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Clive Caldwell

Clive Robertson Caldwell, (28 July 1911 – 5 August 1994) was the leading Australian air ace of World War II. He is officially credited with shooting down 28.5 enemy aircraft in over 300 operational sorties, including an ace in a day. In addition to his official score, he has been ascribed six probables and 15 damaged. Caldwell flew Curtiss P-40 Tomahawks and Kittyhawks in the North African Campaign and Supermarine Spitfires in the South West Pacific Theatre. He was the highest-scoring P-40 pilot from any air force and the highest-scoring Allied pilot in North Africa. Caldwell also commanded a Royal Air Force (RAF) squadron and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) wings. His military service ended in controversy, when he resigned in protest at the misuse of Australian First Tactical Air Force's fighter units and was later court martialed and convicted for trading liquor.

Early life
Caldwell was born in the Sydney suburb of Lewisham, and educated at Albion Park School, Sydney Grammar School and Trinity Grammar School. He was at Sydney Grammar School from June 1924 until May 1927, but did not complete his Leaving Certificate there (he rowed in the 4th IV and was a member of the Games Committee). He learned to fly in 1938 with the Royal Aero Club of New South Wales. He was employed as a commission agent when World War II broke out, and he joined the Citizen Air Force division of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) on 27 May 1940, with the intention of becoming a fighter pilot. As he was over the age limit for fighter training, Caldwell persuaded a pharmacist friend to alter the details on his birth certificate to July 1912. He was accepted by the RAAF and joined the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS; also known as the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan and similar names).

Middle East and North Africa

Caldwell's first, brief combat posting was a British Hurricane unit, No. 73 Squadron, Royal Air Force, in the early stages of the North African campaign. He had gained only a few operational hours when he was transferred to No. 250 Squadron RAF as it converted to the new P-40 Tomahawk, one of the first units in the world to operate P-40s. According to some accounts, on 6 June 1941, Caldwell as Flying Officer Jack Hamlyn's wingman, was involved in the P-40's first ever kill, of an Italian CANT Z.1007 bomber, over Egypt. However, the claim was not officially recognised. (Hamlyn and Sergeant Tom Paxton scored the first official kill two days later, another CANT.) Soon afterwards, Caldwell served with the squadron over Syria and Lebanon.

After struggling to acquire the skill of gunnery deflection, Caldwell developed a training technique, known as "shadow shooting", in which he fired at the shadow of his own aircraft on the desert surface. This was later widely adopted by the Desert Air Force.

The squadron returned to North Africa. On 26 June 1941, while escorting bombers attacking Gazala, Libya, Caldwell destroyed an aircraft in air-to-air combat for the first time, during his 30th sortie. He downed a German Messerschmitt Bf 109E, piloted by Leutnant Heinz Schmidt of I gruppe, Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27—Fighter Wing 27), over Capuzzo, he followed this claim with a 'half share' of a Bf 110 on III./ZG 26 and 2 Ju 87s of II./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG 2—Dive Bomber Wing 2) on 30 June.

On 4 July 1941, Caldwell saw a German pilot shoot and kill a close friend, Pilot Officer Donald Munro, who was descending to the ground in a parachute. This was a controversial practice, but was nevertheless common among German and Allied pilots. One biographer, Kristin Alexander, suggests that it may have caused Caldwell's attitude to harden significantly. Months later, press officers and journalists popularised Caldwell's nickname of "Killer", which he disliked. One reason for the nickname was that he too shot enemy airmen after they parachuted out of aircraft. Caldwell commented many years later: "... there was no blood lust or anything about it like that. It was just a matter of not wanting them back to have another go at us. I never shot any who landed where they could be taken prisoner." (In later life, Caldwell said that his thoughts often turned to one Japanese airman or passenger, who survived Caldwell's last aerial victory but could not be rescued.) A more commonly cited reason for the nickname was his habit of using up ammunition left over at the end of sorties, to shoot up enemy troop convoys and vehicles. During his war service, Caldwell wrote in a notebook: "it's your life or theirs. This is war."

While flying to his base alone, over northwest Egypt on 29 August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, in a simultaneous approach at right angles. His attackers included one of Germany's most famous aces, Leutnant Werner Schröer, also of JG 27, in a Bf 109E-7. Caldwell sustained three separate wounds from ammunition fragments and or shrapnel. His Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 7.92 mm bullets and five 20 mm cannon shells, but he shot down Schröer's wingman, and heavily damaged Schröer's "Black 8", causing Schröer to disengage. Suitable claim for that day 29.08.41	Ltn. Werner Schroer (6.) of 1./JG 27,	Curtiss P-40	N.W. Sidi Barrani	at 18.10	(Film C. 2036/II Nr.81357/42). On 23 November, Caldwell shot down an Experte, Hauptmann Wolfgang Lippert, Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) of II./JG 27, who bailed out. Lippert had struck the stabiliser and following capture had his legs amputated but 10 days later, a gangrene infection set in and he died on 3 December. For this action, Caldwell was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Caldwell claimed five Junkers Ju 87 (Stuka) dive bombers in a matter of minutes on 5 December. For this he was awarded a Bar to his DFC. His report of that action reads:

"I received radio warning that a large enemy formation was approaching from the North-West. No. 250 Squadron went into line astern behind me and as No. 112 Squadron engaged the escorting enemy fighters we attacked the JUs from the rear quarter. At 300 yards I opened fire with all my guns at the leader of one of the rear sections of three, allowing too little deflection, and hit No. 2 and No. 3, one of which burst into flames immediately, the other going down smoking and went into flames after losing about 1000 feet. I then attacked the leader of the rear section...from below and behind, opening fire with all guns at very close range. The enemy aircraft turned over and dived steeply... opened fire [at another Ju 87] again at close range, the enemy caught fire...and crashed in flames. I was able to pull up under the belly of one of the rear, holding the burst until very close range. The enemy... caught fire and dived into the ground."

The citations for both the original DFC and the Bar were published in the same issue of the London Gazette, a supplement to that of 23 December 1941, dated 26 December 1941. The first citation described Caldwell as continuing to "take his toll of enemy aircraft" and that "he personally shot down 5 of the enemy's aircraft bringing his total victories to 12." The second that he "has performed splendid work in the Middle East operations", "shown dogged determination and high devotion to duty which have proved an inspiration to his fellow pilots", and that after receiving "wounds on his face, arms and legs...he courageously returned to the attack and shot down one of the hostile aircraft." Michael Balss, in his book Deutsche Luftwaffe Losses & Claims, notes the discrepancy between the claim by 112 Squadron of five Ju 87 destroyed when the Luftwaffe lost only one, with two killed from I./StG 3, and a second of I./StG 1 being severely damaged (50%) with crew unhurt, both at Gubi.

On 24 December 1941, Caldwell was involved in an engagement which mortally wounded another Luftwaffe ace, Hpt. Erbo Graf von Kageneck (credited with 69 air victories) of III./JG 27. Caldwell only claimed a "damaged" at the time, but postwar sources have attributed him with the kill.

In January 1942, Caldwell was promoted to squadron leader and given command of No. 112 Squadron RAF, becoming the first EATS graduate to command a British squadron. 112 Sqn at that time included several Polish aviators, and this was why Caldwell was later awarded the Polish Krzyż Walecznych (KW; "Cross of Valour").

Caldwell scored another striking victory in February 1942, while leading a formation of 11 Kittyhawks from 112 Sqn and 3 Sqn. Over Gazala, he sighted a schwarm of Bf 109Fs flying some 2,000 ft higher. Caldwell immediately nosed into a shallow dive, applied maximum power and boost, then pulled his Kittyhawk up into a vertical climb. With his P-40 "hanging from its propeller," he fired a burst at a Bf 109 flown by Leutnant Hans-Arnold Stahlschmidt of I./JG 27, who was lagging behind the others. Stahlschmidt's fighter "shuddered like a carpet being whacked with a beater" before spinning out of control. Although the Kittyhawk pilots thought that the Bf 109 had crashed inside Allied lines, Stahlschmidt was able to crash-land in friendly territory.

When Caldwell left the theatre later that year, the commander of air operations in North Africa and the Middle East, Air Vice Marshal Arthur Tedder described him as: "[a]n excellent leader and a first class shot". Caldwell claimed 22 victories while in North Africa flying P-40s, including ten Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s. He had flown some 550 hours in over 300 operational sorties.

While on a tour of the United States, Caldwell visited Curtiss-Wright in Buffalo, New York. On 6 August 1942, he was invited to come on an acceptance re-flight of a Curtiss C-46 Commando, the latest transport aircraft destined for overseas use. The aircraft was also loaded with Curtiss executives, and flown by Chief Production Test Pilot Herbert O. Fisher. The landing gear became stuck in a three-quarters down position, and after an extended eight-hour attempt to release the gear, Fisher calmly belly-landed the C-46. With the weight of the aircraft gently pushing the gear back into the wheel wells, a minimum of damage resulted. Caldwell had taken over as the co-pilot on the eight hours of circling over Buffalo, receiving certification that he was checked out on the C-46, under the tutelage of Fisher. Finishing his tour at Curtiss-Wright, Caldwell went on to visit the North American Aviation factory and was able to personally evaluate their new P-51 fighter, then in development.

South West Pacific
During 1942, Australia came under increasing pressure from Japanese forces, and Caldwell was recalled by the RAAF, to serve as the wing leader of No. 1 (Fighter) Wing, comprising No. 54 Squadron RAF, No. 452 Squadron RAAF and No. 457 Squadron RAAF. The wing was equipped with the Supermarine Spitfire and in early 1943 was posted to Darwin, to defend it against Japanese air raids.

