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Berlin Hauptbahnhof

Berlin Hauptbahnhof (English: Berlin Central Station      ) is the main railway station in Berlin, Germany. It came into full operation two days after a ceremonial opening on 26 May 2006. It is located on the site of the historic Lehrter Bahnhof, and on the Berlin S-Bahn suburban railway. The station is owned by DB InfraGO, a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn AG, and is classified as a Category 1 station, one of 21 in Germany and four in Berlin, the others being Berlin Gesundbrunnen, Berlin Südkreuz and Berlin Ostbahnhof.

Lehrter Bahnhof (Lehrte Station) opened in 1871 as the terminus of the railway linking Berlin with Lehrte, near Hanover, which later became Germany's most important east–west main line. In 1882, with the completion of the Stadtbahn (City Railway, Berlin's four-track central elevated railway line, which carries both local and main line services), just north of the station, a smaller interchange station called Lehrter Stadtbahnhof was opened to provide connections with the new line. This station later became part of the Berlin S-Bahn. In 1884, after the closure of nearby Hamburger Bahnhof (Hamburg Station), Lehrter Bahnhof became the terminus for trains to and from Hamburg.

Following heavy damage during World War II, limited services to the main station were resumed, but then suspended in 1951. In 1957, with the railways to West Berlin under the control of East Germany, Lehrter Bahnhof was demolished, but Lehrter Stadtbahnhof remained as a stop on the S-Bahn. In 1987, it was extensively renovated to commemorate Berlin's 750th anniversary. After German reunification, it was decided to improve Berlin's railway network by constructing a new north–south main line, to supplement the east-west Stadtbahn. Lehrter Stadtbahnhof was considered to be the logical location for a new central station.

Location
The station is located in the Moabit district, in the Mitte constituency. To the north is Europaplatz and Invalidenstraße, and to the south is Washingtonplatz and the Spree. South of the station is the Spreebogenpark, the Bundeskanzleramt, and the Paul-Löbe-Haus. To the east is the Mitte district and the Humboldthafen.

Function
Berlin Hauptbahnhof is part of the mushroom concept in Berlin, in which the station forms a connecting point for converging and intersecting lines of different modes of public transport.

The station's length is 430 m, though some of the platforms are 80 m long.

Structurally, the entire station complex is a tower station, while operationally it is a crossing station similar to all central stations. The complex consists of several independent operating points:
 * Tracks 1 to 8 are underground and are used for regional and intercity services on the Berlin North–South mainline.
 * Tracks 9 and 10 are underground and will be used for the future S21 S-Bahn line.
 * Tracks 11 to 14 are elevated and are used for regional and intercity services on the Berlin Stadtbahn.
 * Tracks 15 and 16 are elevated and are used for S-Bahn services on the Stadtbahn.
 * Tracks U1 and U2 are separate from the main station and are used for U-Bahn line U5.

Building
The station building has two platform levels and three connecting and business levels. Compared to Raffles Place MRT station and Taipei main station, it is one of the most densely packed stations. The upper platform level serves the Berlin Stadtbahn and consists of six elevated tracks on four bridge structures, served by three island platforms 10 m high. The outer bridges carry one track each, while the inner bridges carry two each. The lower platform level serves the Berlin North–South mainline, and consists of eight underground tracks served by four island platforms 15 m deep. To the east are two tracks and an island platform serving U-Bahn line U5 (formerly line U55). Further to the east, a similar double track platform is being built as part of the S21 project.

The bridges carrying the Stadtbahn are approximately 680 m long, and span not only the station area, but also the adjacent Humboldthafen. Due to the way the Stadtbahn is aligned, they are curved, and due to the broadening from four to six tracks and the additional platforms, the total width has increased from 39 to 66 m wide. The Humboldthafen Bridge spans the Humboldthafen with a span of 60 m. It consists of a bow with steel tubes and pre-stressed concrete beam as upper flange.

The upper platform hall, which runs east–west, is 321 m long and consists of the arched, column-free, glass roof structure, which is supported by the two outer railway overpass structures. In the glass surface, a 2700 m2 photovoltaic system with a capacity of 330 kilowatts was integrated. The hall is between 46 and 66 m wide and a maximum of 16 m high. It consists of three sections, with the western segment 172 m and the eastern 107 m long. In between lies the 50 m wide and 180 m long north–south roof, whose barrel vaults with the main roof form a flat viaduct. Parallel to the north–south roof, the two "ironing structures" span the main roof of the platform hall and carry the north–south roof. These ironing structures contain 42000 sqm of office space.

On the northeastern part of the two diagonally opposite station terraces, the sculpture of Rolling Horse, erected in 2007 by Jürgen Goertz, artificially complements the building and is reminiscent to Lehrter Bahnhof and Lehrter Stadtbahnhof. There are integrated artificial elements, which can be viewed through four portholes.

From the southwestern terrace, it rises the disguised chimney located underneath the Tunnel Tiergarten Spreebogen.

During Cyclone Kyrill, on 18 January 2007, the 8.4 m long, 1.35 t horizontal strut 40 m high, crashed from the lattice-like exterior onto a staircase, onto the southwestern part of the building, another strut was torn from the anchorage. These decorative elements had only been hung up and should only hold their own weight. As a remedy, small sheets were placed above the carrier to prevent further carrier dissolution.

Lehrter Bahnhof from 1871 to 1958
Between 1868 and 1871, a 239 km railway was built between Hannover and Berlin via Lehrte by the Magdeburg Halberstädter railway company. Lehrter Bahnhof was constructed as the Berlin terminus. It was adjacent to Hamburger Bahnhof, just outside what was then Berlin's boundary at the Humbolthafen port on the river Spree. Its architects were Alfred Lent, Bertold Scholz, and Gottlieb Henri Lapierre.

In contrast to earlier railway stations, built with brick façades, and in keeping with then-current trends, Lehrter Bahnhof was designed in the French Neo-Renaissance style. Its originally planned stone façade was replaced with glazed tiles to save money. With its magnificent architecture, the station was known as a "palace among stations".

The train shed was 188 m long and 38 m wide. Its roof was a long barrel vault with steel supports. As was common for the period, the station was divided into an arrival side on the west, and a departure side on the east. Originally there were five tracks, four of which ended at the side and the central platform; the fifth track had no platform and served as a turnaround for the locomotives. At the turn of the century this track was removed to accommodate the widening of the central platform.

Although the front of the building was ornate and had a grand entrance, most passengers entered and left via the east side, where horse-drawn carriages were able to stop.

In 1882 the metropolitan railway, predecessor of the S-Bahn, began service along two of the Stadtbahn tracks; long-distance traffic commenced in 1884 along the other two. With the expansion of Lehrter Bahnhof, it was able to take over the functions of Hamburger Bahnhof. A 300 m connector line was built; on 14 October 1884, traffic towards Hamburg, northeast Germany, and Scandinavia was diverted to Lehrter Bahnhof, and Hamburger Bahnhof closed.

In 1886, the Berlin-Lehrte railway, and with it Lehrter Bahnhof, was nationalized and subsequently came under the control of the Prussian State Railways.

Even in its early years, the line was known as one of the country's fastest: in 1872, express trains could attain a speed of 90 km/h. 19 December 1932 marked the maiden voyage of the famous diesel-powered Fliegender Hamburger (Flying Hamburger), which whisked passengers to Hamburg at 160 km/h.

In the Second World War the station was severely damaged. After the war, the shell was repaired such that it could be used temporarily. During the late 1940s it became a frequent spot for Group of Soviet Occupation Forces in Germany soldiers to sexually assault passengers. However, the postwar division of Germany spelled the end for most of West Berlin's mainline stations. On 28 August 1951 the final train departed from Lehrter Bahnhof, heading for Wustermark and Nauen. On 9 July 1957 demolition began, and on 22 April 1958 the main entrance was blown up. The biggest challenge in the demolition of the station was to preserve the viaducts of the Stadtbahn, which ran directly overhead. Work was completed in the summer of 1959.

Lehrter Stadtbahnhof from 1882 to 2002
On 15 May 1882, Lehrter Stadtbahnhof opened, situated on the Stadtbahn viaduct at the northern end of Lehrter Bahnhof's concourse. This four-track station on the Stadtbahn was used mainly by suburban trains. The main purpose of the Stadtbahn was to connect central areas of Berlin with the Lehrter Bahnhof, the Schlesischer Bahnhof termini with nearby Charlottenburg, then still a separate city. It also provided an east–west railway connection across the centre of Berlin.

Because of steadily increasing traffic to Lehrter Stadtbahnhof and its location on a bridge crossing the north end of Lehrter Bahnhof, elaborate changes were made to the track structure in 1912 and again in 1929. On 1 December 1930, the newly electrified suburban trains were given the designation S-Bahn, making the Lehrter Stadtbahnhof an S-Bahnhof.

During the War, in April 1943 the station was bombed by the Polish sabotage and diversionary squad "Zagra-lin".

The Stadtbahnhof survived WWII intact, but came to lose its pre-war significance due to the division of Berlin; with Lehrter Bahnhof closed, the Stadtbahnhof served only a relatively underpopulated area near the border with East Berlin. It was the final stop in West Berlin; the next station, Berlin Friedrichstraße, was in East Berlin, although it served as a stop on the West Berlin S- and U-Bahn systems; these parts of the station were sealed off and inaccessible to East Berliners. The S-Bahn, like the mainlines leading to West Berlin, was run by the East German railway, the Deutsche Reichsbahn. The 1961 construction of the Berlin Wall further isolated the station, and led to a boycott of the S-Bahn in West Berlin that lasted until the 1980s, when operation of the West Berlin S-Bahn lines was transferred to the West Berlin transit authority, the BVG.

Berlin's 750th-anniversary celebration in 1987 saw the station, now under West Berlin control, renovated at a cost of about DM 10 million. Because it had largely been preserved in its original condition, it became a listed building.

However, in 2002, Lehrter Stadtbahnhof was demolished to make way for the new central station, despite its listed status. The argument was that Bellevue and Hackescher Markt stations were architecturally similar. Hackescher Markt, in former East Berlin, had been restored in 1994–1996, after German reunification.

Planning the new station
Soon after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, city planners began work on a transport plan for reunified Berlin. One element of this became the "Pilzkonzept" (mushroom concept), in which a new north–south railway line intersecting the Stadtbahn was to be constructed. The name derived from the shape formed by the new line and existing lines, which vaguely resembles a mushroom.

In June 1992 the federal government decided that the new station should be built on the site of Lehrter Bahnhof. While close to the centre of Berlin and government buildings, the area was still not heavily populated. The following year, a design competition for the project was held, which was won by the Hamburg architecture firm Gerkan, Marg and Partners.

