this space!"

Vote against deletion of article Heaven of Transnistria
Together with EvilAlex (a guy from Transnistria) I created an article regarding Transnistria's separatist propaganda Heaven of Transnistria. It was nominated for deletion. Please help to keep this article, voting against deletion. Enough was deleted from Transnistria article itself, Wikipedia is full with Tiraspol's propaganda, let's have at least an article that explain this propaganda--MariusM 18:18, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Funar
I reverted myself, because it's not really that big of a deal anyways. — Khoikhoi 04:40, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

Your protection of the Gheorghe Funar article
Hello Alexrap, thank you for contacting me. Actually, it was Khoikhoi who asked me to protect the article due to edit war. I don't get involved in the disputes occurring in an article that I protected, as required by the protection policy. But when there's a consensus on the article's talk page about the disputed content, then you may place there and wait for another admin to have a look. Requests for significant edits to a protected page can also be placed on WP:RPP. Now, I should alert that 2 editors aren't usually enough to establish a consensus if another editor still disagrees with your views. I recommend placing a request for comment in order to attract more input to your dispute. I hope this helped. Merry Xmas. Regards.-- Hús  ö  nd  15:02, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

You have my support against hungarian propaganda.--Zancsi 20:07, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

Languages of the European Union
I have answered to your comment at Talk:Languages_of_the_European_Union. Please take a look. --Michkalas 13:42, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * New reply.--Michkalas 15:45, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

A question about Leonard Orban
As he is now a European Commissioner, I suppose it is impossible that he is also a state secretary with the Ministry of European Integration in the Romanian government. But I cannot find any source about this, at least in English.--Michkalas 13:26, 22 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Michkalas, I guess you must be right. I couldn't find either something specifically saying that he is no longer a state secretary, but it is probably implied by the fact that he has now a new job. Alexrap 14:49, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Cluj-Napoca International Airport
I added back the 1850m because that is currently what pilots will see when looking for information about the airport. I know that the reference is dated 08 June 2006 (see page 4) but the Aeronautical Information Publication is updated every 28 or 56 days depending on the country, so as of now that is the current information. At the same time I changed the sentence about the 2100m to show who said it had been extended and where they said it. This will help the reader to see that it's a valid bit of information from the airport director and in a leading paper. THe actual length gets even more confusing if you look at this document from OCtober 2006 that says on page 11 "The airport’s runway will be extended, first - from 1,850 metres to 2,200 metres, and then, to 2,500 metres, in a second stage." but this one on page 23 would seem to indicate the runway is already 2100m. Unfortunally there's no date on the second one.

Also in the infobox I changed the external link to go directly to the English site. The link at the bottom of the page goes to the Romanian version. At least one of the links should be to the English version as this is the English WIkipedia. Cheers. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk)

 * I don't insist that it goes in the infobox, others have been telling me that's where the AIP reference should go. In most airports the technical information doesn't come up outside of the infobox so there's no other place to link it. I had complaints that not linking from the infobox was confusing and even had people remove the references because it wasn't linked.

Anyway, I've changed the length to 2100 and moved the reference out of the box. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk) 21:48, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

Ethnic minorities in Romania
Good thinking. I couldn't be bothered to though :) --Domitius 18:48, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

Good work
with Sofronie of Cioara ! Could you provide some clue for a Template talk:Did you know nomination ? BTW, do you know when the guy was canonised ?--Vintila Barbu 21:28, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

Mystery

 * I will try to explain why minorities' rights should be protected. Very simple: We live in the 21st century and shouldn't follow those medieval practices you mentioned.
 * By the way, I am really interested, can you please clarify which period and region do you mean when you state that Romanians were not allowed to enter towns? I believe it happened in some cases, but when, where and how? Does this apply to the whole medieval period? Was it a common practice in every town? How could have Vlad Tepes born in Sighişoara? His mother pretended to be a Saxon?
 * Were only the Romanians supressed? I know an example, the Budai Nagy Antal revolt (Bobalna Revolt) when Hungarian and Romanian peasants were fighting together against their feudal landlords and one of the reasons behind their anger was that the landlords didn't allow them to move into the towns because they were afraid they would lose cheap workforce. Or, I know that Székelys were opressed by the Aristocracy in Transylvania in the late 16th century and this is why they supported Mihai Viteazul. These were examples about how Hungarians were facing feudal opression. I am sure you can show a couple of examples about how Romanians were stopped at town gates. --KIDB 21:49, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * We both fully agree that the minorities' rights should be protected. There is no discussion about this point at all. What I don't understand, though, is how can some people admire the structure and policy of the Kingdom of Hungary and in the same time say that the Hungarian minority in today's Romania does not enjoy full rights. This is the mystery I was referring to. For me, that is a very good example of double standard. I have no problems with Hungarians making sure that they enjoy all the rights in today's Romania, but unfortunately I see a significant number of Hungarian users here in Wikipedia "mourning" the loss of the Hungarian majority in some Transylvanian cities. When in fact the only major change in their ethnic structure was the levelling of the urban/rural ethnic composition.

 * The history of Transylvania is quite complex and, to make things even worse, it is also very much contested between "rival parties". Nationality, for a long time was not an issue in Transylvania at all. Religion was, though. Romanians in Transylvania after 1366 were left with a difficult choice: conversion to Catholicism, or a decay in social status. Some of those who chose the first option became in the end an integral part of a Transylvanian political life (e.g. John Hunyadi) and are now considered by the Hungarian historians as part of their nation. Many others remained Orthodox. This meant that almost all of them were serfs. Unio Trium Nationum only made things worse for them, establishing a legal system that excluded Romanians. In these condition it was absolutely impossible for them to become integrated in any sort of urban development, as they were restricted to the land of their "owners". Unfortunately, after the feudal system started to be abolished in Transylvania, ethnicity became an important issue and minorities in the Kingdom of Hungary started to be faced with the Magyarization policy. But, at least for me, is quite clear that such policies cannot be sustainable (especially in today's world).

 * Now about the Hungarian rights in today's Romania: I have the feeling that many people actually have no idea of the situation as I was faced with some opinions that were so far away from the truth. Any Hungarian in today's Romania has access to education in Hungarian at all levels and not many people know that they are actually positively discriminated in this respect. Also there is a very well established Hungarian cultural life (media, theatres, operas etc.). What else could we ask for, in order to make life any better in Transylvania? Other than economic development which is needed for everyone (Romanians, Hungarians, Romas, etc.). Alexrap 12:52, 7 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, I agree with most of what you wrote. The Magyarisation in the 19th century was a mistake and most modern Hungarian historians regret it. The fight against non-Catholics in the middle ages - I am now reading a book about the historical chronology of Hungary and there are several records about the Pope writing letters to the Hungarian Kings in the 12-13th centuries requesting that no Jew or Muslim (!) are employed in high offices... The Pope wrote repeatedly because the Hungarian Court didn't act according to his requests... In this period still there were many Orthodox (Greek) believers in Hungary (Hungarians, too) and there were Kings with very strong relation to the Byzantine Empire. In later centuries, the fight against the Orthodox and Reformed Churches folowed. It was a time when people were thinking in a different way. --KIDB 13:16, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

Dear Friend,
I suggest not to delete information about the Hungarian heritage in Transylvania. It is not a nice thing to do. --KIDB 15:50, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Felvinc
Yes you're right, I mistakenly looked only at the first line of the statistics showing an abbsolute Hu majority in the town and I did not realise the data were from 1850. It was a huge mistake, I know. Thanks for the comment, I would have reverted myself, but I see you did it for me. Thanks. About Cofariu - yes, Romanian farmers from the neighbouring villages were brought in by Vatra Romaneasca and Cofariu was not simply doing shopping on that day in Targu Mures. Anyway, deleting things and leaving a note that you simply copy-edited is ... (Well, I don't want to be offensive). --KIDB 09:54, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