Caldwell claimed two kills in his first interception sortie over Darwin, a Mitsubishi A6M Zero (also known by the Allied codename "Zeke") fighter and a Nakajima B5N "Kate" light bomber. The Spitfire pilots found Japanese fighter pilots reluctant to engage Allied fighters over Australia, due to the distance from their bases in the Dutch East Indies. The wing initially suffered high losses, due to the inexperience of many of its pilots, and teething mechanical problems with their newly "tropicalised" Mark VC Spitfires. This was viewed with concern by high commanders, to such extent that the Allied air commander in the South West Pacific, Major General George Kenney, considered sending the wing to the New Guinea campaign, and returning US Fifth Air Force fighter units to Darwin.

Caldwell scored what was to be his last aerial victory, a Mitsubishi Ki-46 "Dinah" of the 202nd Sentai, over the Arafura Sea on 17 August 1943. He claimed a total of 6.5 Japanese aircraft shot down.

Later in 1943, Caldwell was posted to Mildura, to command No. 2 Operational Training Unit (2OTU). He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in November 1943. By 1944, with the Japanese forces retreating north, Caldwell was again posted to Darwin, this time commanding No. 80 (Fighter) Wing, equipped with the Spitfire Mark VIII.

In April 1945, while serving at Morotai in the Dutch East Indies with the Australian First Tactical Air Force, as Officer Commanding No. 80 Wing, Caldwell played a leading part in the "Morotai Mutiny", in which several senior flyers resigned in protest at what they saw as the relegation of RAAF fighter squadrons to dangerous and strategically worthless ground attack missions. An investigation resulted in three senior officers being relieved of their commands, with Caldwell and the other "mutineers" cleared.

Prior to the "mutiny", Caldwell had been charged over his involvement in an alcohol racket on Morotai, where liquor was flown in by RAAF aircraft and then sold to the sizeable US forces contingent in the locality. He was court martialled in January 1946 and reduced to the rank of Flight Lieutenant. Caldwell left the service in February.

Personal life
On 13 April 1940 Caldwell married Jean McIver Main, whom he had known twelve years, a daughter of George and Mary Main of "Retreat" station, Illabo, New South Wales. George was well known as chairman of the Australian Jockey Club. A pre-wedding reception was held at Cootamundra and the service at the tiny chapel at Dirnaseer, adjacent "Retreat". On his return to Australia, the couple lived in Illabo until at least 1947.

Later years
After the war, Caldwell was involved as a purchasing agent obtaining surplus aircraft and other military equipment from the US Foreign Liquidation Commission in the Philippines. The aircraft and equipment were exported to Australia in 1946. After the successful conclusion of this venture, Caldwell joined a cloth import/export company in Sydney and shortly after became its managing director. He became a partner in 1953 and later served as chairman of the board. The firm, Clive Caldwell (Sales) Pty Ltd, achieved considerable success under Caldwell's direction and expanded through subsidiaries worldwide.

Although in later life Caldwell "spoke modestly" about his wartime service, upon his death in Sydney on 5 August 1994, many Australians "mourned the passing of a true national hero".

Honours and awards

 * Distinguished Service Order (DSO) – awarded 14 October 1943
 * Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar (DFC*) – both awarded 26 December 1941
 * 1939–1945 Star – campaign medal
 * Air Crew Europe Star – campaign medal
 * Africa Star with "North Africa 1942–43" Clasp – campaign medal
 * Pacific Star
 * Defence Medal
 * War Medal 1939–1945 – campaign medal
 * Australia Service Medal 1939–45 – campaign medal
 * Polish Cross of Valour (Krzyż Walecznych) – permission to wear granted 2 August 1942

title: Clive Caldwell


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User talk:Gaywolfmanfag

Hold me tonight, everthing alright. Pack some fudge for the woldfman fag!!!

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. --fvw *  06:20, September 1, 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Gaywolfmanfag


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User:Jbenhill

My name is Joseph Hill and I'm a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Rochester at the Frederick Douglass Institute for African and African-American Studies. I have a Ph.D in Anthropology from Yale University. I contribute mostly to articles in my area of specialty, which is West African culture and history, especially Islam and to a lesser extent traditional music. My research site is.

title: User:Jbenhill


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Henry Ellis

Henry Ellis may refer to:

 * Henry Augustus Ellis (1861–1939), Irish Australian physician and federalist
 * Henry Ellis (diplomat) (1788–1855), British diplomat
 * Henry Ellis (governor) (1721–1806), explorer, author, and second colonial Governor of Georgia
 * Henry Ellis (librarian) (1777–1869), English librarian
 * Henry Ellis, 2nd Viscount Clifden (1761–1836), Irish politician
 * Henry Bramley Ellis (1841–1910), English organist, composer, conductor and teacher
 * Henry Havelock Ellis (1859–1939), English physician, eugenicist, writer, progressive intellectual and social reformer
 * Henry Walton Ellis (1782–1815), British soldier

title: Henry Ellis


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Ab Kettleby

Ab Kettleby is a village and civil parish in the Melton district of Leicestershire, England, located 3 mi north of Melton Mowbray, on the A606 road. It had a population of 501 in 2001; at the 2011 census this had increased to 529.

It is 3 mi southeast of the border with Nottinghamshire, 460 ft above sea level. The neighbouring hamlets of Wartnaby and Holwell form part of the civil parish of Ab Kettleby.

History
A Roman mosaic and pavement were found beneath the present churchyard, indicating the presence of a villa. Ab Kettleby was first recorded in the Domesday Book as Chetelbi. Ab Kettleby is of Danish origin; its meaning is Ketil's homestead later differentiated from Eye Kettleby by Ab (a later holder of this land). The name Wartnaby is also of Danish origin, meaning Waerenoth's homestead. The name Holwell however is of Old English origin meaning spring or stream in a hollow. This may refer to the spring at Holwell Mouth which is close to the Six Hills to Eastwell road.

St James' Church has a Norman font, and a memorial to Everard Digby (died 1628). The remains of the villa, and a ditch running from north to south underneath the nave have caused serious structural problems for the church. The church closed in 2006 due to its structural problems and, following the raising of over £250,000 for repairs, it re-opened in 2013. The church was mostly built in the 13th century but restored in 1852–53. The north aisle is Victorian. St Michael's Church, Wartnaby was built in the 13th century and restored in 1867–68. It has a double bellcote with a saddleback roof on the tower and medieval wall painting inside.

Iron ore
Iron ore was obtained in all three parts of the parish.

Holwell
Holwell was the most important centre. Iron ore was first quarried to the north of Holwell on the south side of the narrow part of Landyke Lane in 1875 and continued in various places to the north and east of the hamlet until 1930. From 1931 until 1943 iron ore was mined rather than quarried east of Brown's Hill. The mine was a drift mine and the tunnel emerged from the north side of the hill in 1943. Quarrying was resumed at that point and continued until 1962. The last quarrying took place close to the road to Scalford Hall. Quarrying was done by hand with the help of explosives at first. The first quarrying machine was a petrol paraffin digger introduced in 1930. The first diesel digger arrived in 1943. The ore was at first taken away by horse and cart, but the Holwell Iron Company built a standard-gauge mineral railway in 1877 which connected with the Midland Railway's Syston to Peterborough line west of Melton Mowbray. Most of this mineral railway was taken over and improved by the Midland in two stages: first as part of their Nottingham to Melton line and then as their Holwell branch (connecting with that line) in 1887. This was extended the same year northwards to Wycomb Junction on the Great Northern's Waltham branch. This branch transported the ore from Holwell as well as some of that from Eaton. The Holwell company built their own iron works close to the Holwell Branch which operated from 1881. The works was called Holwell Works because it was built by the Holwell Company but was actually at Asfordby Hill. The quarries and the mine fed the standard gauge line by means of narrow-gauge tramways. These were at first worked by gravity or horses, but diesel locomotives were introduced in 1933. The tramways were replaced by lorries in 1948. Part of the quarry area has been landscaped and returned to agriculture; part has been left and retained as a nature reserve. One entrance to the mine tunnel has been blocked; the other entrance only partly blocked to allow bats to roost in the mine. In 1986, the area above the mine carried warning notices that the land is liable to subsidence. The railway has been lifted.

Wartnaby
Iron ore was quarried to the east and west of Wartnaby, to the west of the A606 and to the north of the village on both sides of the Six Hills to Eastwell Road. Quarrying began in 1879 near to Stonepit House on the north side of the latter road. The last ore was obtained close to the A606 south of the crossroads in 1929. Quarrying always seems to have been done by hand with the help of explosives. No mechanical diggers were used.

The ore was taken away by narrow gauge tramway to a tipping dock on the Midland Railway's Nottingham to Melton line to the north of the Old Dalby tunnel. From there it was taken by train to the Stanton Ironworks near Nottingham. The part of the tramway close to the tipping dock was a cable-operated incline, the loaded wagons going down the incline. The line from the quarries to the top of the incline was worked by horses at first but steam locomotives were introduced in 1880.

The quarries were shallow but traces can be seen near to Stonepit House (marked now on OS maps as Berlea Farm). Elsewhere as a result of the quarrying the fields are at a lower level than the roads. However at one place the Six Hills Road was diverted onto land that had already been quarried and then the old course was quarried. Parts of the tramway's earthworks can still be seen.

Ab Kettleby
Quarrying took place at Ab Kettleby between 1892 and 1907. The quarries were to the north of the village: on either side of the lane to Holwell (which probably started first); in the triangle between the A606, the Six Hills to Eastwell road and the lane to Holwell Mouth from Ab Kettleby; and on the north side of the Six Hills to Eastwell road. Quarrying was done by hand with the aid of explosives and the ore was taken by narrow gauge tramway to a tipping dock at the Midland Railway Holwell Branch north of Potter Hill. From there the ore was taken by train to Holwell Iron Works at Asfordby Hill. The lower end of the tramway was a cable-worked incline. At the quarry end the line was probably worked by horses which were later replaced by steam locomotives. The gauge was, unusually,. The main sign of quarrying now is that some of the fields are at a lower level than the roads. In 1986 there was still an upturned quarry wagon at the site of the old tipping dock.