The design called for five levels. The highest level, on a bridge 10 m above street level, was to have platforms for both long-distance and S-Bahn trains on the existing Stadbahn. The lowest level, 15 m underground, was to have platforms served by new tunnels to Potsdamer Platz under the Spree and the Tiergarten, forming a new north–south line running to the northern part of the S-Bahn ring around central Berlin. Platforms for the planned extension to U-Bahn line 5 were also included.

The planning approval for the station and the north–south connection was made on 12 September 1995. In 1997, a financing agreement was signed between Perleberger Straße and Spreebogen, between the federal government and the railway in the total amount of €700 million. The federal share amounted to €500 million. Any additional cost increases were supposed to be broken down according to a defined key.

New York-based Tishman Speyer Properties was commissioned by Bahn AG to develop the station. Execution planning and construction supervision were carried out by the Stuttgart engineering consultants Schlaich, Bergermann and Partner.

The Hauptbahnhof was planned to have platforms for the cancelled Transrapid maglev train at track 8. Later on, it was replaced by normal railway tracks.

Building the new station
The building work took place in several stages. In 1995 the construction of the Tiergarten tunnels began, and this work was finished in 2005 with the completion of the last station tunnel. The tunnels provide four tubes for long-distance and regional services and two tubes in a separate alignment for the U-Bahn, in addition to a road tunnel ventilated by a 60 m-high tower completed in 2004. During its construction, the course of the Spree had to be diverted (1996–1998). Water leaks in the tunnels caused over one year's delay to the construction work.

In 1998, the construction of the station proper began. About 1500000 m3 of material were excavated for the pits, which are 90000 sqm in total and about 20 m deep. In their place, 227000 m3 of concrete and 13,000 tons of steel reinforcement were installed. With 27 m-long buoyancy anchors (a total of 250 km) and 180 km of inclined anchors, the foundation was anchored against the buoyant pressure of groundwater (200 kilonewtons per square meter).

On 9 September 1998, the foundation stone was laid symbolically by Federal Minister of Transport Wissmann, railway director Ludewig and Berlin's governing mayor Eberhard Diepgen in the then 17 m-deep excavation pit. The commissioning date was in 2003. Construction costs were estimated at 800 million DM (€409 million). Over 50 million long-distance passengers and 86 million regional passengers were projected to use the station each year.

After groundwater had penetrated into the excavation pit as a result of a leak, the completion date was postponed in the spring of 1999. The incident necessitated a far-reaching change in the safety concept during the construction phase, in order to keep the groundwater lying about 3 m below the ground. Under the new schedule, the station's shell should have been finished in 2003, and trial operations should have begun in 2004. In the middle of 2001, commissioning for 2006 was expected.

Construction of the bridges for the new S-Bahn route began in 2001. These needed to span not only the entire length of the station, but also the adjacent Humboldthafen port, and are 450 m long. Because of the alignment of the S-Bahn they are curved, and each pair of tracks has a separate bridge. Bridges of this type had never been built before, and represented a special challenge for the Egyptian engineer Hani Azer, the chief construction engineer since 2001.

The main station hall is spanned by a similarly curved glass roof with a surface area of about 85 m by 120 m, which was installed in February 2002. A photovoltaic system was integrated into the glass surface. The steel and glass construction was a difficult task for the engineers, particularly as the glass roofs were shortened by approximately 100 m to speed up construction.

Over the first weekend of July 2002 the bridges and main station hall were brought into service so that traffic could be diverted onto the new alignment. The old Lehrter Stadtbahnhof S-Bahn station was closed and rapidly demolished to make way for further construction. On 9 September 2002 the station was renamed "Berlin Hauptbahnhof – Lehrter Bahnhof".

The main concourse, supported by two towers, provides roughly 44000 sqm of commercial space. Construction of the towers began in 2005. On two separate weekends, 29 July and 13 August 2005, structural frames were installed, supporting the structure above the east–west tracks. This was built using a new technique: the frames, each weighing 1250 t, were lowered by steel cables at a rate of 6 m per hour; the remaining 20 mm gap between the bow frames upon completion of the lowering process was subsequently closed.

During summer 2003 a survey commissioned by Peter Strieder, Berlin's Senator for City Development and Traffic, and Deutsche Bahn director Hartmut Mehdorn was conducted among Berlin residents with the intention of selecting a name for the station. Of the three possibilities listed on the survey, the majority of participants opted for Lehrter Bahnhof; nevertheless, the station remained "Berlin Hauptbahnhof – Lehrter Bahnhof", an option that was not listed. It was decided early in 2005 that the station would be renamed "Berlin Hauptbahnhof" on the date of its opening, 28 May 2006, to avoid confusing rail passengers. On the same day, Berlin Papestraße station, which was rebuilt as the city's second-largest station, opened officially under its new name, Berlin Südkreuz (South Cross), similar to the existing Ostkreuz and Westkreuz stations. It is also on the new north–south route. Although it was intended to open a further station as Berlin-Nordkreuz (North Cross), the name Berlin-Gesundbrunnen was retained for what became Berlin's fourth biggest railway station for commuter and long-distance trains, located in a more northern part of Berlin, where the circle and north–south-line of the S-Bahn cross each other.

In 2005 the bridging segments, which cross over the roof of the station, were lowered. This was the first time this unique method to build later office rooms was applied.

The architect Meinhard von Gerkan filed a complaint against Deutsche Bahn in October 2005 after Deutsche Bahn altered the station construction timeline without proper approval. The complaint was upheld in late 2006. There may therefore be further construction on the station in the future.

In addition, Deutsche Bahn decided to implement a slightly different version of the "Pilzkonzept" by running intercity trains through the new Tiergarten tunnels rather than via the Stadtbahn. This move was unpopular for its effect on Berlin's two previous main stations; Bahnhof Berlin Zoologischer Garten (Zoo Station) was downgraded to a regional railway station, and the number of mainline services to Berlin Ostbahnhof (East Station) was drastically reduced.

Opening ceremony
On 26 May 2006, the station was ceremonially opened by Chancellor Angela Merkel, who arrived together with transport minister Wolfgang Tiefensee in a specially chartered Intercity Express from Leipzig. A "Symphony of Light" was performed immediately following the dedication. Reamonn and BAP performed at the station, and there were also events at the other new stations: Gesundbrunnen, Potsdamer Platz and Südkreuz. Berlin Hauptbahnhof officially went into operation on 28 May 2006.

The opening ceremony was marred by an attack by a drunken 16-year-old wielding a knife, who stabbed members of the public leaving the ceremony. Forty-one people were wounded, six seriously, before the youth was arrested. According to police, the youth said he could not remember his act of violence and denied it. One of the first stabbing victims was HIV-positive, leading to worries that other victims may have been infected, although this did not prove to be the case. The youth was charged with attempted murder, and was sentenced to seven years in prison for attempted manslaughter in 33 cases in 2007.

Since opening
On 18 January 2007, two steel beams of the south-west façade were torn loose during European windstorm Kyrill. One of them, an 8.4 m-long beam weighing 1.35 t, dropped 40 m onto a staircase below, and the other impacted and damaged a third beam. The station had suffered some flooding and had been evacuated due to the complete cancellation of train service in Germany. Consequently, nobody was injured and the station was cleared for reopening the following day. The beams had not been welded or bolted in place but laid down like shelves in a bookcase. In the next days extra lugs were welded to the remaining beams to secure them in place and the station declared stormproof on 23 January.

The Berlin U-Bahn line U55 opened in August 2009, connecting Hauptbahnhof with the Brandenburger Tor station. In December 2020 the line was extended to Alexanderplatz and it became part of line U5.

The airport express line was connected to the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport in 2020. It still has a travel time of 30 minutes.

The rail bridge construction leading into the upper level of the station forms a curve, and some of the screws holding it in place have loosened. This required a €25 million reconstruction which involved the closure of the upper level rail tracks during a 3-month period in summer 2015.

In 2022, the train station became a key gateway for tens of thousands of refugees fleeing Ukraine and entering Germany. The station's basement became a makeshift processing point where refugees received supplies and directed to temporary accommodation or their next destination.

Operational usage
The upper level of the station has six tracks (two of which are used for the Berlin S-Bahn) served by three island platforms. The lower level has eight tracks served by four island platforms for main-line trains, plus a further island platform for the Berlin U-Bahn. The lower level is often denoted by 'tief' on travel guides, etc. (thus the calling point may be "Berlin Hbf (tief)"). There is no rail connection between the upper and lower level track in the station area (or anywhere else nearby). 1,800 trains call at the station per day and the daily number of passengers is estimated to be at 350,000.

The upper part of the station, with the east–west tracks, is part of the Berlin Stadtbahn, with trains leading to locations including Hanover and Cologne. The subterranean station, which lies in the north-south Tiergarten tunnel, offers long-distance services to Hamburg, Leipzig or Munich.

U-Bahn
The U-Bahn tracks are served by the U5, running from Hauptbahnhof to Hönow via Alexanderplatz. It was opened on 8 August 2009 as line U55, a shuttle to Brandenburger Tor via Bundestag, the only intermediate station. This line was operated as a single-track shuttle, and only one of the two platform tracks was used, the other being behind a metal fence, mounted in the ground. Construction of a 2.2 km connection to line U5 commenced in April 2010 and opened to the public on 4 December 2020. In the long term it is planned to extend the U5 from the main station towards the west to Turmstraße and Jungfernheide. Due to lack of funds from the state of Berlin, the northwestern continuation is not expected in the near future.

The underground station is in the second level of the main station, and east of the deep north–south train platforms (tracks 1–8). It has a central platform, which is covered with granite. To exit the platform are three stairs, an escalator and a lift. In addition, the station is equipped with tactile paving for accessibility.

The platform hall has a length of 140 m, 11 m, in height and 19 m in width. The wall cladding consists of enamel plates which are decorated with photographs of the former Berlin head stations. Furthermore, colored lighting illuminates the ceiling space above the platform.

Since it is the terminus of the U5, a short two-pronged branch railway was built to the north. One of the two sweeping tracks is located at a lockable manhole, through which the U-Bahn carriages can be replaced if necessary with a crane.

Zoning for the underground line U11 under the Invalidenstraße is provided for at the station, but construction of this line has not yet commenced.

Trams
In 2009, the approval process was started to build a tram track connecting Hauptbahnhof to the existing tram network. After some legal hurdles by residents, construction started in the spring of 2011. On 14 December 2014, line M5 was extended from S Hackescher Markt to Hauptbahnhof.

On 29 August 2015, lines M8 and M10 were also extended from S Nordbahnhof to Hauptbahnhof.

There are plans to extend the tram network and line M10 further to the west, to Turmstraße U-Bahn station on line U9.