UBB
I agree with you but we have to demonstrate it is so. Unfortunately I don't have any data about but if you know how many faculties, specialities has and we can show that there is no other university that has so much, we can put it back. I just know it is the most complex, I don't have any source for it. -- R O   A M A  T  A A  | msg  12:51, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Merry Xmas
I wish you a very Merry Christmas and Happy New Year! -- R O   A M A  T  A A  | msg  18:07, 24 December 2007 (UTC)

References in the Treaty of Trianon page
On the discussion page of the above mentioned article, there was a debate about the usage of a newspaper article as a reference in several places throughout the article. My opinion is that citing a 2008 newspaper article to support the fact that the Treaty was concluded at the end of WWI is not appropriate, as it is a well known fact. It's like citing a 2008 newspaper article to support the fact that the US Declaration of Independence happened in 1776. Citations to the NYT article should remain in places where they are appropriate. And this is what I tried to do, leaving it as a reference in 2 different places. However, I have seen that you reinserted the reference in several other places, where, in my opinion, such a referencing is artificial. This reduces the quality of the article. Alexrap (talk) 14:06, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Nothing other than common knowledge should be in Wikipedia without a citation. To remove citations that are required contravenes Verifiability. Stifle (talk) 14:09, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * That was exactly my point. The fact that the Treaty of Trianon is a treaty concluded at the end of WWI is common knowledge. At least for someone who comes across such an article. And if it still requires a reference (which I don't think it's the case), the best reference is a good history book, not a 2008 newspaper article. Alexrap (talk) 14:32, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Then feel free to cite such a book. Stifle (talk) 14:47, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

Racoviţa, Sibiu
Salutare, sunt ro:utilizator:asybaris01 si am dezvoltat un articol monografic despre satul meu natal Racoviţa, Sibiu. Acest articol a obtinut statutul de articol de calitate pe wikipedia romaneasca. Daca veti avea amabilitatea de a-l citi sau macar de a-l vizualiza veti vedea amploarea lui, precum si bogatia de informatii existente in articolele adiacente. Dupa parerea mea si a altora este un produs de export cultural pentru Romania. Am inceput demersurile de cauta traducatori specializati pentru promovarea lui in alte limbi de circulatie internationala. V-as fi recunoscator daca v-ati exprima parerea despre el si mai ales daca timpul va permite sa participati la publicarea lui in limba engleza.Asybaris01 (talk) 14:36, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:UBB logo.gif)
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WikiProject Dacia
Bună! I've been working to set up the WikiProject Dacia to organize better the articles about Dacia and improve their quality. We need help expanding and reviewing many articles, and we also need more images. Maybe you find it interesting and wish to join. Thanks and best regards! --Codrin.B (talk) 21:48, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

WikiProject Romania
--Codrin.B (talk) 04:21, 21 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Done. Moved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Romanian_Wikipedians%27_notice_board/Participants 03:19, 14 February 2012 (UTC)

Romanian names
Hello! May I inquire as to what your plan is for the aforementioned article?

Yours Truly, Juggalo1010 (talk) 00:56, 4 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Hi, the plan is to extend the Romanian name article, similar to other articles from the "Personal names in world cultures" template. And keep the Romanian names (disambiguation) page as it is now, with links to Romanian name and Romanian Names (album). I cannot think of a better solution, but let me know what's your opinion. Lecar (talk) 11:43, 8 May 2012 (UTC)

Disambiguation link notification for June 29
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Your account will be renamed
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Lecar


text:
Game physics

Computer animation physics or game physics are laws of physics as they are defined within a simulation or video game, and the programming logic used to implement these laws. Game physics vary greatly in their degree of similarity to real-world physics. Sometimes, the physics of a game may be designed to mimic the physics of the real world as accurately as is feasible, in order to appear realistic to the player or observer. In other cases, games may intentionally deviate from actual physics for gameplay purposes. Common examples in platform games include the ability to start moving horizontally or change direction in mid-air and the double jump ability found in some games. Setting the values of physical parameters, such as the amount of gravity present, is also a part of defining the game physics of a particular game.

There are several elements that form components of simulation physics including the physics engine, program code that is used to simulate Newtonian physics within the environment, and collision detection, used to solve the problem of determining when any two or more physical objects in the environment cross each other's path.

Physics simulations
There are two central types of physics simulations: rigid body and soft-body simulators. In a rigid body simulation objects are grouped into categories based on how they   should interact and are less performance intensive. Soft-body physics involves simulating individual sections of each object such that it behaves in a more realistic way.

Particle systems
A common aspect of computer games that model some type of conflict is the explosion. Early computer games used the simple expedient of repeating the same explosion in each circumstance. However, in the real world an explosion can vary depending on the terrain, altitude of the explosion, and the type of solid bodies being impacted. Depending on the processing power available, the effects of the explosion can be modeled as the split and shattered components propelled by the expanding gas. This is modelled by means of a particle system simulation. A particle system model allows a variety of other physical phenomena to be simulated, including smoke, moving water, precipitation, and so forth. The individual particles within the system are modelled using the other elements of the physics simulation rules, with the limitation that the number of particles that can be simulated is restricted by the computing power of the hardware. Thus explosions may need to be modelled as a small set of large particles, rather than the more accurate huge number of fine particles.

Ragdoll physics
This is a procedural animation and simulation technique to display the movement of a character when killed. It treats the character's body as a series of rigid bones connected together with hinges at the joints. The simulation models what happens to the body as it collapses to the ground. More sophisticated physics models of creature movement and collision interactions require greater level of computing power and a more accurate simulation of solids, liquids, and hydrodynamics. The modelled articulated systems can then reproduce the effects of skeleton, muscles, tendons, and other physiological components. Some games, such as Boneworks and Half-Life 2, apply forces to individual joints that allow ragdolls to move and behave like humanoids with fully procedural animations. This allows to, for example, knock an enemy down or grab each individual joint and move it around and the physics-based animation would adapt accordingly, which wouldn't be possible with conventional means. This method is called active ragdolls and is often used in combination with inverse kinematics.

Projectiles
Projectiles, such as arrows or bullets, often travel at very high speeds. This creates problems with collisions - sometimes the projectile travels so fast that it simply goes past a thin object without ever detecting that it has collided with it. Before, this was solved with ray-casting, which does not require the creation of a physical projectile. However, simply shooting a ray in the direction that the weapon is aiming at is not particularly realistic, which is why modern games often create a physical projectile that can be affected by gravity and other forces. This projectile uses a form of continuous collision detection to make sure that the above-stated problem will not occur (at the cost of inferior performance), since more complex calculations are required to perform such a task.

Games such as FIFA 14 require accurate projectile physics for objects such as the soccer ball. In FIFA 14, developers were required to fix code related to the drag coefficient which was inaccurate in previous games, leading to a much more realistic simulation of a real ball.

title: Game physics


text:
Augustus Bradford

Augustus Williamson Bradford (January 9, 1806 – March 1, 1881), a Democrat, was the 32nd Governor of Maryland in the United States from 1862 to 1866. He served as governor during the Civil War and paid a heavy price for his devotion to the Union.

Biography
Augustus Williamson Bradford was born in Bel Air, Maryland on January 9, 1806, the son of Samuel Bradford and Jane Bond. He graduated from St. Mary's College in 1824. After graduation, he studied law under the tutelage of Otho Scott, and was admitted to the bar in 1826. He later moved to Baltimore and lived there for the rest of his life. He married Elizabeth Kell on November 10, 1835, and they had twelve children, of whom seven survived their father.

In 1845, Governor Thomas Pratt appointed Bradford the Clerk of the Baltimore County Court, a post he occupied until 1851. In February 1861, Governor Thomas H. Hicks appointed Bradford one of Maryland's delegates to the Washington Peace Conference, where he made a speech supporting the Union. Following the conference, the Unconditional Union Party named Bradford as its candidate for governor, opposing the Democratic candidate General Benjamin C. Howard. Bradford defeated Howard by approximately 30,000 votes and took office on January 8, 1862.