Facilities and sites of interest
The parish has a primary school, a public house named after Sugarloaf Mountain, a community centre, a guest house, a 17th-century manor house, and medieval farmhouses and farm buildings. One of those farms was home to the racehorse Desert Orchid for several years.

It also has a village duck pond next to a large horse-chestnut tree and megalithic spring. A public telephone box, once a common sight throughout the UK but now a protected building, has been released to the protection of Ab Kettleby's council.

Within the boundaries of the village is a holy well.

Ab Kettleby Manor
Ab Kettleby Manor is an early 17th-century house in the village of Ab Kettleby, Leicestershire. Built of ironstone with a central brick chimney, the house is cruciform in plan.

title: Ab Kettleby


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Meier & Frank Building

The Meier & Frank Building is a fifteen-story, glazed terra cotta building located in downtown Portland, Oregon, across from the northeast corner of Pioneer Courthouse Square. The building is the former flagship store and headquarters building for the Meier & Frank department store chain, which was taken over by Macy's in 2006. In 2006–2007, the building's lower five floors were remodeled as a Macy's, while the upper eleven floors were renovated in 2008 into a luxury hotel known as The Nines. Macy's closed in April 2017 and the lower levels were rebuilt as office space.

The building site is a full block, bounded by SW Fifth and Sixth Avenues and Morrison and Alder Streets. The present building was constructed in stages, starting in 1909 with major expansions occurring in 1915 and 1932. It replaced an earlier Meier and Frank store built in 1898.

History
The project was the first major commission for prolific Portland architect, A. E. Doyle. Although the original commission was an annex to the original building, Doyle took a trip to Chicago with the company's co-founder Sigmund Frank to survey department stores. Frank was very impressed with what he saw, and plans for the building changed into a full-block fully modern department store. Frank's death in 1910 ended those plans and resulted in the building's construction in piecemeal segments over several decades, which led to anomalous differences between which elevators and stairways reached other floors. However, A.E. Doyle first used glazed terra-cotta in this building, resulting in later use of it in many other Portland structures by his and other firms.

The building hosted the corporate headquarters of the Meier & Frank chain. After the acquisition of Meier and Frank by May Department Stores in 1966, the chain became a division which was based out of the former corporate offices.

The interior of the building has been modernized over the years with few interior historic elements remaining. However, several notable exceptions to this were the Georgian Room restaurant and seasonal Santaland, both on the 10th floor (highest retail floor in the building). The historic Georgian Room had remained virtually unchanged for at least the last 50 years. Santaland, which closed after the 2005 Christmas season, was an annual holiday favorite for generations of Portland families. Santaland operated a "kiddie"-sized overhead monorail around the ceiling of Santaland; first installed in 1959, it last operated during the 2005 holiday season. There was also a holiday model railroad layout and Santa Clauses. Pneumatic tubes were used throughout the store to convey messages and money from upper to lower floors and back again. The remnants of this system could still be found in some stairwells and back areas.

The Meier & Frank Building featured the first escalator installation in Portland, and housed the company's own radio station. KFEC signed on the air October 19, 1922. The studio was on the 5th floor and was also used as the library and reading room for employees. The transmitter towers were atop the building. KFEC operated until March 22, 1929, when it was sold and moved to Yakima, Washington, which still operates today as KIT.

Until August 1962, the building at 223 ft was the second tallest in Portland after the Public Service Building. The building has two primary lower levels and a third service level beneath these. The first lower level was used for retail space until the mid-1980s. The levels beneath that were used for storage and various seasonal needs. The bank of hand-controlled elevators originally operated by store employees was closed to the public with the construction of new automatic elevators, but were still used to transport merchandise into the 1990s out of public view.

At its peak, the store housed everything from a pharmacy to a pet store. Actor Clark Gable worked in the store's tie department in 1922. Several delis and food vendors operated out of various levels. As demand for these services declined, the store changed focus. During the 1980s the store began to concentrate more on soft lines such as clothing, as well as small goods such as housewares. Several floors were modified to serve as corporate offices. Other floors were simply shut down and turned over to cold storage. The store was able to operate in this configuration until finally doomed by the development of the nearby Pioneer Place mall and increased competition from stores such as Saks Fifth Avenue and Nordstrom.

The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.

In 2005, the May Company was acquired by Federated Department Stores, corporate parent of Macy's and other chains. The Meier & Frank stores were renamed Macy's in September 2006. Already in late 2005, a $100 million (~$ in ) renovation of the building began, and this was to include work to turn the top nine floors of the building into a 330-room luxury hotel called The Nines, a member of The Luxury Collection. Renovation of the Meier & Frank store in the lower floors of the building began first, in late 2005, and was still under way when the store was rebranded in September 2006 as a Macy's (as were all other then-remaining Meier & Frank stores). Macy's later decided to temporarily close the store, in order to accelerate the remodeling work, and the temporary closure began in December 2006. The remodeled stored, named Macy's at Meier and Frank Square, reopened on October 26, 2007. The hotel opened in late summer 2008.

In 2016, Macy's announced that it planned to close the store in spring 2017, because of declining sales. A clearance sale began in January, and the store closed permanently in April 2017. The lower five floors were rebuilt as office space.

In March 2018, Japanese retailer Muji announced they would be taking over 15,000 square feet in the building to open their first store in the Pacific Northwest.

Other historic buildings
Meier and Frank also owned and operated two other buildings in the downtown area, namely, the Delivery Depot and Warehouse, both of which are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Both structures have been transformed into other uses.

On August 18, 2010, Vestas Wind Systems, a Danish wind turbine manufacturer, announced that it will lease the historic Meier & Frank Delivery Depot in the Pearl District. After renovations completed in 2012, the 172000 sqft space now houses the company's U.S. headquarters.

title: Meier & Frank Building


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WWE in Australia

WWE, an American professional wrestling promotion based in Stamford, Connecticut in the United States owned by TKO Group Holdings, has been promoting events in Australia since 1985 when they were the World Wrestling Federation.

History

WWF first toured the country in 1985, visiting Melbourne, Perth, Newcastle and through Brisbane and Melbourne again in 1986. The next time WWE came to Australia was for the WWE Global Warning Tour in 2002 for what was the first WWE event in Australia in 16 years. WWE has visited Australia regularly since then by touring at least once a year from 2003 to 2019, with the 2020 and 2021 tours postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. . WWE's NXT brand made its first tour in December 2016.

In 2018, WWE announced Super Show-Down at the Melbourne Cricket Ground – the first ever WWE pay-per-view (PPV) to be held in Australia. In 2023, WWE announced Elimination Chamber: Perth to be held in Perth Stadium in February 2024.

WWE Global Warning Tour: Melbourne
WWE Global Warning Tour: Melbourne was a professional wrestling event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment that took place on August 10, 2002, at Colonial Stadium in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. This event marked the return of WWE to Australia for the first time since 1986. Michael Cole and Tazz recorded the commentary from WWE headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. The event featured nine matches (including 3 dark matches), where in the main event The Rock defeated Triple H and Brock Lesnar in a Triple Threat match to retain the WWE Undisputed Championship. Global Warning did not air on pay-per-view (PPV), but was released on home video. The event aired in November 2002 as part of the WWE Fanatic Series and in January 2003 on Sky 1 in New Zealand. In October 2018, Global Warning was added to the on demand list on the WWE Network. It was re-released on DVD in December 2018, as part of a double pack with WWE Super Show-Down.

NXT television taping
The first tour to Australia of the NXT brand in December 2016 included a show at Melbourne's Margaret Court Arena which served as a television taping for NXT's January 4, 2017, edition on the WWE Network. Five matches from the show were shown, with Shinsuke Nakamura retaining the NXT Championship against Samoa Joe as the main event. Of the other matches shown three featured Australian wrestlers. Buddy Murphy teamed with Tye Dillinger to defeat the team of Bobby Roode and Elias, TM-61 were defeated by the NXT Tag Team champions DIY (Tommaso Ciampa and Johnny Gargano), and Billie Kay along with Liv Morgan were defeated by Ember Moon. The other televised match saw The Revival defeat the team of Riddick Moss and Tino Sabbatelli. In matches not televised, Peyton Royce could not defeat NXT Women's champion Asuka, Andrade Almas defeated Wesley Blake and Oney Lorcan defeated Patrick Clark.

WWE Super Show-Down
WWE Super Show-Down was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event and WWE Network event, produced by WWE for their Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands. It took place on October 6, 2018, at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne, Australia and featured ten matches including two involving Australian wrestlers, Buddy Murphy and The IIconics. Murphy defeated Cedric Alexander to win the WWE Cruiserweight Championship, while Billie Kay and Peyton Royce defeated the team of Asuka and Naomi. Elias in a microphone spot also referenced Australian sport, claiming he was friends with Mick Malthouse and accused Collingwood of choking in the previous weekend's match. The event drew 70,309 people.

Elimination Chamber
On 21 September 2023, WWE announced that Elimination Chamber would take place on 24 February 2024 at Perth Stadium. The event featured five matches, including one on the pre-show, featuring two Australian wrestlers, Indi Hartwell and Rhea Ripley. Hartwell and Candice LeRae failed to win the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship from The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane) on the pre-show while Ripley defeated Australia-born Nia Jax in the main event to retain the Women's World Championship. Australia native Grayson Waller hosted his talk show, The Grayson Waller Effect featuring Cody Rhodes and World Heavyweight Champion Seth "Freakin" Rollins.

Brisbane Cup
Between 2006 and 2011, the Brisbane Cup was awarded to the winner of a Battle Royal held on RAW and SmackDown House Shows in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The winner would also receive a World Championship match that same evening.

title: WWE in Australia


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Narellan Vale, New South Wales

Narellan Vale is a suburb of Sydney, in the Australian state of New South Wales. Narellan Vale is located 60 kilometres south-west of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of Camden Council and is part of the Macarthur region.