Train services
The station is served by the following services:

title: Berlin Hauptbahnhof


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Watson, Australian Capital Territory

Watson is a suburb of Canberra, Australia in the North Canberra district. Watson is named after the third Prime Minister of Australia, John Christian Watson. The suburb name was gazetted on 7 April 1960. Streets in Watson are named after Australian judges and other legal professionals. Watson is bordered by the Federal Highway, Phillip Avenue and Antill Street. Traffic loads on these roads has increased significantly with the continued development of Gungahlin and studies suggest some areas will exceed capacity before 2021.

Features
Located in Watson is a local shopping centre and several schools, television studios and motels. The former Watson High School now houses the Canberra Technology Park which includes the Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) as a tenant. Rosary Catholic Primary School is located in Watson, as is the Signadou campus of the Australian Catholic University. There is also Majura Primary School (originally Watson Primary School) which is well known for its annual Spring Carnival.

One of Canberra's two former drive-in theatres, the Starlight Drive-in, was located on the Federal Highway in Watson. The site has now been redeveloped as a medium-density housing complex, although the drive-in's sign remains.

Also located in the suburb are Prime7 television studios, The Ted Noffs Foundation, the Academy of Interactive Entertainment, Canberra Carotel (motel and caravan park), Red Cedars motel, Hotel Ibis Budget, Canberra Potters Society, a C3 Church, YWAM (Youth with a Mission) and a BP service station. CTC-TV (now Southern Cross 10), was located in the suburb from 1974 until June 2020 when the Watson studios were demolished and the station relocated to Fyshwick.

Transport
Watson is serviced by ACTION bus routes R9 and 50. Antill Street is also serviced by route 53. Phillip Avenue is serviced by the Canberra Light Rail line which runs from Civic to Gungahlin Town Centre.

Geology
Calcareous shales from the Canberra Formation is overlain in places by Quaternary alluvium. This rock includes the limestone of the original title of Canberra "Limestone Plains".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Watson, Australian Capital Territory


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Kingdom of Serbia

The Kingdom of Serbia (Краљевина Србија) was a country located in the Balkans which was created when the ruler of the Principality of Serbia, Milan I, was proclaimed king in 1882. Since 1817, the Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty (replaced by the Karađorđević dynasty for a short time). The Principality, under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, de facto achieved full independence when the very last Ottoman troops left Belgrade in 1867. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, and in its composition Nišava, Pirot, Toplica and Vranje districts entered the South part of Serbia.

In 1882, Serbia was elevated to the status of a kingdom, maintaining a foreign policy friendly to Austria-Hungary. Between 1912 and 1913, Serbia greatly enlarged its territory through engagement in the First and Second Balkan Wars – Sandžak-Raška, Kosovo Vilayet and Vardar Macedonia were annexed. At the end of World War I in 1918 it united with Vojvodina and the Kingdom of Montenegro, and in December 1918 it merged with the newly created State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Kingdom of Yugoslavia) under the continued rule of the Karađorđević dynasty.

Principality of Serbia

The Principality of Serbia was a state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Despite brutal oppression and retaliation by the Ottoman authorities, the revolutionary leaders, first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović, succeeded in their goal to liberate Serbia after centuries of Turkish rule.

At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831–1833 it expanded to the east, south, and west. In the first decades of the principality, the population was about 85% Serb and 15% non-Serb. Of those, most were Vlachs, and there were some Turkicized Muslim Albanians, which were the overwhelming majority of the Muslims that lived in Smederevo, Kladovo and Ćuprija. The new state aimed to homogenize its population, especially after two Great Migrations of the Serbs also known as the Great Exoduses of the Serbs, in 1690 and in 18th century, between 1718 and 1739, from various territories under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, particularly the Kosovo Vilayet, to the Kingdom of Hungary under the Habsburg monarchy. As a result, from 1830 to 1876, it has been estimated that up to 150,000 Albanians that lived in the territories of the Principality of Serbia emigrated or were expelled.

In 1867 the Ottoman army garrisons retreated from the Principality, securing its de facto independence. Serbia expanded further to the south-east in 1878, when it won full international recognition at the Congress of Berlin.

After the 1877–1878 expansion, in the new areas (present-day Jablanica, Toplica and parts of Nišava District) an estimated 49,000–130,000 Albanians were expelled (Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878), settling mainly in Kosovo. These events marked the beginning of the Serbian-Albanian conflict.

Serbo-Bulgarian War, 1885
The Serbo-Bulgarian War erupted on November 14, 1885, and lasted until November 28 of the same year. The war ended in defeat for Serbia, as it had failed to capture the Slivnitsa region which it had set out to achieve. Bulgarians successfully repelled the Serbs after the decisive victory at the Battle of Slivnitsa and advanced into Serbian territory taking Pirot and clearing the way to Niš.

When Austria-Hungary declared that it would join the war on the side of Serbia, Bulgaria withdrew from Serbia leaving the Serbo-Bulgarian border precisely where it had been prior to the war. The peace treaty was signed on February 19, 1886, in Bucharest. As a result of the war, European powers acknowledged the act of Unification of Bulgaria which happened on September 6, 1885.

Balkan Wars and expansion

Negotiations between Russia, Serbia and Bulgaria led to the Serbian-Bulgarian Treaty of Alliance of March 1912, which aimed to conquer and to divide the Ottoman held Macedonia. In May, a Serbian-Greek alliance was reached and in October 1912, a Serbia-Montenegro alliance was signed.

After the war started, Serbia, together with Montenegro, conquered Pristina and Novi Pazar. At the Battle of Kumanovo Serbs defeated the Ottoman army and proceeded to conquer Skopje and the whole of Kosovo vilayet. The region of Metohija was taken by Montenegro. At Bitola and Ohrid Serbian army units established contact with the Greek army. Populations of ethnic Serbs and Albanians tended to shift following territorial conquests. As a result of the multi-ethnic composition of Kosovo, the new administrations provoked a mixed response from the local population. Serbs considered this a liberation.

On November 29, 1913, the Drač County of the Kingdom of Serbia was established on the part of the territory of Albania taken from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War. Serbian Drač County had four districts (срез): Drač (Durrës), Lješ (Lezhë), Elbasan and Tirana.

After the First Balkan War of 1912, territories of Kosovo and north-western Macedonia were internationally recognised as a part of Serbia and northern Metohija as a part of Montenegro at the Treaty of London of May 1913. In a report to Rome, Lazër Mjeda, Archbishop of Skopje, estimated that 25,000 Albanians were killed by Serbian forces during and after the conflict.

The old disagreements regarding the territory of Macedonia among the members of the Balkan League and primarily Serbia and Bulgaria, led to the Second Balkan War. Here, Serbia, Greece, Romania, the Ottoman Empire, and Montenegro fought against Bulgaria in 1913.

The final borders were ratified at the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913. Serbia came to control the land which became known as Vardar Macedonia, and today stands independent as the Republic of North Macedonia but land-locked Serbia was prevented from gaining access to the Adriatic Sea by the newly established Principality of Albania.

As the result of these wars, Serbia's population increased from 2.9 million to 4.5 million and territory increased by 81%.

Assassination in Sarajevo
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo (then part of Austria-Hungary) brought the tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia to a head. Behind the assassination in Sarajevo was the secret Serbian officers organization Black Hand. The assassins were supported by an "underground railroad" of Serbian civilians and military officers that provided transportation and hid them; members of the Serbian military that trained them, encouraged them, and provided weapons, maps, and other information. After the assassination, the conspirators were arrested in Bosnia-Herzegovina and tried in Sarajevo in October 1914.

The political objective of the assassination was to break the southern Slav provinces off from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a chain of international events that embroiled Russia and the major European powers in the conflict.

World War I
On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia.

In 1915 Serbia was occupied by foreign troops after a combined invasion by Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian troops. The 135,000 soldiers of the Serbian Army retreated through Albania and were evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu, and in spring, 1916, they became part of a newly formed Salonika front. In 1916, the Kingdom of Montenegro was conquered by Austria-Hungary.

At the end of the war and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Serbia experienced a loss of 28 percent of its pre-war population and went through radical changes after the liberation, all within days. On November 28, 1918, it absorbed the Kingdom of Montenegro at the Podgorica Assembly.

On December 1, 1918, Serbia united with the newly created State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs to form a new southern Slav state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The new country continued to be ruled by the Serbian monarchy when in August 1921 Prince Alexandar I became king.

Politics
In 1888 People's Radical Party led by Sava Grujić and Nikola Pašić came to power and a new constitution, based on the liberal Constitution of Belgium was introduced. The lost war and the Radical Party's total electoral victory were some of the reasons why King Milan I abdicated in 1889. His son Alexander I assumed the throne in 1893 and in 1894 dismissed the constitution.

Jews from modern-day North Macedonia got their citizen rights after the region became a part of Kingdom of Serbia.

May Coup, 1903
King Alexander I of Serbia and his unpopular wife Queen Draga were assassinated inside the Royal Palace in Belgrade on the night of 28–29 May 1903. Other representatives of the Obrenović family were shot as well. This act resulted in the extinction of the House of Obrenović, which had been ruling Serbia since 1817.

After the May Coup the Serbian Skupština invited Peter Karađorđević to assume the Serbian crown as Peter I of Serbia. A constitutional monarchy was created with the military Black Hand society operating behind the scenes. The traditionally good relations with Austria-Hungary ended, as the new dynasty relied on the support of the Russian Empire and closer cooperation with Kingdom of Bulgaria.

Pig war
In April 1904 the Friendship treaty and in June 1905 the customs union with Bulgaria were signed. In response Austria-Hungary imposed a Tariff War (Pig war) of 1906–1909. After the 1906 elections the People's Radical Party came to power. In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, where Serbia had hoped to expand its territory.

Bosnian Crisis
The Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909 (also referred to as the Annexation crisis) erupted into public view when on October 5, 1908, the Kingdom of Bulgaria declared its complete independence from Ottoman Empire and on October 6, 1908, when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was populated mainly by South Slavs.

Austria-Hungary had ambitions of imperialistic expansion and saw the Balkans in the same way that other colonial powers saw Africa or Asia. This idea was severely opposed by the Serbian public and intelligentsia, mainly gathered around Serbian Literary Herald (Srpski književni glasnik).

Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, the Kingdom of Italy, Serbia, the Principality of Montenegro, German Empire and France took an interest in these events. In April 1909, the 1878 Treaty of Berlin was amended to accept the new status quo and bringing the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on the one hand and Russia and Serbia on the other. The annexation and reactions to the annexation were some of the contributing causes of World War I.