During his term, he violently opposed the Federal government's interference in Maryland's elections, upheld the dignity of the State government and defied the harsh and arbitrary military occupation, and went to great lengths to keep the State in the Union. At the same time he upheld the Federal government's authority although he differed with its methods. In September 1862, he was one of the many northern governors to attend the Loyal War Governors' Conference in Altoona, Pennsylvania.

During the Civil War, the Confederates invaded Maryland three times. During the last of these, Bradley T. Johnson’s raiders visited Bradford's home in July 1864, and during his absence, burned it to the ground together with all his furniture, library, and papers. This action was partially in retaliation for Union General David Hunter’s burning of the home of Governor John Letcher of Virginia, and partially because of Bradford's "uncompromising spirit and strong leanings."

During his four years in office, Augustus Bradford released Samuel Green (freedman) from jail on the condition he leave the state. Green was an African-American slave and minister, who was jailed in 1857 for possessing a copy of the novel Uncle Tom's Cabin.

He encouraged immigration into Maryland especially after the abolition of slavery, supported the appointment of a State Superintendent of Schools and School Commissioners, and the establishment of a system of education, and was instrumental in reorganizing the militia and in assisting in the movement to acquire a portion of the Gettysburg battlefield for a cemetery for the Union dead. The Constitution of 1864 which abolished slavery in the State and disenfranchised those who fought for or aided the Confederacy was only ratified by the vote of the soldiers in spite of Bradford's efforts to secure its adoption. In this respect, it was an extremely unsatisfactory document and it remained operative for only three years. Bradford objected to the federal government's policy of enlisting slaves in the Union Army at least until their owners could be compensated. At the only election held under the Constitution of 1864, that of November 8, 1864, Thomas Swann was elected as Bradford's successor. He took his oath of office on January 11, 1865, but by a provision of the Constitution, he did not actually become Governor until January 10, 1866.

After Bradford's retirement from office, President Andrew Johnson appointed him the Surveyor of the Port of Baltimore, which he served as until April 1869. He became a Democrat about 1872, and he was elected one of the Horace Greeley presidential electors in that year. He retired in 1869, and died in Baltimore on March 1, 1881. Funeral services were held at the Mount Vernon M.E. Church. He was buried in Greenmount Cemetery in Baltimore, Maryland.

title: Augustus Bradford


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title: User talk:68.62.89.82


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The Apprentice (1971 film)

The Apprentice (Fleur bleue) is a 1971 Quebec-made comedy-drama film directed by Larry Kent, starring Susan Sarandon and Steve Fiset. Although the original title literally translates to English as Blue Flower, it is better known in English as The Apprentice, which is a better translation of the idiom used in the title. It is one of the very few Canadian films that is functionally bilingual, shot in both English and French, with the appropriate dialogue dubbed for the appropriate audience.

Plot
Jean-Pierre (Fiset) is a working class young Francophone with big dreams. He comes under the tutelage of his older best friend, a con-man and bank robber named Dock (Jean-Pierre Cartier), who starts teaching him the secrets of his trades, and making him an accomplice in his crimes. He is dating Dock's virginal sister, who is also active in the Quebec separatist movement.

To make ends meet, Jean-Pierre works a series of menial jobs. While doing clean-up on a commercial shoot, he meets Elizabeth (Sarandon), a beautiful Anglophone model. After he is fired from the shoot for explaining the English meaning of the French name of the product she is supposed to be selling, she starts going out with him out of a sense of guilt, and they soon become lovers. However, she is a sexual libertine with no intention of being monogamous, and this soon strains their relationship.

Eventually, the strain of keeping up with his two girlfriends wears on him and he decides to break up with Elizabeth. However, his clumsy attempts to break up in English (of which he does not have a fluent command) merely results in their spending the night together. He then decides to break up with Dock's sister, who realizing that he is going back to Elizabeth because of their sexual relationship, throws herself at him.

Eventually, Jean-Pierre's criminal activities catch up with him, and everything ends tragically.

Place in Canadian film history
Fleur bleue is one of the very few films to deal with the strain between Anglophone and Francophone relationships in the city of Montreal in the late 1960s and early 1970s. At the time the film was made, Montreal was largely segregated into French speaking areas in the east, and English speaking areas in the west, with the two groups rarely interacting with each other. Jean-Pierre and Elizabeth both are from Montreal, but neither has a working command of the other's language - Jean-Pierre's English is non-fluent, and Elizabeth's French is non-existent.

In addition to the strain of his relationships and his criminal career, Jean-Pierre is also dealing with a society which, while marginally under French political control, was largely under English economic control. This film was made just after department stores such as Eaton's required their Francophone clerks to converse with customers in English only, even if the customer was a Francophone as well. Jean-Pierre, rightly or wrongly, blames his economic circumstances on Anglophones, who are the only ones who can provide him with an honest, but low paying, job. His girlfriend has come to the conclusion that separation from Canada is the only solution to the problems plaguing Francophones. Dock is convinced that it doesn't matter who is in charge - people like him will suffer nevertheless, so it's everyone for themselves. Elizabeth, who is relatively well off, doesn't acknowledge the problems that exist for all the Francophones with whom she shares her city.

title: The Apprentice (1971 film)


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Down to Earth (American TV series)

Down to Earth is an American fantasy sitcom series that ran on Superstation WTBS from March 10, 1984 to 1987. The series was originally produced by The Arthur Company, and later, by Procter & Gamble Productions and was the Superstation's first original series.

Premise
The series revolved around Ethel MacDoogan (Carol Mansell), a free-spirited woman who lived the "Roaring 1920s" era. However, in 1925 she suffered a fatal accident, colliding with a trolley. Ethel waits in Heaven for 60 years for a chance to earn her wings, until finally she is sent to earth in the 1980s to help the Preston family.

The Prestons are a typical modern-day American family with modern-day situations: widowed father Richard (Stephen Johnson, then Dick Sargent) is a realtor, though he retired a few months after and began working as a licensing agent for new inventors; older son Duane (David Kaufman) is very class-conscious; teenage daughter Lissy (Kyle Richards) is very opinionated; Jay Jay (Randy Josselyn), the youngest, just wants someone who can fill their late mother's void. It is Jay Jay's prayer for an angel to come into their lives that summons Ethel, and he is the only one who knows her true identity.

Infiltrating the household as housekeeper and maid, Ethel is unsurprisingly clueless about even the simplest conveniences of modern-day 1980s family life. Jay Jay helps cover for her when it comes to adapting to the newfangled inventions of the past 60 years, and she eventually wins over the Prestons by successfully helping them deal with their problems.

Popping in from time to time is the Prestons' ditsy next-door neighbor Candy Carlysle (Marla Rubinoff), who became a regular character in 1985.

In addition to her earthly employer, Ethel is under the constant eye of her heavenly boss and their successors, who watch her every move—and her every mistake. Her first overseer, Mr. Divine (Lester Fletcher), kept a close eye on her. He was moved to another position in Heaven a few months after, and the very concerned but comical Lester Luster (Ronnie Schell) took over, followed by her ex-fiancé/con-man Jake (Michael DeLano), with the outrageous Stanley McCloud (Rip Taylor) taking over in the show's final years.

A few months after the show's beginning, a turning point occurred: Ethel's mission on Earth proved successful and she was ordered back to Heaven. Realizing how much the Prestons meant to her and vice versa, she begged Lester Luster to postpone her return to Heaven. Together, they created a deal that she would help him with any crises on Earth that he brought to her attention and that she would have to return to Heaven if she was unsuccessful.