History
The area now known as Narellan Vale was probably originally home to the Tharawal people, based in the Illawarra region, although the Western Sydney-based Darug people and the Southern Highlands-based Gandangara people were also known to have inhabited the greater Camden area. Very early relations with British settlers were cordial but as farmers started clearing and fencing the land affecting food resources in the area, clashes between the groups arose until 1816 when a number of indigenous people were massacred and the remainder retreated from direct conflict with the settlers.

In 1805, wool pioneer John Macarthur was granted 5,000 acres (20 km2) at Cowpastures (now Camden). After the land was cleared, it was used for farming until the mid-1980s when Sydney's suburban sprawl reached the town of Camden and Areas like Narellan Vale were Established.

In 1986 Narellan Vale was established and then two years later in 1988 Elizabeth Macarthur High school opened and then a few years later Narellan Vale Public School And St Clare's Catholic Primary School opened, the suburb was completed by 1998.

Demographics
According to the 2016 census of population, there were 7,193 people in Narellan Vale.
 * Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 3.5% of the population.
 * 82.6% of people were born in Australia. The nextmost common countries of birth were England 2.9% and New Zealand 1.6%.
 * 88.1% of people spoke only English at home.
 * The most common responses for religion were Catholic 31.2%, Anglican 25.4% and No Religion 21.8%.
 * There was a high percentage of families with children (55.4%).
 * The percentage of children aged 0–14 (23.2%) is substantially higher than the national average (18.7%).
 * Like its neighbouring suburbs, there is also a very high proportion of detached houses in the area (96.6%).

Education
There are three schools in Narellan Vale:
 * Narellan Vale Public School
 * St Clare's Catholic Primary School
 * Elizabeth Macarthur High School

Governance
Narellan Vale lies in the central ward of Camden Council, currently represented by Theresa Fedeli, the current mayor of Camden, Rob Mills and Ashleigh Cagney. It sits within the state electorate of Camden, represented by Liberal's Peter Sidgreaves and the federal electorate of Hume represented by Liberal's Angus Taylor.

title: Narellan Vale, New South Wales


text:
Naremburn, New South Wales

Naremburn is a suburb on the lower North Shore of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Naremburn is located 6 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of the City of Willoughby.

History
The suburb name dates to the 1800s but its origin cannot be verified. Naremburn was originally known as Central Township. The earliest land grants in the area were granted to Humphrey Evans and Peter Dargan in 1794.

A small cave in Flat Rock Gully near Naremburn, was believed to be where Henry Lawson, the Australian writer and bush poet, slept off his frequent visits to Australian pubs.

Naremburn Post Office opened on 20 March 1882 and closed in 1996.

Population
In the 2021 Census, there were 5,924 people in Naremburn. 62.2% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 5.7%, China (without SARs and Taiwan) 3.5%, New Zealand 2.1%, India 2.1% and Hong Kong 2.0%. 73.6% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 4.2%, Cantonese 4.0%, Japanese 1.5%, Spanish 1.2% and Arabic 1.1%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion 45.7%, Catholic 22.7%, Anglican 11.4% and Buddhism 2.4%.

Commercial area
Naremburn has a small shopping strip on Willoughby Road about ten minutes' walk from Crows Nest.

Churches

 * St Leonards Catholic Church, built in 1913
 * St Cuthberts Anglican Church (Naremburn Cammeray Anglican Church)

Former primary schools
Until the 1990s, there were two primary schools operating – St Leonard's Catholic Primary School, and, Naremburn Public School – both on Willoughby Road. The Catholic school shared the same site as the adjacent Catholic church, and, the public school was located opposite on Willoughby Road. Changing demographics and corresponding lack of demand led to both schools being closed within five years of each other. The former Catholic school is now a creative arts learning centre. The former public school is now a housing development.

Transport
Bus routes 114 from Balmoral and 115 from Sydney CBD travel through Naremburn to Chatswood, with stops located along Willoughby Road.

The closest railway station is St Leonards railway station on the Northern and North Shore & Western Lines of the Sydney Trains network.

The Warringah Freeway to the city runs through the suburb.

title: Naremburn, New South Wales


text:
Jim Richards

Jim Richards may refer to:

 * Jim Richards (basketball), American college basketball coach
 * Jim Richards (American football) (born 1946), American football player
 * Jim Richards (broadcaster) (born 1966), Canadian radio broadcaster
 * Jim Richards (racing driver) (born 1947), New Zealand and Australian race driver
 * Jim Richards (rugby league) (1928–2007), Australian rugby league footballer
 * Jim Richards, Alberta political candidate, see Calgary-McCall and Calgary-McKnight

title: Jim Richards


text:
Narellan, New South Wales

Narellan is a suburb of Sydney, New South Wales. Narellan is located 60 kilometres south-west of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of Camden Council and is part of the Macarthur region.

Narellan is known for its modern shopping centre, Narellan Town Centre, historic St Thomas Chapel, Studley Park House and golf course.

History
The area now known as Narellan was probably originally home to the Tharawal people, based in the Illawarra region, although the Western Sydney-based Darug people and the Southern Highlands-based Gandangara people were also known to have inhabited the greater Camden area. Very early relations with British settlers were cordial but as farmers started clearing and fencing the land affecting food resources in the area, clashes between the groups arose until 1816 when a number of indigenous people were massacred and the remainder retreated from direct conflict with the settlers.

In 1805 wool pioneer John Macarthur was granted 5,000 acres (20 km2) at Cowpastures (now Camden). After the land was cleared, it was used for farming for most of the next 200 years until Sydney's suburban sprawl reached the town of Camden and modern suburbs like Narellan were subdivided into housing blocks.

The name of the suburb originates from William Hovell who pronounced it as "Narelling" after receiving a land grant from Governor Macquarie in 1816.

In the 1840s, land allotments were for offered for sale in Narellan but settlement remained scarce owing to the popularity of Camden.

Between 10 March 188 and 1 January 1963 the area was served by Narellan and Grahams Hill railway stations, on the Camden line.

Narellan Post Office opened on 1 August 1856.

Heritage listings
Narellan has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * Camden Valley Way: Studley Park, Narellan
 * Kirkham Lane: Camelot, Kirkham
 * Kirkham Lane: Kirkham Stables

Sport and recreation
Narellan was home to the Oran Park Raceway motor racing circuit, which has been redeveloped into a new residential suburb known as Oran Park Town.

Camden Golf Club is the only golf club in Narellan. Narellan also has a football club known as Narellan Rangers located at Nott Oval.

The Narellan Jets play in the local Macarthur Division Rugby League First Grade competition.

The 1st Narellan Scout Group hall is situated on the corner of Queen and Elyard streets (diagonally opposite Narellan Library). The 1st Narellan Scout Group was formed on 1 July 1964 and is open to boys and girls aged 5-8 (Joey Scouts), 8-11 (Cub Scouts), 11-14 (Scouts) and 15-18 (Venturer Scouts). The Venturer Scouts meet at their own hall in neighbouring Elderslie.

Churches

 * St Thomas' Anglican Church

Demographics
In the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census, the suburb of Narellan had a population of 3,616 people. Like its neighbouring suburbs, Narellan is predominantly Australian born (84.5%) families with young children (48%) living in detached houses (90.2%). The number of people aged 65 and over (11.2%) is substantially less than the national average (14%).

Notable residents

 * Jimmy Sharman, boxing promoter
 * James Tyson, wealthy pastoralist

Governance
Narellan lies in the central ward of Camden Council, currently represented by Fred Anderson, Rob Elliott and Debby Dewbery. It sits within the state electorate of Camden, represented by the Liberal Party's Peter Sidgreaves, and the federal electorate of Hume.

title: Narellan, New South Wales


text:
John F. Haught

John F. Haught is an American theologian. He is a Distinguished Research Professor at Georgetown University. He specializes in Roman Catholic systematic theology, with a particular interest in issues pertaining to physical cosmology, evolutionary biology, geology, and Christianity.

He has authored numerous books and articles, including Science and Faith: A New Introduction (2012), Making Sense of Evolution: Darwin, God, and The Drama of Life ( 2010), God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens (2008), Christianity and Science: Toward a Theology of Nature (2007), ''Is Nature Enough? Meaning and Truth in the Age of Science (2006), Purpose, Evolution and the Meaning of Life (2004), God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (2000, 2nd ed. 2007), Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation (1995), The Promise of Nature: Ecology and Cosmic Purpose (1993, 2nd ed. 2004), What is Religion? (1990), What is God? (1986), and The Cosmic Adventure: Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose'' (1984).

In 2002, Haught received the Owen Garrigan Award in Science and Religion, in 2004 the Sophia Award for Theological Excellence, and in 2008 a “Friend of Darwin Award” from the National Center for Science Education. He also testified for the plaintiffs in Harrisburg, PA “Intelligent Design Trial”(Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education).

Life
John F. Haught was born on November 12, 1942, to Paul and Angela Haught. His wife is Evelyn.

Academic Career and Systemic Theology
Haught graduated from St. Mary's Seminary and University in Baltimore in 1964 and subsequently received his PhD in theology from The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., in 1968 (Dissertation: Foundations of the Hermeneutics of Eschatology).

From 1969 to 2005 Haught taught in the Department of Theology at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., serving as theology department chair between 1990 and 1995. In addition, he has been a Landegger Distinguished Professor and Thomas Healey Distinguished Professor, and held the D’Angelo Chair in Humanities at St. John’s University (2008), and was visiting professor at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome (2010).

Inspiration and influence
In his early 20s, John Haught started reading the works of the Jesuit priest and geologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. As an undergraduate student at St. Mary’s Seminary and University, Haught had majored in philosophy and completed graduate work in philosophical theology, though he was never ordained. While teaching science and religion at Georgetown University and writing books on the topic, he specialized in the areas of cosmology and biology. During his studies, he concluded that Thomistic metaphysics could not adequately contextualize the discoveries of evolutionary biology and Big Bang physics. As the intellectual backbone of his courses, he turned to science-friendly 20th century philosophers such as Alfred North Whitehead, Michael Polanyi, Bernard Lonergan, and Hans Jonas. His books Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation (1995) and more recently Science and Faith: a New Introduction (2012) reflect an approach developed over many years of teaching at Georgetown University.