Administrative division
In 1890, it was divided into 15 districts (okruzi) which were further divided into counties (srezovi). Cities of Belgrade and Niš had special administrative status. The districts were: Valjevo, Vranje, Kragujevac, Krajina, Kruševac, Morava, Pirot, Podrinje, Podunavlje, Požarevac, Rudnik, Timok, Toplica, Užice and Crna Reka.

In 1912 and 1913 Serbia enlarged its territory after victorious First Balkan War. In August 1913, 11 new districts were formed in the newly liberated areas: Bitola, Debar, Kavadarci, Novi Pazar, Kumanovo, Pljevlja, Prizren, Priština, Skopje, Tetovo and Štip.

Monarchs
During its existence, the Kingdom was ruled by two competing dynasties: the House of Obrenović and the House of Karađorđević. King Milan Obrenović ruled from 6 March 1882 to 6 March 1889, when he abdicated the throne. He was succeeded by his son, Aleksandar Obrenović, who ruled from 6 March 1889 to 11 June 1903, when he was killed by a group of officers. The slaughter of the royal couple (the king and Queen Draga) by the Black Hand shocked Europe. This opened the way for the descendants of Karađorđe (Karageorge), regarded by Serbs throughout the Balkans as the man who threw off the Turkish yoke, to return to the throne. Petar Karađorđević was initially reluctant to accept the crown, disgusted as he was by the coup d'état. However, he finally did accept and was the Kingdom's sovereign from 15 June 1903 to 1 December 1918, the day that the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed.

Cities
The largest cities in the Kingdom of Serbia were (with population figures from c. 1910–1912):

Transport
Serbia was geographically located in the path of several trade routes linking Western and Central Europe with Middle East. Morava Valley was in the strategically important terrestrial route that linked Central Europe with Greece and Constantinople. During the 19th century major efforts were made to improve the transport in this connections. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary helped Serbia to gain new territories, conditioning Serbia, however, to sign a new convention. The convention obliged Serbia to construct the railway line from Belgrade to Vranje and Turkish and Bulgarian borders in three years. In addition, the obligation to sign commercial contracts was imposed on Serbia, as well as a claim to carry out regulation works in Đerdap. Serbian Government approved this treaty by adopting the Law on Proclamation of the convention. Consequently, Serbian Railways were formed in 1881. The regular traffic on the railway line Belgrade–Niš started in 1884.

Culture
The Kingdom of Serbia participated in the International Exhibition of Art of 1911, with a number of artists showing their work as a part of the Serbian pavilion, including Marko Murat, Ivan Meštrović, Đorđe Jovanović and other artists.

title: Kingdom of Serbia


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Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)

The Kingdom of Croatia (Kraljevina Hrvatska; Regnum Croatiæ), or Croatian Kingdom (Hrvatsko Kraljevstvo), was a medieval kingdom in Southern Europe comprising most of what is today Croatia (without western Istria, some Dalmatian coastal cities, and the part of Dalmatia south of the Neretva River), as well as most of the modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croatian Kingdom was ruled for part of its existence by ethnic dynasties, and the Kingdom existed as a sovereign state for nearly two centuries. Its existence was characterized by various conflicts and periods of peace or alliance with the Bulgarians, Byzantines, Hungarians, and competition with Venice for control over the eastern Adriatic coast. The goal of promoting the Croatian language in the religious service was initially introduced by the 10th century bishop Gregory of Nin, which resulted in a conflict with the Pope, later to be put down by him. In the second half of the 11th century Croatia managed to secure most coastal cities of Dalmatia with the collapse of Byzantine control over them. During this time the kingdom reached its peak under the rule of kings Peter Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Demetrius Zvonimir (1075–1089).

The state was ruled mostly by the Trpimirović dynasty until 1091. At that point the realm experienced a succession crisis and after a decade of conflicts for the throne and the aftermath of the Battle of Gvozd Mountain, the crown passed to the Árpád dynasty with the coronation of King Coloman of Hungary as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, uniting the two kingdoms under one crown.

The precise terms of the relationship between the two realms became a matter of dispute in the 19th century. The nature of the relationship varied through time, with Croatia retaining a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility. Modern Croatian and Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of unequal personal union of two internally autonomous kingdoms united by a common Hungarian king.

Name
The first official name of the country was "Kingdom of the Croats" (Regnum Croatorum; Kraljevstvo Hrvata), but over the course of time the name "Kingdom of Croatia" (Regnum Croatiae; Kraljevina Hrvatska) prevailed. From 1060, when Peter Krešimir IV gained control over the coastal cities of the Theme of Dalmatia, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, the official and diplomatic name of the kingdom was "Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia" (Regnum Croatiae et Dalmatiae; Kraljevina Hrvatska i Dalmacija). This form of the name lasted until the death of King Stephen II in 1091.

Background
The Slavs arrived in southeastern Europe in the early 7th century and established several states, including the Duchy of Croatia. The Christianization of the Croats began soon after their arrival and was completed by the beginning of the 9th century. The rule over the duchy alternated between the rival Domagojević and Trpimirović dynasties. The duchy was rivaled by the neighbouring Republic of Venice, fought and allied with the First Bulgarian Empire, and went through periods of vassalage to the Carolingian Empire and the Byzantine Empire. In 879, Pope John VIII recognized Duke Branimir as an independent ruler.

Establishment
Croatia was elevated to the status of kingdom somewhere around 925. Tomislav was the first Croatian ruler whom the papal chancellery honoured with the title "king". It is generally said that Tomislav was crowned in 925, but it is not known when or by whom he was crowned, or, indeed, if he was crowned at all. Tomislav is mentioned as a king in two preserved documents published in the Historia Salonitana. First in a note preceding the text of the conclusions of the Council of Split in 925, where it is written that Tomislav is the "king" ruling "in the province of the Croats and in the Dalmatian regions" (in prouintia Croatorum et Dalmatiarum finibus Tamisclao rege),  while in the 12th canon of the Council conclusions the ruler of the Croats is called "king" (rex et proceres Chroatorum). In a letter sent by Pope John X, Tomislav is named "King of the Croats" (Tamisclao, regi Crouatorum). The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja titled Tomislav as a king and specified his rule at 13 years. Although there are no inscriptions of Tomislav to confirm the title, later inscriptions and charters confirm that his 10th century successors called themselves "kings". Under his rule, Croatia became one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Balkans.

Tomislav, a descendant of Trpimir I, is considered one of the most prominent members of the Trpimirović dynasty. Sometime between 923 and 928, Tomislav succeeded in uniting the Croats of Pannonia and Dalmatia, each of which had been ruled separately by dukes. Although the exact geographical extent of Tomislav's kingdom is not fully known, Croatia probably covered most of Dalmatia, Pannonia, and northern and western Bosnia. Croatia at the time was administered as a group of eleven counties (županije) and one banate (Banovina). Each of these regions had a fortified royal town.

Croatia soon came into conflict with the Bulgarian Empire under Simeon I (called Simeon the Great in Bulgaria), who was already in a war with the Byzantines. Tomislav made a pact with the Byzantine Empire, for which he may have been rewarded by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos with some form of control over the coastal cities of the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia and with a share of the tribute collected from them. After Simeon conquered the Principality of Serbia in 924, Croatia received and protected the expelled Serbs with their leader Zaharija. In 926, Simeon tried to break the Croatian-Byzantine pact and afterwards conquer the weakly defended Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia, sending Duke Alogobotur with a formidable army against Tomislav, but Simeon's army was defeated in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands. After Simeon's death in 927 peace was restored between Croatia and Bulgaria with the mediation of the legates of Pope John X. According to the contemporary De Administrando Imperio, the Croatian army and navy at the time could have consisted of approximately 100,000 infantry units, 60,000 cavaliers, and 80 larger (sagina) and 100 smaller warships (condura), but these numbers are generally taken as a considerable exaggeration. According to the palaeographic analysis of the original manuscript of De Administrando Imperio, the population of medieval Croatia was estimated at between 440,000 and 880,000 people, while the military force was most probably composed of 20,000–100,000 infantrymen and 3,000–24,000 horsemen organized into 60 allagions.

10th century
Croatian society underwent major changes in the 10th century. Local leaders, the župani, were replaced by the retainers of the king, who took land from the previous landowners, essentially creating a feudal system. The previously free peasants became serfs and ceased being soldiers, causing the military power of Croatia to fade.

Tomislav was succeeded by Trpimir II (c. 928–935) and Krešimir I (c. 935–945), who each managed to maintain their power and keep good relations with both the Byzantine Empire and the Pope. This period, on the whole, however, is obscure. The rule of Krešimir's son Miroslav was marked by a gradual weakening of Croatia. Various peripheral territories took advantage of unsettled conditions to secede. Miroslav ruled for 4 years when he was killed by his ban, Pribina, during an internal power struggle. Pribina secured the throne to Michael Krešimir II (949–969), who restored order throughout most of the state. He kept particularly good relations with the Dalmatian coastal cities, he and his wife Helen donating land and churches to Zadar and Solin. Michael Krešimir's wife Helen built the Church of Saint Mary in Solin that served as the tomb of Croatian rulers. Helen died on 8 October 976 and was buried in that church, where a royal inscription on her sarcophagus was found that called her "Mother of the Kingdom".

Michael Krešimir II was succeeded by his son Stephen Držislav (969–997), who established better relations with the Byzantine Empire and their Theme of Dalmatia. According to Historia Salonitana, Držislav received royal insignia from the Byzantines, together with the title of eparch and patricius. Also, according to this work, from the time of Držislav's reign his successors called themselves "kings of Croatia and Dalmatia". Stone panels from the altar of a 10th-century church in Knin with the inscription of Držislav, possibly when he was the heir to the throne, show that there was a precisely defined hierarchy regulating the matters of succession to the throne.