Production notes
The series made several changes to its cast. Besides the ethereal bosses, it changed the earthly father as well, becoming the second series in which Dick Sargent replaced another actor in the same role.

The show's central characters were jointly created, and the core format was jointly developed, by Sam Harris, who collaborated with Arthur L. Annecharico to do so. Harris also wrote several episodes of the show.

In addition to having run on WTBS, Down to Earth also had subsequent runs on Good Life TV.

Reception
The Ocala Star-Banner called Down to Earth "one of the better sitcoms on the air nowadays".

Crew

 * Executive Producer: Arthur Annecharico
 * Producer: Rick Miner

title: Down to Earth (American TV series)


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Shatnez

Shatnez (or shaatnez, ; ) is cloth containing both wool and linen (linsey-woolsey), which Jewish law, derived from the Torah, prohibits wearing. The relevant biblical verses ( and ) prohibit wearing wool and linen fabrics in one garment, the blending of different species of animals, and the planting together of different kinds of seeds (collectively known as kilayim).

Etymology
The word is not of Hebrew origin, and its etymology is obscure. Wilhelm Gesenius's Hebrew Dictionary cites suggestions that derive it from Semitic origins, and others that suggest Coptic origin, finding neither convincing. The Septuagint translates the term as κίβδηλον, meaning 'adulterated'.

The Mishnah in tractate Kil'ayim (9:8), interprets the word as the acrostic of three words: שע 'combing', טוה 'spinning', and נז 'twisting'.

The Modern Hebrew word שעטנז means 'mixture'.

Interpretation
Early writers, like Maimonides, state that the prohibition was a case of the general law against imitating Canaanite customs. Maimonides wrote: "the heathen priests adorned themselves with garments containing vegetable and animal materials, while they held in their hand a seal of mineral. This you will find written in their books".

According to modern biblical scholars (and Josephus), the rules against these mixtures are survivals of the clothing of the ancient Jewish temple and that these mixtures were considered to be holy and/or were forfeited to a sanctuary. It may also be observed that linen is a product of a riverine agricultural economy, such as that of the Nile Valley, while wool is a product of a desert, pastoral economy, such as that of the Hebrew tribes. Mixing the two together symbolically mixes Egypt and the Hebrews. It also violates a more general aversion to the mixing of categories found in the Leviticus holiness code, as suggested by anthropologists such as Mary Douglas.

Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook suggested a Kabbalist interpretation that as shearing wool from sheep is "intellectually ... a form of theft," morally distinct from linen, the Torah distinguishes between them to instill a sensitivity towards animal welfare for their heightened status in a future elevated universe.

Definition of shatnez material
In the Torah, one is prohibited from wearing shatnez only after it has been carded, woven, and twisted, but the rabbis prohibit it if it has been subjected to any one of these operations. Hence felt made with a mixture of wool compressed together with linen is forbidden. Silk, which resembled wool, and hemp, which resembled linen, were formerly forbidden for appearance's sake, but were later permitted in combination with either wool or linen because they are now distinguishable. Hempen thread was thus manufactured and permitted for use in sewing woolen clothing.

Linen mixed with fibres produced by other animals (e.g., mohair or camel hair) is not shatnez. The character of threads spun from a mixture of sheep's wool with other fibres is determined by the majority; if only a minority of the fibre is sheep's wool it is not considered to be wool. Nonetheless, a mixture of any of these materials with linen is Rabbinically forbidden because of the prohibition on appearing as if you are breaking a religious law.

Kehuna clothing
Rabbinic Judaism maintains that shatnez was permitted in the case of the avnet (kohen's girdle), in which fine white linen was interwoven with purple, blue, and scarlet material. According to the rabbis, the purple, blue, and scarlet were made from wool and interwoven with the fine linen.

Karaite Judaism maintains that the purple, blue, and scarlet materials must also have been made of linen, since the Torah prohibits wearing garments made from combinations of wool and linen. The Torah does not state from what materials the purple, blue, and scarlet threads were made.

The phrase regarding the kohenim sons of Zadok, "they shall not gird themselves with any thing that causeth sweat" is interpreted in the Talmud to mean "they shall not gird themselves around the bent of the body, where sweat effuses most". Judah ha-Nasi was of the opinion that the girdle of the ordinary priest was of shatnez, but Eleazar ben Shammua says it was of fine linen. The Talmud states that the high priest wore a linen girdle on Yom Kippur and a girdle of shatnez on all other days.

Everyday tzitzit
Torah law forbids kil'ayim (shatnez) - "intertying" wool and linen together, with the two exceptions being garments of kohanim and tzitit. Concerning tzitzit, chazal permit using wool and linen strings in tandem only when genuine tekhelet is available, whereas kabbalist sources take it a step further by encouraging its practice.

Contact with shatnez
The Talmud argues that a woolen garment may be worn over a linen garment, or vice versa, but they may not be knotted or sewed together. Shatnez is prohibited only when worn as an ordinary garment, for the protection or benefit of the body, or for its warmth, but not if carried on the back as a burden or as merchandise. Felt soles with heels are also permitted, because they are stiff and do not warm the feet. In later times, rabbis liberalised the law, and, for example, permitted shatnez to be used in stiff hats.

Cushions, pillows, and tapestry with which the bare body does not touch do not come under the prohibition, and lying on shatnez is technically permitted. However, classical rabbinical commentators feared that some part of a shatnez fabric might fold over and touch part of the body; hence, they went to the extreme of declaring that even if only the lowest of 10 couch-covers is of shatnez, one may not lie on them.

Observance and enforcement of the shatnez law
Many people bring clothing to special experts who are employed to detect the presence of shatnez. A linen admixture can be detected during the process of dyeing cloth, as wool absorbs dye more readily than linen does. Wool can be distinguished from linen by four tests—feeling, burning, tasting, and smelling; linen burns in a flame, while wool singes and creates an unpleasant odor. Linen thread has a gummy consistency if chewed, due to its pectin content; a quality only found in bast fibers.

Observance of the laws concerning shatnez became neglected in the 16th century, and the Council of Four Lands found it necessary to enact (1607) a takkanah ("decree") against shatnez, especially warning women not to sew woolen trails to linen dresses, nor to sew a velvet strip in front of the dress, as velvet had a linen back.

Observant Jews in current times also follow the laws of shatnez, and newly purchased garments are checked by experts to ensure no forbidden admixtures are used. In addition to the above-mentioned methods, modern shatnez experts employ the use of microscopy to determine textile content. In most cases, garments that do not comply can be made compliant by removing the sections containing linen. Some companies label compliant products with "shatnez-free" tags.

Karaites and shatnez
Karaite Jews, who do not recognize the Talmud, forbid the wearing of garments made with linen and wool (and fibres from any plant and/or any animal) under any circumstances. It is even forbidden for one to touch the other.

title: Shatnez


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Living mulch

In agriculture, a living mulch is a cover crop interplanted or undersown with a main crop, and intended to serve the purposes of a mulch, such as weed suppression and regulation of soil temperature. Living mulches grow for a long time with the main crops, whereas cover crops are incorporated into the soil or killed with herbicides.

Other benefits of mulches are slowing the growth of weeds, and protecting soil from water and wind erosion. Some living mulches were found to increase populations of the natural enemies of crop pests. Legumes used as living mulches also provide nitrogen fixation, reducing the need for fertilizer.

Benefits
When cover crops are turned over into the soil, they contribute nutrients to the main crop so that less chemical fertilizer is required. The amount of the contribution depends on the biomass, which varies over time and depends on rainfall and other factors. The greater the biomass, the greater the nutrient turnover of land. Legume cover crops turn over nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere. Reports indicate that legumes in general have higher foliar nitrogen contents, from 20 to 45 mg g-1.