During the 1990s, he became increasingly involved in issues relating to evolution, especially because of their growing importance in the intellectual world and the claims by creationists and prominent evolutionists alike that Darwinian science and belief in God are irreconcilable. The American cultural warfare over the teaching of Intelligent Design led Haught to write such books as God After Darwin, Deeper than Darwin, and Making Sense of Evolution. These and other works have led to numerous lectures on theology and evolution nationally and internationally. In his works, John Haught argues that an open-minded search for intelligibility requires a plurality of distinct “horizons of inquiry,” allowing for the harmonious cohabitation of science (including evolutionary biology) and religious belief. Haught views science and religion as two different and noncompeting levels of explanation, asserting that "science and religion cannot logically stand in a competitive relationship with each other."

In 2005, Haught testified on behalf of the plaintiffs at the Harrisburg PA trial against the teaching of Intelligent Design in public schools. His testimony earned him the “Friend of Darwin” award from the National Center for Science Education.

Science and Religion
John Haught’s lectures and works focus on a vision of reality that provides room for both scientific inquiry and a biblical understanding of God. In Haught’s perspective, everything should be open to scientific study, including human intelligence, ethical aspiration, and religion. Haught posits that science is one of many avenues to providing a fruitful understanding of nature since there are distinct and noncompeting levels of explaining all natural phenomena. By allowing for different reading levels, one can avoid the conflation of science and religion whereby physics spills into metaphysics, or evolutionary biology into a whole worldview. According to Haught, a major obstacle to adopting a plurality of reading levels is the persistence of biblical literalism which erroneously looks to the Bible as a source of scientific truth. In his view, approaching ancient religious texts with modern scientific expectations is the source of unnecessary and anachronistic confusion that makes the Bible, and the biblically based faith traditions, seem incompatible with modern science. In works, such as God and the New Atheism, Haught aims to show that Daniel Dennett, Christopher Hitchens, Richard Dawkins, and Jerry Coyne have adopted the same misplaced biblical literalism as their creationist opponents. Haught disputes the contention of New Atheists that God is a quasi-scientific hypothesis now rendered obsolete by modern cosmology, geology, and evolutionary biology. Emphasizing that science and theology represent two distinct horizons for looking at the story of life and the universe, Haught argues in his various lectures and writings that “it is the mission of a theology of nature to integrate them into a synthetic vision wherein differences do not dissolve but instead contribute in distinct ways to the larger and longer human quest for meaning and truth.”

Haught emphasizes that theology looks for levels of meaning and truth that scientific method is not wired to receive. “Theology has its own horizon of inquiry. It is grounded in a qualitatively distinct set of questions from those asked by scientists and ethicists. The data that give rise to distinctively theological questions include an easily recognizable set of beliefs and ethical commitments that do not show up within the horizon of scientific inquiry, but which every scientist must embrace in order to do science at all.

 * 1. Belief (faith or trust) that the world, including the horizon of scientific inquiry, is intelligible.
 * 2. Belief that truth is worth seeking.
 * 3. Belief that honesty, humility, generosity, and openness in sharing one’s ideas and discoveries are unconditionally right (and hence that the pursuit of virtue is not irrelevant to successful scientific work.)
 * 4. Belief that one’s own mind has the capacity to grasp intelligibility and to distinguish what is true from what is false.”

Recognition and awards
Haught was the winner of the 2002 Owen Garrigan Award in Science and Religion and the 2004 Sophia Award for Theological Excellence. In 2009, in recognition of his work on theology and science, Haught was awarded the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa by the University of Louvain and the Friend of Darwin Award from the National Center for Science Education.

Peer Evaluations
In the May 25 - June 1, 2015 issue of America: The National Catholic Review, Robert E. Lauder, Professor of Philosophy at St. John’s University, provided a review of John Haught’s works, including, ''What is God? How to Think About the Divine (1986), God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution, and Mystery and Promise''.

Other expert evaluations of the works of John Haught include Carter Phipps, the author of Evolutionaries: Unlocking the Spiritual and Cultural Potential of Science’s Greatest Idea (2012). Phipps’ article, “A Theologian of Renewal”, won a Gold Folio award for editorial excellence.

Dr. Haught’s latest book is The New Cosmic Story, Inside Our Awakening Universe (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017) about the emergence of religious consciousness in the long cosmic process. Forbes Magazine called The New Cosmic Story the “Book of the year.”

Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education Expert Witness Testimony
Haught testified as an expert witness for the plaintiffs in the case of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. He testified that the effect of the intelligent design policy adopted by the Dover School board would "be to compel public school science teachers to present their students in biology class information that is inherently religious, not scientific in nature." He also testified that materialism, the philosophy that only matter exists, is "a belief system, no less a belief system than is intelligent design. And as such, it has absolutely no place in the classroom, and teachers of evolution should not lead their students craftily or explicitly to ... feel that they have to embrace a materialistic world-view in order to make sense of evolution."

Debates, Lectures, and Writings
Haught has participated in several public debates about the compatibility of science and religion, sharing the stage with Daniel Dennett at the City University of New York in 2009, Kenneth Miller at the New York Academy of Sciences in 2011, Taking issue in the letter with Coyne's characterization, Haught's opposition to the release and Coyne's final list of Catholic "evils" as a way to end the presentation, Haught explained that he sought to "protect the public from such a preposterous and logic-offending ... presentation."

Books

 * Nature and Purpose, 1980, University Press of America, ISBN 0-8191-1258-5
 * The Cosmic Adventure: Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose, 1984, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-2599-4
 * What Is God?: How to Think about the Divine, 1986, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-2754-7
 * What Is Religion: An Introduction, 1990, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3117-X
 * Science & Religion: From Conflict to Conversation, 1995, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3606-6
 * Science and Religion: In Search of Cosmic Purpose, 2000, Georgetown University Press 2001 reprint: ISBN 0-87840-865-7
 * God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution, 2000, Westview Press 2001 reprint: ISBN 0-8133-3878-6
 * 2nd Edition of God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution, 2008, ISBN 0-8133-4370-4

 * Responses to 101 Questions on God and Evolution, 2001, Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3989-8
 * In Search of a God for Evolution: Paul Tillich and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, 2002, American Teilhard Association, ISBN 0-89012-088-9
 * Deeper Than Darwin: The Prospect for Religion in the Age of Evolution, 2003, Westview Press, hardcover: ISBN 0-8133-6590-2, paperback: ISBN 0-8133-4199-X
 * The Promise of Nature: Ecology and Cosmic Purpose, 2004, Wipf & Stock Publishers, ISBN 1-59244-945-X
 * Is Nature Enough?: Meaning and Truth in the Age of Science, May 2006, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-60993-3
 * God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, December 2007, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-23304-4
 * Christianity and Science: Toward a Theology of Nature, 2007, Orbis Books, ISBN 978-1-57075-740-2
 * Making Sense of Evolution: Darwin, God and the Drama of Life, February 2010, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-23285-6
 * Resting on the Future, Catholic Theology for an Unfinished Universe, 2015, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1-5013-0621-1
 * The New Cosmic Story, Inside Our Awakening Universe, 2017, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-21703-2
 * God after Einstein, What's Really Going on in the Universe, 2022, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-25119-7

title: John F. Haught


text:
Wall plate

WallPanelDiagram.svg 1. Cripple

2. Window header

3. Top plate / upper wall plate

4. Window sill

5. Stud

6. Sill plate / sole plate / bottom plate]]

A plate or wall plate is a horizontal, structural, load-bearing member in wooden building framing.

Timber framing
A plate in timber framing is "A piece of Timber upon which some considerable weight is framed...Hence Ground-Plate...Window-plate [obsolete]..." etc. Also called a wall plate, raising plate, or top plate, An exception to the use of the term plate for a large, load-bearing timber in a wall is the bressummer, a timber supporting a wall over a wall opening (see also: lintel). These are common in Australia.

The terms sole plate or sill plate are used for the members at the bottom of a wall at the foundation but are most often just called a sole or sill without the word plate. Other load-bearing timbers use the term plate but are not in the wall such as crown plate, a purlin-like beam carried by crown posts in roof framing, and a purlin plate which supports common rafters.

Platform framing
In platform framing there are three types of wall plates and are located at the top and bottom of a wall section, and the two hold the wall studs parallel and spaced at the correct interval. Each type continues in a piecewise fashion around the whole perimeter of the structure.

 * Sill plates — a lower wall plate which is bolted or strapped securely to the top of a foundation wall or concrete slab. These hold the house down against heavy winds. Normally, "J-bolts" are placed in the curing concrete after the mason levels the foundation and finishes dressing the concrete or anchor bolts are drilled into the concrete foundation. Newer systems of galvanized strapping with a J-bolt like anchor placed in the concrete allows the builder to avoid the mating step of drilling the sill plates for the bolts.
 * Lower wall plates, base plate, floor plate, or bottom plate — a second lower wall plate to which the wall studs are through nailed and which is the bottom of the wall section when assembled as a rectangular assembly. On an upper story, the lower wall plate is nailed to the platform of the supporting floor. The supporting platform is being supported by the wall studs of the even lower walls below.
 * Upper wall plate, top plate or ceiling plate — upper wall plate which is fastened along the top of the wall studs, before the wall is lifted into position and on which the platform of the next story or the ceiling and roof assembly rest and are attached. A second layer of dimensional lumber is always fastened to the top plates of the erected walls so that no joints overlap, providing greatly increased stability. In North America this is known as a "double top plate" and the process of installing the second top plate is known as "top plating."

title: Wall plate


text:
Korean DMZ Conflict

The Korean DMZ Conflict, also referred to as the Second Korean War by some, was a series of low-level armed clashes between North Korean forces and the forces of South Korea and the United States, largely occurring between 1966 and 1969 along the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).