11th century
As soon as Stjepan Držislav had died in 997, his three sons, Svetoslav (997–1000), Krešimir III (1000–1030), and Gojslav (1000–1020), opened a violent contest for the throne, weakening the state and allowing the Venetians under Pietro II Orseolo and the Bulgarians under Samuil to encroach on the Croatian possessions along the Adriatic. In 1000, Orseolo led the Venetian fleet into the eastern Adriatic and gradually took control of the whole of it, first the islands of the Gulf of Kvarner and Zadar, then Trogir and Split, followed by a successful naval battle with the Narentines upon which he took control of Korčula and Lastovo, and claimed the title dux Dalmatiæ. Krešimir III tried to restore the Dalmatian cities and had some success until 1018, when he was defeated by Venice allied with the Lombards. The same year his kingdom briefly became a vassal of the Byzantine Empire until 1025 and the death of Basil II. His son, Stjepan I (1030–1058), only went so far as to get the Narentine duke to become his vassal in 1050. During the reign of Krešimir IV (1058–1074), the medieval Croatian kingdom reached its territorial peak. Krešimir managed to get the Byzantine Empire to confirm him as the supreme ruler of the Dalmatian cities, i.e., over the Theme of Dalmatia, excluding the theme of Ragusa and the Duchy of Durazzo. He also allowed the Roman curia to become more involved in the religious affairs of Croatia, which consolidated his power but disrupted his rule over the Glagolitic clergy in parts of Istria after 1060. Croatia under Krešimir IV was composed of twelve counties and was slightly larger than in Tomislav's time. It included the closest southern Dalmatian duchy of Pagania, and its influence extended over Zahumlje, Travunia, and Duklja. The župans (heads of counties) had their own private armies. The names of court titles in their vernacular form appear for the first time during his reign, such as vratar ("door-keeper") Jurina, postelnik ("chamberlain") and so on. The Roman Catholic Church reforms, which imposed a ban on the use of Slavonic liturgy and introduced Latin as obligatory, were confirmed by Pope Alexander II in 1063. This led to a rebellion in the kingdom by the counter-reform camp, primarily in the Kvarner region. While King Krešimir IV sided with the Pope, expecting a victory of the pro-Latin clergy, support for the counter-reform clergy was provided by Antipope Honorius II. The rebellion was led by a priest named Vulfo on the island of Krk. Although the rebels were quickly suppressed, Slavonic liturgy held out in the Kvarner region, as well as the use of Glagolitic script.

However, in 1072, Krešimir assisted the Bulgarian and Serb uprising against their Byzantine masters. The Byzantines retaliated in 1074 by sending the Norman count Amico of Giovinazzo to besiege Rab. They failed to capture the island, but did manage to capture the king himself, and the Croatians were then forced to settle and give away Split, Trogir, Zadar, Biograd, and Nin to the Normans. In 1075, Venice expelled the Normans and secured the cities for itself. The end of Krešimir IV in 1074 also marked the de facto end of the Trpimirović dynasty, which had ruled the Croatian lands for over two centuries.

Krešimir was succeeded by Demetrius Zvonimir (1075–1089) of the Svetoslavić branch of the House of Trpimirović. He was previously a ban in Slavonia in the service of Peter Krešimir IV and later the Duke of Croatia. He gained the title of king with the support of Pope Gregory VII and was crowned as King of Croatia in Solin on 8 October 1075. Zvonimir aided the Normans under Robert Guiscard in their struggle against the Byzantine Empire and Venice between 1081 and 1085. Zvonimir helped to transport their troops through the Strait of Otranto and to occupy the city of Dyrrhachion. His troops assisted the Normans in many battles along the Albanian and Greek coast. Due to this, in 1085, the Byzantines transferred their rights in Dalmatia to Venice. Zvonimir's kinghood is carved in stone on the Baška Tablet, preserved to this day as one of the oldest written Croatian texts, kept in the archæological museum in Zagreb. Zvonimir's reign is remembered as a peaceful and prosperous time, during which the connection of Croats with the Holy See was further affirmed, so much so that Catholicism would remain among Croats until the present day. In this time the noble titles in Croatia were made analogous to those used in other parts of Europe at the time, with comes and baron used for the župani and the royal court nobles, and vlastelin for the noblemen. The Croatian state was edging closer to western Europe and further from the east. Demetrius Zvonimir married Helen of Hungary in 1063. Queen Helen was a Hungarian princess, the daughter of King Béla I of the Hungarian Árpád dynasty, and was the sister of the future Hungarian King Ladislaus I. Zvonimir and Helen had a son, Radovan, who died in his late teens or early twenties. King Demetrius Zvonimir died in 1089. The exact circumstances of his death are unknown. According to a later, likely unsubstantiated legend, King Zvonimir was killed during a revolt in 1089.

There was no permanent state capital, as the royal residence varied from one ruler to another; five cities in total reportedly obtained the title of a royal seat: Nin (Krešimir IV), Biograd (Stephen Držislav, Krešimir IV), Knin (Zvonimir, Petar Snačić), Šibenik (Krešimir IV), and Solin (Krešimir II).

Succession crisis
Stephen II (reigned 1089–1091) of the main Trpimirović line came to the throne at an old age. Stephen II was to be the last king of the House of Trpimirović. His rule was relatively ineffectual and lasted less than two years. He spent most of this time in the tranquility of the Monastery of St. Stephen beneath the Pines near Split. He died at the beginning of 1091, without leaving an heir. Since there was no living male member of the House of Trpimirović, civil war broke out shortly afterward.

The widow of the late King Zvonimir, Helen, tried to keep power in Croatia during the succession crisis. Some Croatian nobles around Helen, possibly the Gusić family and/or Viniha from Lapčan family, contesting the succession after the death of Zvonimir, asked King Ladislaus I to help Helen and offered him the Croatian throne, which was seen as his by right of inheritance. According to some sources, several Dalmatian cities also asked King Ladislaus for assistance, and Petar Gusić with Petar de genere Cacautonem presented themselves as "White Croats" (Creates Albi), on his court. Thus the campaign launched by Ladislaus was not purely a foreign aggression nor did he appear on the Croatian throne as a conqueror, but rather as hereditary successor. In 1091 Ladislaus crossed the Drava river and conquered the entire province of Slavonia without encountering opposition, but his campaign was halted near the Gvozd Mountain (Mala Kapela). Since the Croatian nobles were divided, Ladislaus had some success in his campaign, yet he wasn't able to establish his control over the entirety of Croatia, although the exact extent of his conquest is not known. At this time the Kingdom of Hungary was attacked by the Cumans, who were likely sent by Byzantium, so Ladislaus was forced to retreat from his campaign in Croatia. Ladislaus appointed his nephew Prince Álmos to administer the controlled area of Croatia, established the Diocese of Zagreb as a symbol of his new authority and went back to Hungary. In the midst of the war, Petar Snačić was elected king by Croatian feudal lords in 1093. Petar's seat of power was based in Knin. His rule was marked by a struggle for control of the country with Álmos, who wasn't able to establish his rule and was forced to withdraw to Hungary in 1095.

Ladislaus died in 1095, leaving his nephew Coloman to continue the campaign. Coloman, as well as Ladislaus before him, wasn't seen as a conqueror but rather as a pretender to the Croatian throne. Coloman assembled a large army to press his claim on the throne and in 1097 defeated King Petar's troops in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain, where the latter was killed. Since the Croatians didn't have a leader any more and Dalmatia had numerous fortified towns that would be difficult to defeat, negotiations started between Coloman and the Croatian feudal lords. It took several more years before the Croatian nobility recognised Coloman as the king. Coloman was crowned in Biograd in 1102 and the title now claimed by Coloman was "King of Hungary, Dalmatia, and Croatia". Some of the terms of his coronation are summarized in Pacta Conventa by which the Croatian nobles agreed to recognise Coloman as king. In return, the 12 Croatian nobles that signed the agreement retained their lands and properties and were granted exemption from tax or tributes. The nobles were to send at least ten armed horsemen each beyond the Drava River at the king's expense if his borders were attacked. Despite the fact that the Pacta Conventa is not an authentic document from 1102, there was almost certainly some kind of contract or agreement between the Croatian nobles and Coloman which regulated the relations in the same way.

Unification

In 1102, after the succession crisis, the crown passed into the hands of the Árpád dynasty, with the crowning of King Coloman of Hungary as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd. The precise terms of the union between the two realms became a matter of dispute in the 19th century. The two kingdoms were united under the Árpád dynasty either by the choice of the Croatian nobility or by Hungarian force. Croatian historians hold that the union was a personal one in the form of a shared king, a view also accepted by a number of Hungarian historians,  while Serbian and Hungarian nationalist historians preferred to see it as a form of annexation. The claim of a Hungarian occupation was made in the 19th century during the Hungarian national reawakening. Thus in older Hungarian historiography Coloman's coronation in Biograd was a subject of dispute and their stance was that Croatia was conquered. Although these kinds of claims can also be found today, since the Croatian-Hungarian tensions are gone, it has generally been accepted that Coloman was crowned in Biograd as king. Today, Hungarian legal historians hold that the relationship of Hungary with the area of Croatia and Dalmatia in the period till 1526 and the death of Louis II was most similar to a personal union, resembling the relationship of Scotland to England.

According to the Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations and the Grand Larousse encyclopédique, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102, which remained the basis of the Hungarian-Croatian relationship until 1918, while Encyclopædia Britannica specified the union as a dynastic one. According to the research of the Library of Congress, Coloman crushed opposition after the death of Ladislaus I and won the crown of Dalmatia and Croatia in 1102, thus forging a link between the Croatian and Hungarian crowns that lasted until the end of World War I. Hungarian culture permeated northern Croatia, the Croatian-Hungarian border shifted often, and at times Hungary treated Croatia as a vassal state. Croatia had its own local governor, or Ban; a privileged landowning nobility; and an assembly of nobles, the Sabor. According to some historians, Croatia became part of Hungary in the late 11th and early 12th century, yet the actual nature of the relationship is difficult to define. Sometimes Croatia acted as an independent agent and at other times as a vassal of Hungary. However, Croatia retained a large degree of internal independence. The degree of Croatian autonomy fluctuated throughout the centuries as did its borders.

The alleged agreement called Pacta conventa (Agreed accords) or Qualiter (first word of the text) is today viewed as a 14th-century forgery by most modern Croatian historians. According to the document King Coloman and the twelve heads of the Croatian nobles made an agreement, in which Coloman recognised their autonomy and specific privileges. Although it is not an authentic document from 1102, nonetheless there was at least a non-written agreement that regulated the relations between Hungary and Croatia in approximately the same way, while the content of the alleged agreement is concordant with the reality of rule in Croatia in more than one respect.

The official entering of Croatia into a personal union with Hungary, later becoming part of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, had several important consequences. Institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained with the Sabor (parliament) and the ban (viceroy) in the name of the king. A single ban governed all Croatian provinces until 1225, when the authority was split between one ban of the whole of Slavonia and one ban of Croatia and Dalmatia. The positions were intermittently held by the same person after 1345, and officially merged back into one by 1476.

Union with Hungary
In the union with Hungary, the crown was held by the Árpád dynasty, and after its extinction, under the Anjou dynasty. Institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained through the Parliament (Sabor – an assembly of Croatian nobles) and the ban (viceroy) responsible to the King of Hungary and Croatia. In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles. Coloman retained the institution of the Sabor and relieved the Croatians of taxes on their land. Coloman's successors continued to crown themselves as Kings of Croatia separately in Biograd na Moru until the time of Béla IV. In the 14th century a new term arose to describe the collection of de jure independent states under the rule of the Hungarian King: Archiregnum Hungaricum (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen). Croatia remained a distinct crown attached to that of Hungary until the abolition of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918.

title: Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)


text:
Aberbargoed

Aberbargoed is a town in the County Borough of Caerphilly, Wales. Aberbargoed once contained the largest ever colliery waste tip in Europe, although this has now been reclaimed and turned into a country park. The town is within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire.