Bare soil resulting from intensive tillage can lead to soil erosion, nutrient losses, and offsite movement of pesticides. In addition, weeds can germinate and grow without competition. Living mulches can reduce water runoff and erosion, and protect waterways from pollution. Living mulches have also been shown to increase the population of organisms which are natural enemies of some crop pests.

Living mulches control weeds in two ways. When they are seeded before weed establishment, they suppress weeds by competition. In some situations, the allelopathic properties of living mulches can be used to control weeds. For example, the allelopathic properties of winter rye (Secale cereale), ryegrasses (Lolium spp), and subterrain clover (Trifolium subterraneum) can be used to control weeds in sweet corn (Zea mays var "rugosa") and snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris).

Populations of ground-dwelling predators were greater in a corn and soybean rotation with alfalfa and kura clover living mulches than without a living mulch. This situation was due in part to a change in the composition of vegetation in the agricultural system.

Drawbacks
Unfortunately, living mulches compete for nutrients and water with the main crop, and this can reduce yields. For example, Elkins et al. (1983) examined the use of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis), and orchargrass (Dactylis glomerata) as living mulches. They found that herbicides killed 50% to 70% of the mulches but corn yield was reduced 5% to 10% at the end of the harvest.

Although leguminous cover crops have large biomass production and turnover, they are not likely to increase soil organic matter. This is because legumes used as living mulches have greater N contents and a low C to N ratio. So when legume residue decomposes, soil microbes have sufficient N available to enhance their breakdown of organic materials in the soil.

Types
In the tropics, it is common to seed tree crops with living mulches such as legume covers in oil palm plantations, coconut and rubber.

In Mexico, legumes used traditionally as living mulches were tested as nematode and weed suppressors. The mulches included velvetbean (Mucuna pruriens) jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis), jumbiebean (Leucaena leucocephala) and wild tamarindo (Lysiloma latisiliquum). Aqueous extract of Velvetbean reduced the gall index of Meloidogyne incognita in the roots of tomato, but suppressed tomato rooting as well. In addition, Velvetbean suppressed the radical growth of the local weeds Alegria (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) by 66% and Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) by 26.5%.

Nicholson and Wien (1983) suggested the use of short turfgrasses and clovers as living mulches to improve the resistance soil compaction. These authors established Smooth Meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) and white clover (Trifolium repens) as living mulches since they did not cause reduction of yield corn (the accompanying main crop).

In one study, chewing fescue or red fescue (Festuca rubra) and ladino clover (Trifolium repens) were effective living mulches for controlling weed growth. Unfortunately, these cover crops also competed with corn for water which was particularly problematic during a dry period. The possibility of using ladino clover (Trifolium repens) as a potential living mulch was also mentioned; however, this clover was difficult to kill with herbicides in winter.

Management
Because they compete with the main crop, living mulches may eventually need to be mechanically or chemically killed.

It is important to judiciously select the appropriate herbicide rate for burning down a living mulch. In 1989, Echtenkamp and Moomaw found that herbicide rates were inadequate to suppress all the living mulches. Therefore, the mulches competed with the main crop for resources. In some cases, the clover could not be killed at the first herbicide application, so a second application was needed. For another treatment, rates that were so high that they caused the cover crop to be killed too rapidly, so that broadleaf weeds invaded the corn. This study suggested that the timing and dosage of herbicide should be carefully considered.

Living mulches were tested in a no-till corn-production systems with two methods for establishing grass and legume living mulches (grass and legume) between corn rows. In 1985, there was no difference between drilling and broadcasting seeds by hand in that study. However, in 1986, drilling resulted in higher populations (97 plants m-2) than broadcasting (64 plants m-2), likely because of precipitation levels. Precipitation should be considered because farmers have no control over it.

Beard (1973) recommended chewing fescue (red fescue) (Festuca rubra var "commutata" var "shadow FESRU") as a good living mulch because it adapts to the shady conditions under corn and soybean. This grass is also well adapted to dry and poor soils.

Plant nutrition
Legume cover crops have important positive effects on the nutrient cycling of tree crops. Leguminous living mulches work in three ways: Lehmann et al. (2000) measured the above ground biomass accumulation of Pueraria phaseoloides, which is a living mulch used in tropical tree crops. They found that Pueraria accumulated 8.8 metric ton of dm (dry matter) ha-1 as compared with 4.4 t dm ha−1 for Theobroma grandiflorum, and 1.4 t dm ha-1  for Bactris gasipaes. These latter two species are native cultivated species from the Amazon.
 * Fixing the atmospheric N2 that is important for the main crop,
 * Recycling soil nutrients, and
 * Enhancing soil nutrient availability for the main crop.

Control of erosion
Vegetative cover as living mulches protect soil against wind and water erosion. Plants should form a mantle or thick mulch that protect soil from detachment. Living mulches intercept raindrops and reduce runoff. The protection that such vegetation provides against wind is influenced mainly by the amount of biomass that covers the ground (differs with each spp), plant geometry and row orientation.

In one experiment, water runoff and soil loss on a 14% slope was compared for rototilled (RT), no-till with corn stover mulch (NT-CSM), no-till in CSM+ birdsfoot trefoil living mulch (NT-BFT) and no till in CSM and crownvetch living mulch (NT-CV). The results indicated that the water runoff was 6,350 L ha-1 for NT-BFT, 6,350 L ha-1 NT-CSM, 5,925 L ha-1 for NT-CV, and 145,000 L ha-1 for RT. The soil loss for the RT was 14.22 t ha-1 while with the other treatments it was less than 0.5 tons ha-1. The least soil loss was obtained with NT-CV 0.02 tons ha-1. The reduction of water runoff and erosion is one of the greatest advantages of having a cover crop. Soil can be easily eroded with no vegetative ground cover or plant residue. Ideally soil erosion should be less than 4 to 5 tons/ha/year.

Neutral articles

 * Living Mulch by Dr. Mary Peet, NCSU

Positive articles

 * Alfalfa living mulch advances biological control of soybean aphid
 * Why I Chose White Clover as a Living Mulch
 * Living Mulch System Improves Soil Health and Pest Management
 * Living Mulch Management - Balancing Crop & Cover - Article and many videos about applying on a farm or garden scale

Negative articles

 * Cucumber Production reduced yields

Videos

 * Living Mulch Sustainable Farming
 * Living Mulch Part 1 and Living Mulch Part 2

title: Living mulch


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Grand Bahama International Airport

Grand Bahama International Airport (GBIA) is an international airport in Freeport, Bahamas. It was privately owned until the government of the Bahamas purchased it in April 2021.

The airport was a joint venture between Hutchison Port Holdings (HPH) and The Port Group (or the Grand Bahama Port Authority). The facility also includes 741 acre of land that adjoins it to the Freeport Harbour Company Limited as they operate as one entity, known as the Sea Air Business Centre (SABC).

Facilities
The airport has a 3359 x runway which is capable of handling the largest aircraft in service and is relatively close to all major cities of the Eastern Seaboard of the United States.