Background
The Korean War had devastated both North and South Korea, and while neither side renounced its claims to reunify Korea under its control, neither side was in a position to force reunification.

In September 1956, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford indicated within the U.S. government that the military's intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea, which was agreed to by the United States National Security Council and President Eisenhower. However paragraph 13(d) of the Korean Armistice Agreement mandated that both sides could not introduce new types of weapons into Korea, thus preventing the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles. The U.S. decided to unilaterally abrogate paragraph 13(d), breaking the Armistice Agreement, despite concerns by United Nations allies. At a 21 June 1957 meeting of the Military Armistice Commission, the U.S. informed the North Korean representatives that the U.N. Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice. In January 1958, nuclear-armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deployed to South Korea, followed within a year by atomic demolition munitions and nuclear-armed Matador cruise missiles capable of reaching China and the Soviet Union.

North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d) as an attempt to wreck the armistice agreement and turn Korea into a U.S. atomic warfare zone. It responded by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack, and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U.S. forces as well. In 1963, North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons, but was refused. China later, after its nuclear tests, similarly rejected North Korean requests for help with developing nuclear weapons.

In North Korea, the departure of the People's Liberation Army in October 1958 allowed Kim Il-sung to consolidate his power base and embark on the Chollima Movement of collectivised agriculture and industrialization to build a base for reunifying Korea by force. North Korea remained dependent on the Soviet Union for technology and on China for agricultural assistance.

Following the war, South Korea remained one of the poorest countries in the world for over a decade. In 1960, its gross domestic product per capita was $79, lower than most Latin American and some sub-Saharan African countries. The April Revolution that forced President Syngman Rhee from office in April 1960 was followed by a brief period of democracy before a coup d'état led to General Park Chung Hee seizing power in May 1961. Despite the political turmoil, the South Korean economy continued to grow, led by the industrial sector. Rapid industrial growth started in the late 1960s, with gross domestic product per capita rising from $100 in 1964 to $1000 in 1977.

On 10 December 1962, Kim proposed a new military strategy to the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, with increased emphasis placed on irregular warfare, agitation and propaganda, to be achieved by the end of the current Seven-Year Plan in 1967.

In June 1965, President Park signed a treaty normalizing relations with Japan, which included payment of reparations and the making of soft loans from Japan and led to increased trade and investment between the two countries. In July 1966, South Korea and the United States signed a Status of Forces Agreement, establishing a more equal relationship between the two nations. With its growing economic strength and the security guarantee of the United States, the threat of a conventional invasion from the north seemed increasingly remote. Following the escalation of the Vietnam War with the deployment of ground combat troops in March 1965, South Korea sent the Capital Division and the 2nd Marine Brigade to South Vietnam in September 1965, followed by the White Horse Division in September 1966.

The start of the hostilities can be traced to a speech given by North Korean leader Kim Il-sung on 5 October 1966, at the Workers' Party of Korea Conference, where the status quo of the 1953 Armistice Agreement was challenged. He apparently perceived that the division of effort by the South Korean military and the ever-growing escalation of the US commitment in Vietnam had created an environment where irregular warfare could succeed in a way conventional warfare could not. Kim believed that he could force a split between the U.S. and South Korea through armed provocations targeting U.S. forces that, together with other worldwide commitments and small wars, would force the U.S. to reassess or relinquish its commitment to South Korea, allowing North Korea to incite an insurgency in the South that would topple the Park administration.

There were ongoing propaganda campaigns between the north and south, such as loudspeaker broadcasts across the DMZ at each other. Leafleting of North Korea had been resumed, such as Operation Jilli from 1964 to 1968 which delivered a few hundred million leaflets to the north.

North Korea
In 1966, the Korean People's Army (KPA) deployed eight infantry divisions along the DMZ, backed by eight more infantry divisions, three motorized infantry divisions, a tank division and a collection of separate infantry and tank brigades and regiments. Its total armed forced personnel numbered 386,000. While strong, this conventional force was smaller than the South's ground forces of about 585,000, and it was unlikely that the North could deliver a knockout blow before the U.S. could deploy additional forces.

The main unconventional warfare arm was the Reconnaissance Bureau of the Ministry of Defense under the operational control of the Liaison Department of the Workers' Party of Korea which included the 17th Foot Reconnaissance Brigade and the all-officer Unit 124 and 283rd Army Units. These units were all highly trained and indoctrinated, skilled in demolitions and small-unit tactics, they would usually operate in small teams of 2–12 men, lightly armed with either PPS submachine guns or AK-47s. The Reconnaissance Bureau also controlled the 23d Amphibious Brigade, which used specially made infiltration boats to operate along the South Korean coastline. The Reconnaissance Bureau could also use conventional KPA and Korean People's Navy forces to support the infiltration and exfiltration of its teams.

In addition to the offensive irregular forces, North Korea also deployed several thousand operator-agitators to select, train, and supervise informants and guerrilla recruits, while others attempted to cause individual defections and unit dissatisfaction in the ROK military and generally undermine the morale of both the ROKs and the Americans.

United States and South Korea
The major U.S. ground combat units in Korea were the 2nd Infantry Division (2ID) and 7th Infantry Division (7ID), I Corps and 8th Army. 2ID stood with the 3rd Brigade manning 29.8 km of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) essentially due north of Seoul on either side of Panmunjom, with another nine Republic of Korea Army (ROK) Divisions manning the remaining 212.8 km of the DMZ. All U.S. and ROKA forces were under the unified operational control of United Nations Command (Korea) (who was also the commander United States Forces Korea), General Charles H. Bonesteel III. Both U.S. Army Divisions were seriously under strength as Vietnam had priority for manpower and equipment. Troops were equipped with M14 rifles rather than M16s, the only available tanks were older gasoline powered M48A2Cs, and there were a total of only 12 UH-1 Huey helicopters in South Korea seriously restricting the ability to hunt and engage infiltrators. Troops were generally draftees serving a 13-month tour, while experienced officers and NCOs preferred service in Vietnam to Korea. The ROK Divisions were well trained and highly motivated with many of the officers and NCOs veterans of the Korean War, but all their equipment dated back to that war; their standard rifle was still the M1 Garand.

The main operational objective of the US and ROK Divisions was to defend against a conventional invasion from North Korea in a repeat of the attack of June 1950. While there were regular infiltrations into the South for intelligence-gathering, unconventional warfare was not seen as a particular threat and the troops were not generally trained or equipped for this role. No counter-guerilla units or village militias existed in South Korea in 1966 and infiltrators were variously hunted by the ROK Army, Police and the Korean Central Intelligence Agency with no unified control.

In 1976, in now-declassified meeting minutes, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense William Clements told Henry Kissinger that there had been 200 raids or incursions into North Korea from the south, though not by the U.S. military. Details of only a few of these incursions have become public, including raids by South Korean forces in 1967 that had sabotaged about 50 North Korean facilities. Up to 7,700 South Korean soldiers and agents infiltrated North Korea from the end of the Korean war until 1972, an estimated 5,300 of whom never made it back.

The ground forces were supported by fighter-bombers of the USAF 314th Air Division and by the Republic of Korea Air Force. The seas around Korea were under the control of the United States Seventh Fleet and the Republic of Korea Navy. As with the Army, the war in Vietnam was the main focus of the USAF and the USN in the Pacific.

Defense strategies
From October 1964 the North Koreans increased the infiltration of intelligence-gatherers and propagandists into the South. By October 1966, more than 30 South Korean soldiers and at least 10 civilians had been killed in clashes with North Korean infiltrators; however, no similar clashes had taken place along the U.S.-controlled section of the DMZ. In October 1966, South Korea staged a retaliatory attack without seeking the approval of General Bonesteel, causing tension between the U.S. command, which wished to avoid violations of the armistice, and the South Koreans, who were suffering ongoing losses.

Following the first KPA attack on US forces in November 1966, Bonesteel formed a working group to analyse the North Korean strategy and develop a counter-strategy to defeat it. Finding the existing U.S. Army tactical doctrines to be inapplicable to the situation they were facing, the working group developed its own doctrine to meet its operational needs. Three types of operations were identified: first to guard against infiltration across the DMZ; second was a similar naval effort along the coasts; and third was counterguerrilla operations in the interior. All three types of operations had to be accomplished without jeopardizing the conventional defense of South Korea or escalating the conflict from low-intensity to a full war.

Demilitarized Zone
Starting in 1967 the UN Command developed a layered defense of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The Armistice restricted fortification within the DMZ, where defences were limited to patrols and observation posts without heavy weapons. More aggressive patrolling of the DMZ was ordered with patrols going out for 24 hours, reconnoitering by day and establishing ambushes at night; most U.S. casualties occurred during these patrols. The observation posts were fortified with sandbags and machine-guns and recoilless rifles were frequently kept hidden there in breach of the Armistice. Bonesteel obtained $30m in funding from the U.S. Army Combat Developments Command to create a DMZ test barrier along the portion of the DMZ occupied by the 2ID and the ROKA 21st Infantry Division. Beyond the southern boundary or "south tape" of the DMZ, no defensive restrictions applied and a combined U.S.–Korean engineer force constructed an in-depth Barrier comprising a 3m tall chain-link fence, topped by triple strands of concertina wire and reinforced by interwoven saplings and steel engineer pickets, behind it a narrow, raked-sand path paralleled the fence to highlight footprints.

Behind the sand strip was a 120m wide cleared kill zone in which mines and tanglefoot wire fronted a line of conventional defensive positions of interlocking machine guns and pre-registered mortar and artillery fire which dominated the kill zone. Observation towers stood at intervals along the trace to permit clear view of the open areas. Various electronics and sensors were tested on the Barrier similar to the McNamara Line in Vietnam, but with the exception of Starlight scopes they were largely ineffective. The Barrier could not prevent infiltration (it was estimated that the North Koreans could cut through the fence in 30–40 seconds), rather it was intended to slow movement and provide easy observation.