Toponymy
Aber refers to a "confluence" or "mouth" of a river and bargod is a "border".

Mining
Coal mining operations in Bargoed Colliery started in 1897 when the Powell Duffryn Steam Coal Company started to sink the shaft. In 1901, the "Ras Las" nine-foot seam was discovered at a depth of 625 yards. The north and south shafts were completed. In November 1903, Sir Alfred Thomas, MP for East Glamorgan, started the engines to raise the first four trams of coal. By 1910, the pit was employing 1,943 miners and was the largest coal mine in the Rhymney Valley. On 10 December 1908, it broke the world record for production when a ten-hour shift produced 3,562 tons of coal. It further broke its own record on 23 April 1909 when 4,020 tons were raised in a ten-hour shift. Bargoed Colliery closed on 4 June 1977. By this time, only 360 men were employed there.

Population
The population of Pont Aberbargoed was 351 in the census of 1851. Aberbargoed reached a peak in 1961 of 5,157, and had dropped to 3,882 according to the 1991 Census.

Modern day
The coal-mining waste tip that lay between Bargoed and Aberbargoed once towered to a height of 400 feet in the 1970s. The local school had a Plant a tree in '73 campaign in an attempt to make it more pleasurable on the eye. The tip has now been levelled and the area has been reclaimed with walkways. The colliery has gone and is now home to an ambulance station and various small industries. There are also developments with a new retail outlet in the area where the tip once stood.

The large tip at Bedwellty is still there, but has been grassed over and now looks much like the surrounding countryside. Aberbargoed now has an extensive area of grasslands that are protected due to the finding of the rare marsh fritillary butterfly, Euphydryas aurinia in the marshy area north of where Bedwellty School once stood. Recently the A469 Bargoed bypass was constructed through the park.

Notable people

 * Sir Harold Josiah Finch, politician
 * Geoff Eales, jazz pianist and composer, was born in Aberbargoed
 * Luke Evans, actor and singer
 * Listed on the War Memorial in the middle of the village is the name of Glyndwr Michael. His body, given the fictional name of "Major William Martin", was used in "Operation Mincemeat", a deception operation by British intelligence agencies during World War II to disguise the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily.

title: Aberbargoed


text:
Jasem Yaqoub

Jasem Yaqoub Sultan Al-Besara (جاسم يعقوب سلطان البصارة; born 25 October 1953 in Kuwait City) is a Kuwaiti former professional footballer. He represented the Kuwait national team at both the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 1982 FIFA World Cup.

title: Jasem Yaqoub


text:
X-Fusion

X-Fusion is a solo electronic music project by German musician, producer and DJ, Jan Loamfield known as Jan L.. Loamfield began releasing acid house tracks in 1988, and by 2000, had moved to harsh industrial/aggrotech. Loamfield has also released several albums under a side project, Noisuf-X.

Career
In 1988, Loamfield began producing music on a Commodore 64, in combination with organ sequences, before upgrading to better equipment. In 1991 his first demo tape, "Syndromic Noise", was released. This and its subsequent release are usually classified as hard trance. Loamfield soon began performing live at techno parties. His music after this point became darker, and evolved to aggrotech/dark electro. In 2003, he was signed by independent label Dark Dimensions/SCANNER, which marked the beginning of the X-Fusion project.

Loamfield used several neo-classical/orchestral goth elements in later releases, mixing industrial Aggrotech and Gothic Darkwave.

The 2004 album Beyond the Pale reached number 6 on the Deutsche Alternative Charts, and the 2007 album Rotten to the Core reached #16 for the year. In 2008, Vast Abysm went to #2, as did Ultima Ratio in 2009.

Noisuf-X
Noisuf-X is X-Fusion's side project launched in 2005, identified as power noise, with some techno-industrial and TBM influences. Noisuf-X has released 12 albums to date. The album Tinnitus peaked at #3 on the German Alternative Charts (DAC) and ranked #36 on the DAC Top Albums of 2006.

Albums

 * Evillive (2001)
 * Blackout (2002)
 * Dial D for Demons (2003)
 * Beyond the Pale (2004)
 * Demons of Hate (2005)
 * Rotten to the Core (2007)
 * Bloody Pictures (2007)
 * Choir of Damnation (2007)
 * Vast Abysm (2008)
 * Inner Exile MCD (2008)
 * Ultima Ratio (2009)
 * Thorn in My Flesh (2011)
 * What Remains is Black (2013)

Compilation albums

 * deCODEr v2.0
 * Endzeit Bunkertracks (3 acts)
 * Cryonica Tanz V.4

As Noisuf-X

 * Antipode (2005)
 * Tinnitus EP (2006)
 * The Beauty of Destruction (2007)
 * Voodoo Ritual (2009)
 * Excessive Exposure (2010)
 * Dead End District (2011)
 * Warning (2013)
 * Invasion (2014)
 * 10 Years of Riot (2015)
 * Kicksome(b)ass (2016)
 * Banzai (2017)
 * Invader (2018)

title: X-Fusion


text:
Underberg

Underberg is a digestif bitter produced at Rheinberg in Germany by Underberg AG. It is made from aromatic herbs from 43 countries that undergo inspections and are formulated based on a secret recipe of the Underberg family, whose members are personally responsible for the production of the drink. Underberg is one of the most widespread kräuterlikörs on the market. Underberg contains 1.3 percent herbal extract by weight and naturally occurring vitamin B1. The effects are known to subside digestive issues. The drink matures in Slovenian oak barrels for several months to enhance the taste. Underberg is classified under "food and drinks: oils, herbs and spices" in the United States and can be sold without any sort of liquor license.

History
On June 17, 1846, Hubert Underberg founded the company H. Underberg-Albrecht in Rheinberg in Germany, starting the manufacture and sale of Underberg, a specialty made with aromatic herbs. In 1884, Hubert Underberg began to export his product to Brazil. In 1932, the grandson of the founder, Dr. Paul Underberg moved to Brazil and began to manufacture the "Underberg do Brasil". This product made in the country with Brazilian herbs has become, over the decades, an original Brazilian specialty and henceforth bears the name Brasilberg from the house "Underberg do Brasil".

Underberg had its recipe guarded by the Underberg family since the company was founded by Hubert Underberg-Albrecht in 1846.

Production ceased in 1939 due to lack of raw materials and was restarted in December 1949. The drink is usually associated with its portion-sized 20 ml bottle, designed in 1949 by Emil Underberg, grandson of the founder. All of its elements, including shape of the bottle, color, packaging and the Underberg name are trademarked and copyrighted.

Notable fans of Underberg in the modern era include MF Doom, Amon Amarth, Chumlee, Thomas Lyons, and Setfive Consulting.

To promote the brand, the Underberg company rewards branded merchandise to its users after collecting a certain number of bottlecaps.

title: Underberg


text:
User:Daiju~enwiki

 jawp enwp kowp commons meta mediawiki

Daiju( 大樹, だいじゅ ) is a Wikipedian.

Activity in Wikipedia
Editing Japanese railroad, place-name, and so on.

2005/Apr.2nd:Participate in wikipedia.(Japanese)

2005/May.1st:Japanese Wikipedia account register.

2005/Aug.27th:English wikipedia account register.

2005/Sep.12nd:English wikipedia user name change(Daiju Hirayama to Daiju).

E-Mail, Record of my contribution

title: User:Daiju~enwiki


text: Category:Sphingidae

title: Category:Sphingidae


text:
Abercairny

Abercairny is an estate in the Scottish region of Perth and Kinross. It had the distinction of a short visit by Queen Victoria on 12 September 1842, when she wished to see the mansion house, then under construction. The estate, owned by the Moray family since the 13th century, is 4 mi east of Crieff. It is included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland.

title: Abercairny


text:
John Carey (critic)

John Carey, (born 5 April 1934) is a British literary critic, and post-retirement (2002) emeritus Merton Professor of English Literature at the University of Oxford. He is known for his anti-elitist views on high culture, as expounded in several books. He has twice chaired the Booker Prize committee, in 1982 and 2003, and chaired the judging panel for the first Man Booker International Prize in 2005.

Education and career
He was born in Barnes, London, and educated at Richmond and East Sheen Boys' Grammar School, winning an Open Scholarship to St John's College, Oxford. He has held posts in a number of Oxford colleges, and is an emeritus fellow of Merton, where he became a professor in 1975, retiring in 2002.

Literary criticism
Carey's scholarly work is generally agreed to be of the highest order and greatly influential. Among these productions is his co-edition, with Alastair Fowler, of the Poems of John Milton (Longman, 1968; revised 1980; 2nd ed. 2006); John Donne: Life, Mind, and Art (Faber and Faber, 1981; revised 1990), a revolutionary study of Donne's work in the light of his life and family history; and The Violent Effigy: A Study of Dickens's Imagination (1973; 2nd ed. 1991).

He has twice chaired the Booker Prize committee, in 1982 and 2004, and chaired the judging panel for the first Man Booker International Prize in 2005. Since 1977, he has been the chief book reviewer for the London Sunday Times and appears in radio and TV programmes including Saturday Review and Newsnight Review.

Views
He is known for his anti-elitist views on high culture, as expressed for example in his book What Good Are the Arts? (2005). Carey's 1992 book The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 was a critique of Modernist writers (particularly T. S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, W. B. Yeats, D. H. Lawrence and H. G. Wells) for what Carey argues were their elitist and misanthropic views of mass society; in their place he called for a reappraisal of Arnold Bennett, 'the hero of this book', whose 'writings represent a systematic dismemberment of the intellectuals' case against the masses'. In his review of the book Geoff Dyer wrote that Carey picked out negative quotations from his subjects, while Stefan Collini responded that disdain for mass culture among some Modernist writers was already well-known among literary historians.

Memoir
In 2014, he published a memoir The Unexpected Professor. It comprised distinct parts; childhood in wartime and the era of rationing, schooling, national service in the army; the academic career and scholarly study; his later period of book reviewing and literary journalism.

The early career described his first encounters with poetry, among them Milton, Jonson, Donne, Browning. The book contained crisp critical summaries of prose writers, among them Thackeray, Lawrence and Orwell.

Personal
Carey was born in April 1934 in Barnes, then on the Surrey/London border, the youngest of their four recorded children, to Charles W. Carey and Winifred E. Carey, née Cook. He was for decades a beekeeper.