Some other features that are available at the Grand Bahama International Airport are:

 * 1) PAPI (Precision approach path indicator) system
 * 2) Distance-remaining markers
 * 3) Category seven fire fighting facilities
 * 4) General aviation services
 * 5) Air conditioned passenger terminal (Set temp: 28 degrees C)

Accidents and incidents

 * On 12 November 1964, Lockheed Lodestar N171Q stalled after take-off and was destroyed by fire in the subsequent crash, killing all four people on board.
 * On 22 November 1966, de Havilland DH.125 N235KC of Florida Commuter Airlines crashed into the sea 7.3 km off Grand Bahamas during an illegal flight from Miami, Florida.
 * On 24 November 1979, Convair 440-86 N444JM of Mackey International Airlines was on an international non-scheduled passenger flight to Fort Lauderdale International Airport when the starboard engine caught fire just after take-off. On approach to Grand Bahamas International, the engine fell off. On landing, the aircraft departed the runway and ended up in the sea. All 46 people on board escaped from the aircraft.
 * On 12 September 1980, Douglas DC-3A N75KW of Florida Commuter Airlines, operating a scheduled international passenger flight from West Palm Beach International Airport, Palm Beach, Florida, United States to Grand Bahama International Airport crashed into the sea 6.5 km off West End. All 34 on board were killed.
 * On 20 July 2000, Douglas C-47A N54AA of Allied Air Freight suffered an engine failure on take-off from Grand Bahama International Airport on a cargo flight to Nassau International Airport, Bahamas. The aircraft crashed while attempting to return to Grand Bahama International and was destroyed. Both crew were killed.
 * On 9 November 2014, a Lear 36 Executive Jet crashed on approach to the airport. All nine people on board perished, including evangelist Myles Munroe and his wife.
 * On 7 February 2017, a Western Air Saab 340 passenger aircraft landing gear failed shortly after takeoff. The aircraft turned around and crashed landed at the airport. All 30 passengers survived and 2 sustained minor injuries.
 * From 1–3 September 2019, the airport was pelted by Hurricane Dorian, leaving the airport under six feet of water and heavily damaged.
 * On 24 October 2020, An American Eagle ERJ-145LR (N674RJ) operating as Envoy Air Flight 4194 from Miami to Freeport had a runway excursion upon landing. Nobody was injured in the crash. The aircraft had suffered main gear damage, and the left main broke off.

title: Grand Bahama International Airport


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Public utilities commission

A public utilities commission is a quasi-governmental body that provides oversight and/or regulation of public utilities in a particular area (locality, municipality, or subnational division), especially in the United States and Canada.

The utilities in question may be owned by the consumers that it serves, a mutual utility like a public utility district, a state-owned utility, or it may be a stockholder-owned utility either publicly traded on a stock exchange or closely held among just a few investors. These utilities often operate as legal monopolies, which means that they do not compete in a marketplace but are instead regulated by commissions to ensure fair pricing.

Canada
In Canada, a public utilities commission (PUC) is a public utility regulator, typically a semi-independent quasi-judicial tribunal, owned and operated within a municipal or local government system under the oversight of one or more elected commissioners. Its role is analogous to a municipal utility district or public utility district in the US.

Below are the PUCs in Canada: Former commissions in Ontario include:
 * Board of Commissioners of Public Utilities (Newfoundland and Labrador)
 * British Columbia Utilities Commission
 * Manitoba Public Utilities Board
 * New Brunswick Energy and Utilities Board
 * Nova Scotia Utility and Review Board
 * Ontario Energy Board
 * PEI Regulatory and Appeals Commission

 * Berlin Public Utilities Commission (1906–1916) in Berlin, Ontario
 * Brantford Public Utilities Commission (–2001) in Brantford, Ontario
 * Galt Public Utilities Commission (1962–1973) in Galt, Ontario
 * Kitchener Public Utilities Commission (1916–1973)

United States
In the United States, a public utilities commission (PUC), utilities commission, utility regulatory commission (URC), or public service commission (PSC) is a governing body that regulates the rates and services of a public utility, such as an electric utility. In some cases, government bodies with the title "public service commission" may be civil service oversight bodies, rather than utilities regulators.

The National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners is the national association representing the interests of the public utilities commissions in all 50 states. The Interstate Commerce Commission and Federal Communications Commission perform similar functions in their respective fields in the United States.

The first state utility regulator was the Public Service Commission of Wisconsin, founded in 1907 under Governor Robert M. La Follette to set minimum standards and regulate rates of monopoly utilities.

Other countries

 * Americas
 * Bahamas: Bahamas Public Utilities Commission
 * Belize: Belize Public Utilities Commission
 * Caribbean: Organisation of Caribbean Utility Regulators (OOCUR)
 * Chile: Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios de Chile
 * Costa Rica: Costa Rica Public Utilities Commission
 * Dominican Republic: c Utilities Commission
 * Others
 * France: Commission de Régulation de l'Energie
 * Ghana: Public Utility Regulation Council of Ghana (PURC)
 * Sri Lanka: Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka

title: Public utilities commission


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Tudor Revival architecture

Tudor Revival architecture, also known as mock Tudor in the UK, first manifested in domestic architecture in the United Kingdom in the latter half of the 19th century. Based on revival of aspects that were perceived as Tudor architecture, in reality it usually took the style of English vernacular architecture of the Middle Ages that had survived into the Tudor period.

The style later became an influence elsewhere, especially the British colonies. For example, in New Zealand, the architect Francis Petre adapted the style for the local climate. In Singapore, then a British colony, architects such as Regent Alfred John Bidwell pioneered what became known as the Black and White House. The earliest examples of the style originate with the works of such eminent architects as Norman Shaw and George Devey, in what at the time was considered Neo-Tudor design.

Tudorbethan is a subset of Tudor Revival architecture that eliminated some of the more complex aspects of Jacobethan in favour of more domestic styles of "Merrie England", which were cosier and quaint. It was associated with the Arts and Crafts movement.

Identification
Today, the term 'Tudor architecture' usually refers to buildings constructed during the reigns of the first four Tudor monarchs, between about 1485 and 1560, perhaps best exemplified by the oldest parts of Hampton Court Palace. The historian Malcolm Airs, in his study The Tudor and Jacobean Country House: A Building History, considers the replacement of the private castle by the country house as "the seat of power and the centre of hospitality" to be "one of the great achievements of the Tudor age". Subsequent changes in court fashion saw the emergence of Elizabethan architecture among the elite, who built what are now called prodigy houses in a distinctive version of Renaissance architecture. Elizabeth I herself built almost nothing, her father having left over 50 palaces and houses. Outside court circles styles were much more slow-moving, and essentially "Tudor" buildings continued to be built, eventually merging into a general English vernacular style.

When the style was revived, the emphasis was typically on the simple, rustic, and the less impressive aspects of Tudor architecture, imitating in this way medieval houses and rural cottages. Although the style follows these more modest characteristics, items such as steeply pitched-roofs, half-timbering often infilled with herringbone brickwork, tall mullioned windows, high chimneys, jettied (overhanging) first floors above pillared porches, dormer windows supported by consoles, and even at times thatched roofs, gave Tudor Revival its more striking effects.

History
Although the Gothic style remained popular in Britain well into the Renaissance and Baroque periods, by the end of the 16th century, it had subsided completely in the wake of classicism. While domestic and palace architecture changed rapidly according to contemporary taste, few notable churches were constructed after the Reformation; instead, old gothic buildings were retained and adapted to Protestant use. In contexts where conservatism and traditionalism had great value (e.g., within the Church of England and at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge) building additions and annexes were often designed to blend or harmonize rather than contrast with the archaic style of the older work. Christopher Wren's steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East (London,1668–71) and Tom Tower at Christ Church, Oxford (1681–82), and Nicholas Hawksmoor's Codrington Library and Front Quad at All Souls College, Oxford (1751) are the most notable examples of "Gothic survival" in the Baroque period.

As the last and most recent phase of the Gothic period, the Tudor style had the most secular survivals in 17th and 18th-century England; many older buildings were rebuilt, added to, or redecorated with ornament in the Tudor period. As such, the Tudor style had perhaps an over-sized influence on the image formed by the Georgians of their medieval past. Before the various phases of medieval architecture had been well identified and studied, and designers such as A.W.N. Pugin and George Gilbert Scott had advocated for the use of the Decorated gothic rather than the perpendicular, Tudor elements figured heavily in the early examples of the Gothic Revival. Horace Walpole's Strawberry Hill House at Twickenham (1749–76; designed in collaboration with Richard Bentley, John Chute, and James Essex) features elements derived from late gothic precedents.