Behind the Barrier were the quick-reaction forces of mechanized infantry, tanks and armored cavalry that would hunt down infiltrators. The rules of engagement were also loosened to allow the frontline troops to use artillery and mortar fire against known KPA elements in or south of the DMZ and against KPA firing from north of the Military Demarcation Line, although in practice this was only used sparingly. A new four monthly rotation scheme was introduced in October 1967 to ensure that each Battalion received only its fair share of time manning and patrolling the Barrier. 7ID sent one infantry battalion at a time to augment the 3rd Brigade, 2ID, this increased the defense to four Battalions on the line plus the quick-reaction forces.

South Korea launched at least three retaliatory cross-border raids in late 1967 using small teams of North Korean defectors. The raids killed 33 KPA soldiers.

Korean coastline
Preventing infiltration at sea created an impossible challenge for the UN Command, which lacked suitable aircraft, ships, radar and communications. The ROK Navy possessed only 72 vessels to patrol over 7,000 kilometers of rugged coastline. Along the coasts, some 20,000 unarmed coastwatchers, sometimes supplemented by ROKA reservists, patrolled the beaches and when signs of landings were discovered these would be reported to the National Police and quick reaction forces would be deployed. Poor communications and a lack of helicopters meant that the quick reaction forces seldom arrived in time before the infiltrators dispersed in the Korean hinterland.

Counterinsurgency operations
During 1966 and into 1967, there was no coordinated counterinsurgency plan in South Korea. Infiltrations were dealt with on an ad hoc basis by the ROKA, National Police, Army counter-intelligence units and the KCIA usually depending on the estimate of the threat and whichever units happened to be nearby. Park was reluctant to raise and arm a civilian militia as he did not fully trust the loyalty of the populace to his government.

Bonesteel regarded counterinsurgency as entirely an internal responsibility for the South Korean Government. While he provided some material support including his helicopters and several Special Forces A-Teams from the 1st Special Forces Group on Okinawa to train the ROKA and the newly formed Combat Police in counterinsurgency tactics, he declined to take responsibility for counterinsurgency operations.

By late 1967 it was clear that the North Koreans were attempting to develop a full-scale insurgency in the South with strongholds in the Taebaek Mountains and around Jirisan mountain. Park in consultation with Bonesteel, developed a counterinsurgency strategy in the form of Presidential Instruction #18. The instruction established a national coordinating council with clear chains of command for all classes of incidents ranging from individual agent sightings to province-level unrest. Eight (later ten) new ROKA counter-infiltration battalions were to be formed, together with further expansion of the Combat Police.

The Blue House Raid
On the night of 17 January 1968, 31 men of Unit 124 penetrated the 2ID sector of the DMZ by cutting through the chain-link fence and passing undetected within 30m of a manned 2ID position. The mission of Unit 124, as explained to them by KPA Reconnaissance Bureau chief, Lieutenant General Kim Chung-tae, was "to go to Seoul and cut off the head of Park Chung Hee". It was believed that by assassinating Park, the South would be thrown into turmoil, causing the South Korean populace to rise up and fight against the South Korean government and American soldiers, leading to reunification.

On the afternoon of 19 January Unit 124 encountered four woodcutters, but rather than killing them the Unit 124 commander proceeded to try to indoctrinate them with details of the coming insurrection and the glories of North Korean communism. The North Koreans released the woodcutters with warnings not to notify the authorities. The woodcutters notified the police as soon as possible, and an alert went up the chain of command in accordance with Presidential Instruction #18. By the morning of 20 January the police and military were on full alert, but not knowing the mission of Unit 124 they were attempting to guard important sites as well as the approaches to Seoul.

Unit 124 entered Seoul in 2–3-man cells on 20 January, and noting the heightened security and by eavesdropping of ROKA radio frequencies they devised a new assault plan. Changing into uniforms of the 26th Infantry Division they proceeded to march the last 2 km to the Blue House, posing as a unit returning from a counter-guerilla patrol. After passing several ROKA and police units, Unit 124 was stopped by a police unit only 100m from the Blue House. The police began questioning the Unit 124 members and when a police officer grew suspicious and drew his pistol he was shot by a Unit 124 member.

A running gun battle then developed in which two members of Unit 124 were killed. The ROKA, police and U.S. Army began a massive manhunt as the remaining members of Unit 124 attempted to escape north and cross the DMZ. A further 26 members of Unit 124 were killed, one captured (Kim Shin-Jo) and two missing presumed killed (though at least one member of the Unit apparently survived and returned to North Korea ) while 26 South Koreans and four U.S. Army soldiers were killed.

The Pueblo Incident
On 23 January 1968 North Korean patrol boats operating under cover of MiG-21 fighters captured the USS Pueblo (AGER-2) in international waters northeast of Wonsan, killing one crewman. Bonesteel was unaware of the mission of the Pueblo and the 314th Air Division had no suitable aircraft available to give assistance to the Pueblo. By the time that attack aircraft could be sent to the area, the Pueblo and her remaining 82 crewmen were in captivity in Wonsan harbour.

American-South Korean reactions
The seizure of the Pueblo was one of a number of crises facing the Johnson Administration in January 1968: in Vietnam, the Battle of Khe Sanh had commenced on 21 January. President Johnson ordered a show of force with a massive deployment of U.S. air and navy assets to Korea under the code-names Operation Combat Fox (200+ combat aircraft) and Operation Formation Star (six aircraft carriers plus support vessels) as well as the partial mobilization of reservists for the first time since the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Despite this military buildup, Johnson wished to avoid escalating the existing conflict in Korea and instructed Bonesteel to begin negotiations for the return of the Pueblo crew with the North Koreans through the Military Armistice Commission at Panmunjom. Even as the extra forces were deploying to South Korea, the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam began on 30 January 1968. Johnson regarded the seizure of the Pueblo and the timing of the Tet Offensive to have been coordinated to divert U.S. resources away from Vietnam and to force the South Koreans to withdraw their two Divisions and Marine Brigade from South Vietnam.

Unlike Johnson, Bonesteel saw no such connection. He regarded the Blue House Raid as having been planned at the highest levels in North Korea, while the seizure of the Pueblo seemed merely opportunistic and the timing of the Tet Offensive as helpful but coincidental. He saw no change to his mission of defending South Korea and preventing an escalation of the existing low-intensity conflict.

The South Koreans saw things differently. They regarded the Blue House Raid and the seizure of the Pueblo as signs of a North Korean threat that had to be dealt with strongly by both the ROK and the U.S.. When news of negotiations between the U.S. and North Koreans at Panmunjom became public on 6 February, the Park Administration accused the U.S. of a policy of appeasement. Newspaper editorials and Government officials suggested that the Korean units in South Vietnam should be recalled to deal with the North Korean threat, while various advisers coaxed Park to "go North" with or without the Americans. Park refused to negotiate seriously with either Bonesteel or Ambassador William J. Porter. It appeared that the split that Kim Il-sung hoped to create between the ROK and the U.S. was becoming a reality.

On 10 February Cyrus Vance arrived in Seoul to negotiate with Park on behalf of Johnson. Vance met with Park on 11 February and set out the Johnson Administration's position: there would be no wider war in Korea, any ROK cross-border action was subject to approval by Bonesteel who would himself need approval from Johnson and the U.S. would negotiate as necessary to secure the release of the Pueblo crew. Vance offered Park $100M in immediate military aid (including F-4D Phantom II fighter jets) with more to follow, provided Park agreed not to "go North." Four days later Park agreed to Vance's terms.

Implementing the American and South Korean strategy
The Blue House Raid and the Pueblo Incident both served to raise the profile of the low-intensity conflict being fought in South Korea and finally brought in the resources needed to fully implement the joint U.S./ROK counterinsurgency strategy.

The massive surge deployment of U.S. warships and combat aircraft in operations Formation Star and Combat Fox served to deter further large-scale incursions. Once the immediate threat subsided, the U.S. Seventh Fleet withdrew its ships by mid-1968, while the U.S. Air Force gradually reduced its Combat Fox deployment over a period of 16 months. On 1 April 1968, the Department of Defense on Bonesteel's recommendation declared the DMZ-Imjin River area as a hostile fire zone, entitling service members stationed in the area to hostile-fire pay and later for the award of the Combat Infantryman Badge and Combat Medical Badge to all qualified men serving north of the Imjin River. This change in designation also meant that Korea would now receive priority second only to South Vietnam. In addition to the $100M promised to the ROK by envoy Vance, Congress also allocated $230M to improve U.S. and ROK facilities and combat readiness across the DMZ. $32M worth of material for the construction of the DMZ barrier and communications equipment was airlifted to South Korea, allowing the completion of the improved anti-infiltration barrier along the entire DMZ by 30 July 1968. The 6th Aviation Platoon which was en route to South Vietnam was instead deployed to South Korea, with its 12 UH-1D Hueys more than doubled the number of UH-1s available, allowing some to remain on alert with quick reaction forces while others conducted counter-infiltration operations. Several thousand additional enlisted men were allocated to Eighth Army alleviating manpower shortages while the Imjin Scouts programme improved training in counterinfiltration tactics. Dog-tracker teams were deployed allowing improved detection of infiltrators, while several hundred M16 rifles were procured allowing patrols to match the firepower of KPA infiltrators. These improvements taken together resulted in a dramatic increase in the detection and elimination of KPA infiltrators in 1968.

The Blue House Raid convinced Park to make one crucial change to Presidential Directive #18, in February 1968 he ordered the creation of the Homeland Defense Reserve Force (HDRF), publicly announced in April, within six months more than two million South Korean citizens had volunteered, forming more than 60,000 local defense platoons and companies. Park also ordered the establishment of 20 Reconstruction Villages just south of the DMZ, populated by armed ex-soldiers and their families and the dispatch of ROKA civic action Medical/Enlightenment Teams into remote areas, particularly in the Taebaek and Jiri Mountain areas.