Works

 * The Poems of John Milton (1968) editor with Alastair Fowler
 * Andrew Marvell: A Critical Anthology (1969) editor
 * The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner by James Hogg (1969) editor
 * John Milton (1969)
 * Complete Shorter Poems of John Milton (1971), revised 2nd edition (1997) editor
 * The Violent Effigy. A Study of Dickens' Imagination (1973) published in America as Here Comes Dickens. The Imagination of a Novelist. Republished in Faber Finds (2008)
 * John Milton, Christian Doctrine (1971) translator
 * Thackeray: Prodigal Genius (1977) republished in Faber Finds (2008)
 * English Renaissance Studies: Presented To Dame Helen Gardner In Honour Of Her Seventieth Birthday (1979)
 * John Donne: Life, Mind and Art (1981) new revised edition (1990) republished in Faber Finds (2008)
 * William Golding : The Man and His Books (1986) editor
 * Faber Book of Reportage (1987) editor. Published in America as Eyewitness to History, Harvard University Press, (1987)
 * Original Copy : Selected Reviews and Journalism 1969–1986 (1987)
 * John Donne. The Major Works (1990) editor, Oxford Authors, reprinted with revisions (2000) World's Classics
 * The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (1992)
 * Short Stories and the Unbearable Bassington by Saki (1994) editor
 * Faber Book of Science (1995) editor. Published in America as Eyewitness to Science: Scientists and Writers Illuminate Natural Phenomena from Fossils to Fractals, Harvard University Press, (1997)
 * Selected Poetry of John Donne (1998) editor
 * Faber Book of Utopias (2000) editor
 * Pure Pleasure: a Guide to the Twentieth Century's Most Enjoyable Books (2000)
 * George Orwell, Essays (2002) editor and introduction :xv-xxxi. Knopf
 * Vanity Fair by William Thackeray (2002) editor
 * What Good are the Arts? (2005)
 * William Golding: The Man Who Wrote 'Lord of the Flies'  (2009)
 * The Unexpected Professor: An Oxford Life in Books (2014)
 * The Essential 'Paradise Lost'  (2017)
 * A Little History of Poetry, Yale University Press (2020)
 * 100 Poets: A Little Anthology, Yale University Press (2021)
 * Sunday Best: 80 Great Books from a Lifetime of Reviews, Yale University Press (2022)

title: John Carey (critic)


text:
Ferry Boat Fred

Ferry Boat Fred is an Australian children's programme which was first broadcast in 1992 on ABC. The main character is a ferry on Sydney Harbour in Sydney, Australia named Fred, along with his older sister Kate, two other ferries, Lou and Bill, as well as Jean, a really jolly and colourful submarine. There is also his Captain, a Koala who is always found asleep behind Fred's wheel (due to koalas finding it difficult to stay awake all day). Fred has a voluntary deck hand named Pete, a "know-it-all" Pelican (also best known for his catchphrase, "No worries!") who befriends Fred and follows him around the harbour, assisting Fred and tying him up at Wallaby Wharf.

The show was a success during its limited run. It was created by Polka Dot Productions, a company set up by the Producer/Writer John Pye in 1992 with 25 episodes. John Pye, a model maker originally from Dagenham, London, England, grew up watching the classic British children's TV shows, Ivor the Engine and Noggin the Nog (made by Oliver Postgate's Smallfilms). Not only did Pye write the scripts and the incidental music but was also responsible for making most of the models. The entire series was filmed by Pye and three friends in a loft in the inner Sydney suburb of Surry Hills. The narrator is Jack Osborn, who also provides all the character voices. A revamp was being made as of 2015; however, has been put on indefinite hiatus due to serious medical issues that John Pye has.

Characters

 * Fred, a small yellow ferry, the main character.
 * Kate, a purple ferry, who is Fred's big sister.
 * Bill, a fast blue ferry.
 * Lou, a big red ferry.
 * Jean, a blue submarine.
 * Spikel an Echidna mechanic.
 * Pelican Pete, Fred's constant companion and Deckhand.
 * Koala, the captain of Fred who is always falling asleep.
 * Emily, an Emu who loves to shop around the harbour.
 * Belinda Brushtail, a brushtail possum who works as the lighthouse keeper during the night and always sleeps in the daytime.

Episode list

 * 1) Fred Meets Pete (30 March 1992)
 * 2) Fred's Birthday Party (31 March 1992)
 * 3) Fred's Sister Kate (1 April 1992)
 * 4) Fred Goes to the Doctor (2 April 1992)
 * 5) The Ferry Race (3 April 1992)
 * 6) Pete The Magician (6 April 1992)
 * 7) Belinda's Blown Bulb (7 April 1992)
 * 8) Kate's Lost Bell (8 April 1992)
 * 9) Major Mitchell's Washing (9 April 1992)
 * 10) Fred at the Fairground (10 April 1992)
 * 11) Jean the Submarine (13 April 1992)
 * 12) Pete's Nephew Percy (14 April 1992)
 * 13) Fred's Bad Dream (15 April 1992)
 * 14) Fred Joins a Band (16 April 1992)
 * 15) Fred and the Seagulls (17 April 1992)
 * 16) Fred the Floating Zoo (20 April 1992)
 * 17) Kate the Painter (21 April 1992)
 * 18) Kate's Fancy Dress Party (22 April 1992)
 * 19) Fred's Fishing Trip (23 April 1992)
 * 20) Night Time Noises (24 April 1992)
 * 21) Pete the Water Skier (27 April 1992)
 * 22) Kate at the Fairground (28 April 1992)
 * 23) Fred and the Whales (29 April 1992)
 * 24) Emily's Lost Shopping (30 April 1992)
 * 25) Fred Says Goodbye (1 May 1992)

Credits

 * Told by: Jack Osborn
 * Director of Photography: Lawrence Kirkwood
 * Production Design: James Sawars
 * Production Assistant: Paul Lockwood
 * Models Made and Filmed at: Modelcraft Pty Ltd
 * Music: John Pye
 * A.B.C. Associate Producer: Glen Daly
 * Editor: Neela Sarkar
 * Sound Effects: Ian Neilson
 * Telecine: John Galbrath & Walter Pilarski
 * Special Thanks: Lynn Gallay, Bert Deling, Matthew Roche, Steve Mosley
 * Created, Written and Produced by: John Pye
 * Director: Mark Osborn

Merchandise

 * The series also had a few merchandising products including a book called "The Great Race" which featured the episodes "The Ferry Race" and "Night Time Noises" combined, several T-shirts, a music album on CD and cassette which featured the theme song and songs performed by various Australian children's performers such as George Spartels, Franciscus Henri and Gillian Eastoe, two videos which only include 17 of the 25 episodes and a spoken word cassette containing 11 episodes including the two episodes "Major Mitchell's Washing" and "Belinda's Blown Bulb" which were never released on video.

International Broadcasts

 * In Ireland, the series was broadcast on RTÉ2 as part of their programming block for children The Den.
 * In Portugal, the series was broadcast on RTP and was known as "Um Ferry chamado Fred".
 * In New Zealand, the series was broadcast on FTN.

title: Ferry Boat Fred


text:
Verulam

Verulam may refer to:

People

 * Baron Verulam
 * Earl of Verulam

Places

 * Verulam, KwaZulu-Natal
 * Verulam Township, Ontario
 * Common abbreviation of Verulamium, third-largest city in Roman Britain, near modern-day St Albans

Other

 * Radio Verulam, a community radio station in West Hertfordshire
 * HMS Verulam (ship)
 * Verulam School, state secondary school in St Albans, England

title: Verulam


text:
Hume, Australian Capital Territory

Hume is a suburb of Canberra, and is adjacent to the District of Jerrabomberra in New South Wales.The suburb is named after the explorer Hamilton Hume and streets are named after Australian industrialists and businessmen. Hume is a light-industrial suburb and there is no significant housing development. At the, Hume had a population of 395, up from six in 2006, as a result of the construction of the Alexander Maconochie Centre. The location of the prison has also given Hume a highly unusual gender ratio with 92.7% of the permanent population being male.

Geology
Deakin Volcanics from the Silurian period underlie Hume. Cream and purple rhyodacite are found in the south and including Tralee, New South Wales. A mixture of purple and green tuff, ashstone, shale, and coarse sandstone is in the north east. Coarse dark purple rhyodacite is in the north end near Queanbeyan turn off.

title: Hume, Australian Capital Territory


text:
Neil Hawke

Neil James Napier Hawke (27 June 1939 – 25 December 2000) was an Australian Test cricketer and leading Australian rules footballer.

Early years
Born in Cheltenham, South Australia, Hawke quickly developed as a natural all-round sportsman who excelled in cricket, football and golf.

Cricket
Hawke made an impact on the cricket field as a medium-fast swing bowler with an unusual "crab-like'" action, a capable lower-order batsman and a sound fieldsman. He made his first-class cricket debut for Western Australia in November 1959, scoring 89 and returning the figures of 0/49. However, Hawke failed to capitalize on this initial success and returned to South Australia at the end of the 1959/60 cricket season.

His cricket also developed enough for him to make his Test debut on 15 February 1963 in the Fifth Ashes Test against England at the Sydney Cricket Ground, scoring 14 and recording match figures of 2/89.

Hawke was a member of the 1963/64 Sheffield Shield winning South Australian team, and toured England (where he qualified for the British amateur golf championship and became Fred Trueman's 300th Test victim), India and Pakistan in 1964 and the West Indies in 1965. The West Indies tour found Hawke in top form as he took 24 wickets at 21.83 in the Test series, including match figures of 10–115 in the third Test at Bourda Cricket Ground, Georgetown, Guyana, as well as making his highest score, an unbeaten 45 at Sabina Park, Jamaica.

Back in Australia Hawke was the top wicket taker in the 1965–66 Ashes series, taking 16 wickets (26.18) with Garth McKenzie also taking 16, but at the higher average of 29.18. In the Third Test at Sydney England reached 308/2 before Hawke had Colin Cowdrey, M.J.K. Smith, Dave Brown and Jim Parks all caught behind by Wally Grout in succession, and his 7/105 was his best bowling in Tests, but Australia still lost by an innings. In the second innings of the Fourth Test at Adelaide Hawke took 5/54, reducing England to 32/3 and 266 all out as Australia won by an innings to draw the series.

Hawke's football career ended in 1966 when he dislocated his right shoulder. A screw was inserted in the point of the shoulder, which not only forced him to retire from football but also greatly affected his bowling. Nonetheless, he played home series against South Africa, Pakistan and India and toured South Africa in 1966–67 and England in 1968, where he played his final Test at Lord's. He finished his career after 27 Tests, 365 runs at 16.59, 91 wickets at 29.41 and a statement by his former Test captain, Richie Benaud, declaring Hawke as one of the finest medium-pace bowlers he had seen.