In the group of nine cottages at Blaise Hamlet, built around 1810–1811 by a Bristol banker for his retired employees, John Nash demonstrated a remarkably forward-looking selective appropriation of Tudor vernacular architecture such as fancy twisted brick chimney-stacks to make picturesque and comfortable middle-class homes. Several have thatched roofs, some at two levels in a completely unnecessary but very picturesque way. Nash published an illustrated book on the group; this was a formula with a future. In contrast with Nash's Blaise Hamlet, Dalmeny House near Edinburgh, built in 1817 for Archibald Primrose, 4th Earl of Rosebery, is a large stately home in a revival of the early Tudor palace style, drawing in particular from East Barsham Manor in Norfolk, built c. 1520. At this time the style was known as "Old English", and considered especially appropriate for vicarages and rectories, partly because they were usually next to the church, which was likely to be Gothic, and because the larger windows patrons wanted were easier to work into the style than into a "pointed" Gothic. At this stage it was essentially a style for the country rather than houses in towns. Tudor style was "almost infinitely adaptable, particularly to low, spreading houses", After about 1850 "Old English" came to mean a rather different style based on vernacular architecture, although some Tudor features such as tall brick chimneys often remained.

Examples of the Tudor or Perpendicular Gothic period also influenced new institutional buildings beginning in the 1820s. The architect of Dalmeny, William Wilkins, followed the precedent of Wren and Hawksmoor in designing new quads for various Cambridge colleges in a historic mode including New Court, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (1822–27); Front Court, King’s College, Cambridge (1824–28); and New Court, Trinity College, Cambridge (1825). In a similar vein, Henry Hutchinson & Thomas Rickman contributed the New Court and Bridge of Sighs at St. John’s College, Cambridge (1826–31). St. Luke's, Chelsea by James Savage (1824) is one of the finest early revivalist church buildings in England and shows the influence of Perpendicular Gothic design.

20th century
In the early part of the 20th century, one of the exponents who developed the style further was Edwin Lutyens (1864–1944). At The Deanery in Berkshire, 1899, (right), where the client was the editor of the influential magazine Country Life, details like the openwork brick balustrade, the many-paned oriel window and facetted staircase tower, the shadowed windows under the eaves, or the prominent clustered chimneys were conventional Tudor Revival borrowings, some of which Lutyens was to remake in his own style, that already predominates in the dark recessed entryway, the confident massing, and his signature semi-circular terrace steps. This is Tudorbethan at its best, free in ground plan, stripped of cuteness, yet warmly vernacular in effect, familiar though new, eminently liveable. The Deanery was another example of the "naturalistic" approach; an anonymous reviewer for Country Life in 1903 wrote; "So naturally has the house been planned that it seems to have grown out of the landscape rather than to have been fitted into it". An example of Tudorbethan architecture was that seen at Greaves Hall, which was built in 1900 as a mansion house for the Scarisbrick family. Many of the features of the original building could still be seen until it was demolished in 2009.

Later came Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott (1865–1945) and Blair Imrie who made their names as Tudor style architects. Lutyens though took the style away from what is generally understood as Tudor Revival creating a further highly personalised style of his own. His buildings coupled with their often accompanying gardens by Gertrude Jekyll, while in a style thought of as "olde world" would not be recognisable to inhabitants of the 16th century. Another noted practitioner was George A. Crawley. A decorator and designer, rather than an architect, Crawley greatly expanded the original medieval hall house, Crowhurst Place in Surrey, firstly for himself and latterly for Consuelo Vanderbilt. The result, "remarkable in its own right", saw Crawley add extensions, chimneys, gables, linenfold panelling and large amounts of half-timbering. Martin Conway, writing in Country Life, considered Crawley's reconstruction gave the remains of the original manor, "a beauty far greater than was ever theirs in the days of its newness". Ian Nairn, Nikolaus Pevsner and Bridget Cherry, in the 1971 revised Surrey Pevsner Buildings of England, note the sense of escapism which inspired much of the Tudor Revival, calling Crowhurst, "an extreme example of the English flight from reality around the 1914-18 war".

Following the First World War many London outer suburbs had developments of houses in the style, all reflecting the taste for nostalgia for rural values. In the first half of the 20th century, increasingly minimal "Tudor" references for "instant" atmosphere in speculative construction cheapened the style. The writer Olive Cook had this debased approach firmly in her sights when she attacked, "the rash of semi-detached villas, bedizened with Tudor gables, mock half-timber work, rough cast and bay windows of every shape which disfigures the outskirts of all our towns". It was also copied in many areas of the world, including the United States and Canada. New York City suburbs such as Westchester County, New York and Englewood and Teaneck, New Jersey feature particularly dense concentrations of Tudor Revival construction from this period.

Brewery companies designed "improved" pubs, some in a mock Tudor style called Brewer's Tudor. The style was captured in John Betjeman's 1937 poem Slough, where "bald young clerks" gather:

"And talk of sport and makes of cars In various bogus-Tudor bars And daren't look up and see the stars."

The late 20th century has seen a change in the faithfulness of emulation of the style, since in a modern development it is common to have only a few basic floor plans for buildings, these combined with variations in interior surface treatment and in the exterior in rooflines and setbacks to provide a visual variety to the street view. Owing to the smaller lots employed in modern developments (especially in the Western US), Tudor Revival may be placed directly next to an unrelated style such as French or Italian Provincial, resulting in an eclectic mix. The style has also been deployed for commercial developments; the architectural historian Anthony Quiney describes the Broadway Centre in the London borough of Ealing, "dressed out with brick and tile, arches, gables and small window panes, all to put a smile on a friendly face - the mask of tradition".

21st century
Many British builders include variations on Tudorbethan in the range of styles they draw on, and the style tends to be associated with pastiche. Architects are rarely requested to work in the style, and though current postmodern architecture includes a much wider range of styles than the modernism associated with the mid-20th century, few architects are known for buildings which could be called "Tudorbethan".

In modern structures, usually on estates of private houses, a half-timbered appearance is obtained by applied decorative features over the "real" structure, typically wood stud framing or concrete block masonry. A combination of boards and stucco is applied to obtain the desired appearance, here seen in the upper image to the right. To minimise maintenance, the "boards" are now commonly made of uPVC faux wood, plastic or fibre reinforced cement siding with a dark brown or wood effect finish. In the United States, the style is often further modified by painting the timbers colors such as blue or green. The Tudor Revival style was most popular for new American homes in the 1970s and 1980s. Today, it is rarely considered for residential construction in that country as Italian, Mediterranean, and French villa style homes have superseded them in popularity.

Evolution
The Tudor Revival style was a reaction to the ornate Victorian Gothic Revival of the second half of the 19th century. Rejecting mass production that was introduced by industry at that time, the Arts and Crafts movement, closely related to Tudorbethan, drew on simple design inherent in aspects of its more ancient styles, Tudor, Elizabethan and Jacobean.

The Tudor style made one of its first appearances in Britain in the late 1860s at Cragside, a hilltop mansion of eclectic architectural styles that incorporated certain Tudor features; Cragside was designed by the architect Norman Shaw. Shaw sketched out the whole design for the "future fairy palace" in a single afternoon, while his client Lord Armstrong and his guests were out on a shooting party. Pevsner noted its derivation from "the Tudor style, both in its stone and its black-and-white versions". The half-timbering has been criticised as unfaithful to the vernacular tradition of the North-East of England, but the architectural historian Mark Girouard explained Shaw's picturesque motivation; desiring it for "romantic effect, he reached out for it like an artist reaching out for a tube of colour".