Hawke began playing in the Lancashire League, first for Nelson and then East Lancashire and moved to Launceston, Tasmania to become coach of the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association. He continued to play in the Lancashire Leagues until 1974 before returning to Adelaide where he worked as a sports journalist and cricket commentator.

Australian rules football
Hawke made his senior Australian rules football debut for South Australian National Football League (SANFL) club Port Adelaide in August 1957. Hawke stamped himself as a future champion when in his third game he kicked 15 goals for Port against South Adelaide before being surprisingly dropped two weeks later.

Hawke quit Port at the end of 1957 to try his hand in Western Australia and made his West Australian National Football League (WANFL) debut in 1958 for East Perth Football Club, playing 42 matches and kicking 157 goals in two seasons with the Royals, including East Perth's 1958 and 1959 premierships. Hawke topped the WANFL's goalkicking list in 1959 with 114 goals, represented Western Australia against South Australia and gained local fame for apparently being the first footballer to perfect the drop punt over a long distance. Previously, the drop punt was only used over short distances on wet days but Hawke's innovation was said to have revolutionised the game in Western Australia.

Playing for West Torrens Football Club in the SANFL and South Australia in the Sheffield Shield, Hawke continued to star in both football and cricket. Hawke was part of the 1963 South Australian football team that defeated Victoria at the Melbourne Cricket Ground; the first time South Australia had won at the MCG since 1926, and in so doing became the first (and still the only) person to have represented both South Australia and Western Australia in Australian Rules football and cricket.

Later years
In July 1980, Hawke ate some peanuts which precipitated a total blocking of his bowel, requiring surgery. During surgery, infection set in and spread rapidly through his body, leading to multiple organ failure. Over the next two years Hawke suffered twelve cardiac arrests, gangrene, had a further thirty operations and was drip fed over that period. His survival was considered a medical marvel by doctors and he was the subject of study by researchers on how long a patient could be drip fed. In 1990, Hawke suffered heart failure and then blood poisoning, central nervous system damage, cirrhosis of the liver and later contracted Hepatitis B and C before a brain dysfunction in 1996 severely impaired his speech and led to severe bouts of depression.

In his final years the former hellraiser Hawke became a born again Christian and joined the evangelical church.

He died in Adelaide on Christmas Day, 2000, aged 61, survived by his third wife Beverley and a daughter, Janet, from his first marriage. Tributes poured in from throughout the sporting world: on day two of the 2000 Boxing Day Test, the Australian players wore black armbands as a mark of respect; the South Australian Government created the Neil Hawke Scholarship for young sportspeople and obituaries claimed that he was the finest all-round sportsman South Australia had produced.

title: Neil Hawke


text:
Abercanaid

Abercanaid (Abercannaid) is a small village in the county borough of Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan, Wales, United Kingdom with a population of about 5,060. It is situated 2.5 mi south of Merthyr town centre and is west of Pentrebach, across the River Taff and north of Troedyrhiw. The Taff Trail runs through the village, adjacent to the path of the disused Glamorganshire Canal, which was an important in transporting iron and coal during the industrial boom in which the South Wales Valleys prospered.

It forms part of three villages in the Plymouth Electoral Ward, along with Pentrebach and Troedyrhiw.

History and amenities
Most of the Housing Estate was built in 1860 to sustain the collieries. The Waun Wyllt colliery was opened as a level mine in 1824 and was later renamed the Abercanaid Colliery. Gethin Colliery was located close to the canal and was sunk in 1849. There were two serious accidents at the colliery where 47 men and boys died on 19 February 1862 and another 34 on 20 December 1865

The village has three public houses, The Colliers Arms, The Richards Arms and Llywnyreos Inn respectively. The Richards Arms boast the football side for the village, whereas The Colliers Arms and Llywnyreos are more notable for their involvement in local league darts. At one time, Abercanaid had a total of seven pubs: the aforementioned three, The Duffryn Arms, The White Hart, The Glamorgan Arms and The Gethin Inn.

The Glamorganshire Canal passed along the edge of the Village. This was constructed around 1800 and fell into decline following the construction of the railways and eventual became disused. Abercanaid was one of the stations on the Quakers Yard and Merthyr Railway. The line and the Station became disused in the 1960s and now the village is served by the nearby Pentrebach Train Station. Chapel Street was so named because of the three chapels that once stood in it, the only existing one left being the Zion Chapel on the corner of Cardiff Street. Graig Chapel was demolished in the late 1990s, being replaced by houses. The local church is St. Peter and Paul.

Work began on construction of a new, modern school, known as Abercanaid Community School in October 2001. The school is situated on the site of Abercanaid Park and is run by long-time headteacher Mike Sullivan. The school officially opened on 22 January 2003. The school acts as a feeder school to Afon Taf High School, Cyfarthfa High School and Bishop Hedley High School.

A famous ex-pupil of the school is Petula Clark, who spent sometime as a child in the village living with family. She returned to Abercanaid on 24 January 2007 as part of the BBC series, 'Coming Home' and was greeted by the pupils including Robyn Williams who performed a selection of songs for her, including her own hit-song Downtown.

Another former Abercanaid pupil and resident is synth, FX and sampler Lyndon Jones of the now disbanded band Midasuno.

Gethin Pit disaster
The Gethin Pit, was established in 1849, when sunk by William Crawshay II. The Pits' remains can be found two and a half miles from Merthyr Tydfil, situated next to the Merthyr Canal. Gethin Pit was a supplier of coal for Crawshay's other business ventures. Two major mining disasters occurred at Gethin Pit, one in 1862 and another in 1865. The disasters, although seen as dangerous in the modern day perspective, were a regular occurrence in the 19th century. At the time of the disaster which occurred in 1862, the mine was being managed by John Moody and various others such as his Son (Thomas Pearson Moody). Thomas Thomas, the fireman who ran the safety checks of the mine. reported: “All is right, but there is a little gas in John Jones’ heading, "No.20 about 10 yards back from the face there had been a bit of a fall above the timbers and gas was lodged there."

Cause
This disaster occurred in Pit 1 at Gethin Pit 1.

One of the potential causes for the disaster was a build-up of gases, which eventually met with the naked flame. Due to the size of the pit, it was seriously lacking ventilation. Therefore, when the built up gases hit the naked flame; It ignited the gas causing the explosion in Pit 1. The insufficiency of the ventilation as well as the poor design of the Pit, for example, with not enough air pits (as pictured below), contributed to the increased risk and probability of a gas explosion. The cause of the explosion is known as firedamp, as mentioned in the Gethin Colliery Account.

Official Inquiry
In the Inquiries of the disasters of 1862 and 1865, there is evidence of negligence against the colliery's manager, John Moody. The Inquiry into the 1862 disaster took 9 days. On both accounts the presence of poor ventilation, fire-damp and the irresponsible use of naked flames for lighting are found as the root causes of the explosions. Detailed inquest can be found in the 1863 (103) Gethin Colliery accident. Copy of report of Mr. John Kenyon Blackwell on the subject of the accident at Gethin colliery, South Wales, in the early part of 1862. Information from eyewitnesses of the court inquiries and the disasters can be found in Cardiff and Merthyr newspapers.

John Moody, after testifying, was acquitted of 2 charges, however he was found guilty of manslaughter by the jury. Later, a grand jury heard the evidence and produced the verdict of "No true bill".

The colliery today
As it stands today, there is no memorial or marker for the remains of the pit, as disasters like this were not out of the ordinary at the time period at question. This was evident due to the fact that in 1865 another disaster took place for the same reasons and once again John Moody was again acquitted of manslaughter at the trial.

Notable people

 * Petula Clark — singer, actress, and composer.
 * Lyndon Jones — Sample, FX and synthesiser player in the band Midasuno

title: Abercanaid


text:
Talk:Mig Ayesa

Untitled
Shouldn't this page redirect to Miguel Ayesa? -Lunar Jesters 09:29, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

I resized the image for resolution and aesthetic reasons (the picture almost took up as much space as the article itself). Khirad 06:41, 25 September 2005 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Mig Ayesa


text:
Making Out (TV series)

Making Out is a British television series, shown by the BBC between 6 January 1989 and 12 November 1991.

The series, created by Franc Roddam, and written by Debbie Horsfield, mixed comedy and drama in its portrayal of the women who worked on the factory floor at New Lyne Electronics in Manchester, tackling the personal lives of the characters as well as wider issues of recession, redundancy and retrenchment as the factory goes through various crises and takeovers.

The music for the series was composed by New Order (The Other Two in final episodes). The main theme for the show is an adaptation of the song "Vanishing Point". There is a specific mix of this song called the Making Out Mix.

In September 2023, the series was made available on BBC iPlayer.

The girls

 * Queenie (Margi Clarke), the fiery Scouse ring-leader of the women.
 * Pauline (Rachel Davies), the union shop steward for the women.
 * Jill (Melanie Kilburn), a new girl at the factory who starts work in the first episode.
 * Donna (Heather Tobias), a middle-class woman who is desperate for a baby with her husband.
 * Ariadne, known as "Klepto" (Moya Brady), a young woman bullied by her Greek Orthodox family.
 * Carol May (Shirley Stelfox)

The factory

 * Rex (Keith Allen), a randy boss at the factory who is having an affair with Carol May.
 * Norma (Tracie Bennett), an ambitious, efficient company secretary.
 * Bernie (Alan David), a supervisor of the women on the shop floor.
 * Simon (Gary Beadle), the only man on the floor, romantically attached to "Klepto".

The blokes

 * Chunky (Brian Hibbard), Queenie's no-good petty criminal husband.
 * Ray (Tim Dantay), Jill's husband who eventually leaves her and their kids for another woman, a dimwitted hairdresser called Rosie (Jane Hazlegrove).
 * Frankie (John Forgeham), Pauline's husband.
 * Colin (David Hargreaves), Carol May's husband.
 * Gavin (John Lynch), a footballer with whom Jill starts a relationship after her husband walks out on her.
 * Gordon (Jonathan Barlow), Donna's Building Society manager husband.

Series 1
Broadcast Friday evenings on BBC1 at 9:30pm

The series was repeated on BBC2 on Saturday evenings at 9:35pm from 6 January to 3 March 1990.

Series 2
Broadcast Tuesday evenings on BBC1 at 9:30pm

Series 3
Broadcast Tuesday evenings on BBC1 at 9:30pm

title: Making Out (TV series)


text:
Panic Broadcast

Panic Broadcast may refer to:

 * The War of the Worlds (radio drama)
 * The Panic Broadcast, a 2010 album by Soilwork

title: Panic Broadcast