At approximately the same time, Shaw also designed Leyswood near Withyham in East Sussex, which was a large mansion around a courtyard, complete with mock battlements, towers, half-timbered upper facades and tall chimneys – all features quite readily associated with Tudor architecture; in Shaw's hands, this less fantastical style achieved immediate maturity. Confusingly, it was then promptly named "Queen Anne style", when in reality it combined a revival of Elizabethan and Jacobean design details including mullioned and oriel windows. The style later began to incorporate the classic pre-Georgian features that are generally understood to represent "Queen Anne" in Britain. The term "Queen Anne" for this style of architecture is now only commonly used in the USA. While in Britain the style remained closer to its Tudor roots, in the USA it evolved into a form of architecture not instantly recognisable as that constructed in either the Tudor or Queen Anne period. The style was also utilised for public buildings; an early example was the Great Hall and Library at Lincoln's Inn in central London, built in the late 1840s. The architect was Philip Hardwick, better known for the classical Euston Arch. The historian Michael Hall considers the hall and library among "the finest Tudor Revival buildings (of) the nineteenth century.

Tudorbethan
Tudorbethan represents a subset of Tudor Revival architecture; the word is modelled on John Betjeman's 1933 coinage of the "Jacobethan" style, which he used to describe the grand mixed revival style of circa 1835–1885 that had been called things like "Free English Renaissance". This was generally modelled on the grand prodigy houses built by the courtiers of Elizabeth I and James VI. "Tudorbethan" took it a step further, eliminated the hexagonal or many-faceted towers and mock battlements of Jacobethan, and applied the more domestic styles of "Merrie England", which were cosier and quaint. It was associated with the Arts and Crafts movement. Outside North America, Tudorbethan is also used synonymously with Tudor Revival and mock Tudor.

Half-timbering
From the 1880s onward, Tudor Revival concentrated more on the simple but quaintly picturesque Elizabethan cottage, rather than the brick and battlemented splendours of Hampton Court or Compton Wynyates. Large and small houses alike with half-timbering in their upper storeys and gables were completed with tall ornamental chimneys, in what was originally a simple cottage style. It was here that the influences of the arts and crafts movement became apparent.

Tudor Revival houses are dissimilar to the timber-framed structures of the originals, in which the frame supported the whole weight of the house. Their modern counterparts consist of bricks or blocks of various materials, stucco, or even simple studwall framing, with a lookalike "frame" of thin boards added on the outside to mimic the earlier functional and structural weight-bearing heavy timbers. An example of this is the "simple cottage" style of Ascott House in Buckinghamshire. This was designed by Devey for the Rothschild family, who were among the earliest patrons and promoters of this style. Simon Jenkins suggests that Ascott, "a half-timbered, heavily gabled, overgrown cottage, proves the appeal of Tudor to every era and condition of England". Devey's work at St Alban's Court and elsewhere incorporated other features of the Tudor Revival style such as "hung tiles and patterned brickwork". At St Alban's he also made use of rag-stone footings to create the impression of a Tudor mansion built "on the stone of medieval foundations".

Some more enlightened landlords at this time became more aware of the needs for proper sanitation and housing for their employees, and some estate villages were rebuilt to resemble what was thought to be an idyllic Elizabethan village, often grouped around a village green and pond; Mentmore in Buckinghamshire is an example of this, Pevsner noting the "Arts-and-Crafts (and) cottage orné" building styles. The Tudor Revival, though, now concentrated on the picturesque. This combined with a desire for "naturalness", an intention to make buildings appear as if they had developed organically over the centuries, which the architectural historian James Stevens Curl considered "one of the most significant of English contributions to architecture". An example is the "Tudor Village" constructed by Frank Loughborough Pearson for his client William Waldorf Astor at Hever Castle in Kent. Pearson went to considerable lengths to source genuine Elizabethan building materials for the cottages, including stone, tiles and bricks, leading Astor to comment; "I could not believe they had been built a few short months ago, they looked so old and crooked".

A very well-known example of the idealised half-timbered style is Liberty & Co. department store in London, which was built in the style of a vast half-timbered Tudor mansion. The store specialised, among other goods, in fabrics and furnishings by the leading designers of the Arts and Crafts movement.

Interiors
The interiors of the Tudor style building have evolved considerably along with the style, often becoming truer to the replicated era than were the first examples of the revival style, where the style "rarely went far indoors". At Ascott House, Devey's great masterpiece constructed throughout the last twenty years of the 19th century, the interior was remodelled thirty years later. The Tudor Revival style was considered passé and was replaced by the fashionable Curzon Street Baroque sweeping away the inglenook fireplaces and heavy oak panelling. the large airy rooms are in fact more redolent of the 18th century than the 16th. Cragside is slightly more true to its theme, although the rooms are very large, some contain Tudor style panelling, and the dining room contains are monumental inglenook, but this is more in the style of Italian Renaissance meets Camelot than Tudor. While in the cottages at Mentmore the interiors are no different from those of any lower middle-class Victorian small household. An example of a Tudor Revival house where the exterior and interior were treated with equal care is Old Place, Lindfield, West Sussex. The property, comprising an original house of c.1590, was developed by the stained glass designer Charles Eamer Kempe from the 1870s. The architect George Frederick Bodley described the rooms as "a series of pictures" and an article in Country Life asking whether "anything could be more English in character than Old Place", was written when much of the house was barely 10 years old.

In some of the larger Tudor style houses the Tudor great hall would be suggested by the reception hall, often furnished as a sitting or dining room. Large wooden staircases of several flights were often prominently positioned, based on Jacobean prototypes. It is this mingling of styles that has led to the term Jacobethan which resulted in houses such as Harlaxton Manor which bore little if any resemblance to a building from either period. Hall notes the influence of Burghley House and Wollaton Hall, "fused with ideas drawn from Continental architecture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries".

More often it is in the Tudor style houses of the very early 20th century that a greater devotion to the Tudor period is found, with appropriate interior layout, albeit coupled with modern-day comforts. This can be seen in older upscale neighbourhoods where the lots are sufficiently large to allow the house to have an individual presence, despite variations in the style of neighboring houses. Whether of older or recent origin, the appearance of solid beams and half-timbered exterior walls is only superficial. Artificially aged and blackened beams are constructed from light wood, bear no loads, and are attached to ceilings and walls purely for decoration, while artificial flames leap from wrought iron fire-dogs in an inglenook often a third of the size of the room in which they are situated. Occasionally, owners sought to replicate more closely the conditions of Tudor living; an example were the Moynes at Baliffscourt in West Sussex, a house which Clive Aslet describes as "the most extreme - and most successful - of all Tudor taste country houses". Lord Moyne's wife, Evelyn, a society hostess, employed the amateur architect Amyas Philips to create a house inspired by the medieval Baliffscourt Chapel which stood on the site. The cloister-like design required visitors to leave the house and access their bedrooms via external staircases. Chips Channon, the diarist and politician described the bedrooms themselves as "decorated to resemble the cell of a rather 'pansy' monk". The novelist E. F. Benson satirised the style in his book Queen Lucia; "the famous smoking-parlour, with rushes on the floor, a dresser ranged with pewter tankards, and leaded lattice-windows of glass so antique that it was practically impossible to see out of them...sconces on the walls held dim iron lamps, so that only those of the most acute vision were able to read".

General and cited references

 * Dean, Ptolemy, Architectural Britain, 2007. National Trust Books, ISBN 9781905400492
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Dean, Ptolemy, Architectural Britain, 2007. National Trust Books, ISBN 9781905400492
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Dean, Ptolemy, Architectural Britain, 2007. National Trust Books, ISBN 9781905400492
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Dean, Ptolemy, Architectural Britain, 2007. National Trust Books, ISBN 9781905400492
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Robinson, John Martin, Ascott, 2008, Scala Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1857595041
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033
 * Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, 1991 (8th edn., revised), Penguin, Pelican history of art, ISBN 0140560033

title: Tudor Revival architecture


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Risca (disambiguation)

Risca may refer to:

 * Risca, a town in Wales, United Kingdom
 * Risca, a character in Terry Brooks's Shannara series
 * Rişca, a village in Baia de Criş Commune, Hunedoara County, Romania

title: Risca (disambiguation)