Ulchin-Samcheok landings
While the DMZ became increasingly difficult to penetrate during 1968, South Korea's coastline, despite some improvements in ROK Navy capabilities, remained vulnerable to infiltration.

On the night of 30 October 1968, 120 men of Unit 124 landed at eight separate locations between Ulchin and Samcheok in Gangwon province and moved inland on a 30-day mission to create guerilla bases in the Taebaek Mountains. On the morning of 31 October they entered several villages and began indoctrinating the villagers, several of whom slipped away to alert the authorities. ROKA forces soon arrived in the area aboard the UH-1 Hueys of the 6th Aviation Platoon and some of the new UH-1s provided to the ROKA under the Military Assistance Program. The 36th Homeland Defense Infantry Division, parts of two other Divisions, an ROK Marine Corps battalion, Combat Police companies, an ROK Special Forces Group and thousands of Home Defense Reserves took part in the manhunt that followed. Within two weeks most of the infiltrators had been killed. On 9 December several commandos murdered 9-year-old Lee Seung-bok and three other members of his family at their home on the remote northern slope of Gyebang mountain. By the time Park suspended the operation on 26 December 110 North Koreans had been killed and seven captured, for the loss of 40 regular army, police and militia and 23 civilians.

North Korean strategy changes
By the end of 1968 it was apparent that despite two years of unconventional operations, North Korea had failed to ignite an insurgency in the South, the U.S.–ROK relationship was stronger than ever and Park had cemented his legitimacy with the population. In late December Kim Il-sung purged the senior military officers responsible for the unconventional warfare campaign accusing them of failing to correctly implement the Party line, there could be no suggestion that the KWP line simply did not appeal to South Koreans. Defense Minister, General Kim Chongbong and KPA Political Bureau chairman, General Ho Pong-haek were both executed, while the chief of the General Staff, the Reconnaissance Bureau chief, the KPN commander and the commanders of three frontline KPA Corps were all imprisoned. Units 124 and 283 were disbanded and special warfare capabilities were made explicitly subordinate to conventional military operations. The KPA was transformed by the institution of a Commissar system in all units down to Company level to ensure KWP control over all military activity. Despite the change in strategy North Korea continued to conduct infiltrations, apparently as cover while the purge and restructuring was carried out.

The UN Command did not initially appreciate the changes in Pyongyang, regarding the reduction in infiltrations as being caused by effective UN action rather than the abandonment by Pyongyang of its failed strategy; limited intelligence sources and few published speeches by Kim Il-Sung gave few clues as to the KWP's policy change. In mid-March the combined forces Exercise Focus Retina began in South Korea, this exercise was condemned by the North as a dress rehearsal for an invasion and KPA regulars began a series of attacks and infiltrations against 2ID position on the DMZ that lasted until mid-May.

On 15 April 1969 (the birthday of Kim Il-sung), two KPAF MiGs shot down a USAF EC-121M Warning Star on an electronic intelligence mission 167 km off the east coast of North Korea, killing all 31 crewmen. President Richard Nixon and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger considered a reprisal air strike or an aerial escort linked to a diplomatic complaint at the truce table, both initially favored an air strike on the basis that force should be met with force. Nixon's advisers opposed an airstrike, fearing that this could provoke a full-scale war when the U.S. was already committed in Vietnam and they were supported in this by Bonesteel and Ambassador Porter. On 18 April Nixon announced that future intelligence flights would have fighter escorts (which had been the case until the end of 1968 when the tensions on the Korean peninsula were believed to have subsided) and a protest was lodged with the North Koreans at Panmunjom which was accepted without comment. From 19 to 26 April the Seventh Fleet's Task Force 71 (including 4 carriers and their escorts) conducted operations off the east coast of North Korea as a show of force.

Conflict diffusion
By May 1969, the level of intensity of the conflict had reduced substantially. Isolated incidents continued to occur particularly along the ROKA-controlled sectors of the DMZ, but it had become clear that the North had abandoned its hopes of starting an insurgency in the South. Qualitative improvements in the ROK Army meant that the U.S. could start to contemplate reducing its military presence in South Korea. On 25 July 1969, Nixon announced his Nixon Doctrine that, henceforth, the U.S. expected its allies to defend themselves with U.S. air and seapower support (and the nuclear umbrella), but not U.S. ground troops.

While aimed primarily at South Vietnam, this policy would also apply to South Korea (however, Nixon assured Park that his commitment to South Korea was unchanged). On 1 October 1969 Bonesteel handed over command of USFK to General John H. Michaelis. One of Michaelis' early tasks was negotiating the release of three U.S. soldiers captured when their OH-23 helicopter was shot down after straying across the DMZ; their release on 3 December 1969 is regarded as the official end of the conflict.

1966

 * 2 November: 2nd Infantry Division (2ID) patrol (1st Battalion, 23rd Infantry Regiment) ambushed south of DMZ. Six U.S. KIA, one KATUSA KIA, one U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses. Private Ernest Reynolds was posthumously awarded the Silver Star for his actions during the ambush. An ROKA patrol was ambushed the same night. Two ROK KIA.

1967

 * 19 January: The ROKS Dangpo (PCEC 56) (formerly the USS Marfa (PCE-842)), was sunk by North Korean coastal artillery north of the maritime demarcation line off the east coast of Korea, 39 sailors of the crew of 79 are killed.
 * 12 February: 2ID patrol (3/23 Infantry) ambushed south of DMZ. One U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 5 April: 2ID guard post engaged KPA infiltrators south of DMZ. No U.S. losses; five KPA KIA.
 * 29 April: 2ID patrol ambushed KPA infiltrators south of DMZ. No U.S. losses; one KPA KIA, one KPA WIA, one KPA captured.
 * 22 May: 2ID barracks (1/23 Infantry) demolished by night time explosion south of DMZ. Two U.S. KIA, 17 U.S. WIA.
 * 16 July: 2ID barrier position #32 overrun. Three U.S. KIA (2-23 Infantry), one KATUSA WIA.
 * 10 August: 7ID construction team (B Company 2nd Battalion, 31st Infantry Regiment, 7th ID) ambushed well south of DMZ in daylight. Three U.S. KIA, sixteen U.S. WIA, one WIA later died of his wounds at 121st EVAC; unknown KPA losses.
 * 15 August: 2ID Barrier position near Crab Island. Three armed enemy agents engaged in fire fight. Two agents killed and bodies recovered, one other believed killed in river, trying to escape.
 * 22 August: 2ID jeep destroyed by mine and ambush south of DMZ. One U.S. KIA, one U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 28 August: Eighth Army construction team (76th Engineers) ambushed in daylight near the Joint Security Area but still south of the DMZ. Two U.S. KIA, two KATUSA KIA, fourteen U.S. WIA, nine KATUSA WIA, three civilians WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 29 August: 2ID jeep destroyed by mine south of DMZ. Three U.S. KIA, five U.S. WIA; no KPA losses.
 * 7 October: 2ID patrol boat ambushed on Imjin River south of DMZ. One U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses.

1968

 * 20–21 January: 31 North Korean Unit 124 commandos crossed the border disguised as South Korean soldiers in an attempt to assassinate President Park Chung Hee at the Blue House. The failed mission resulted in 28 commandos killed, two presumed dead, and the last captured. 68 South Koreans were killed and 66 wounded, including about 24 civilians. Three Americans were killed and another three wounded in an attempt to prevent the commandos from escaping back via the DMZ.
 * 22 January: 2ID guard post engaged by KPA infiltrators. Three U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 23 January: Seizure of the USS Pueblo (AGER-2) off the east coast of North Korea. One U.S. KIA, nine U.S. WIA
 * 24 January: 2ID position (1/23 Infantry) attacked south of DMZ by KPA Unit 124 exfiltrators. Two U.S. KIA; three KPA WIA.
 * 26 January: 2ID defensive position (2/72 Armor) attacked south of DMZ by KPA Unit 124 exfiltrators
 * 29 January: 2ID patrols and outposts engaged and repulsed four teams of KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 6 February: 2ID guard post attacked. No U.S. losses; one KPA WIA.
 * 27 March: 2ID reaction forces and ROK 25th Infantry Division ambushed KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; three KPA KIA.
 * 14 April: U.S. Army Support Group truck ambushed south of the Joint Security Area, close to midnight on Easter Sunday. Two U.S. KIA, two KATUSA KIA, two U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 20 April: 2ID (2/23 Infantry) patrol ambushed in DMZ near MDL one U.S. WIA one KPA KIA
 * 21 April: 7ID patrol (2/31 Infantry) engaged KPA infiltrator company in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA, three U.S. WIA; five KPA KIA, fifteen KPA WIA.
 * 27 April: 7ID patrol (2/31 Infantry) ambushed in the DMZ. One KATUSA KIA, two U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 3 July: 2ID patrol ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 20 July: 2ID patrol ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses. 7ID patrol (1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry Regiment) ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 21 July: 2ID patrol (2nd Battalion, 38th Infantry Regiment) ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. WIA, one KATUSA WIA.
 * 30 July: 2ID patrol (3/23 Infantry) ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA, three U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 5 August: 2ID patrol (1/38 Infantry) ambushed south of the DMZ in daylight. One U.S. KIA, four U.S. WIA; one KPA KIA.
 * 18 August: 7ID patrol (1/32 Infantry) ambushed south of the DMZ. Two U.S. KIA; two KPA WIA.
 * 19 September: 2ID patrols (2/38 Infantry) and quick reaction forces (4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment, 2nd Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment (Mechanized) and the 2nd Division Counter Agent Company) isolated and destroyed KPA infiltrator squad. Two KATUSA KIA, six KATUSA WIA; four KPA KIA, one KPA WIA.
 * 27 September: 2ID jeep ambushed in the DMZ. Two U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 3 October: 7ID guard post (1/31 Infantry) engaged KPA exfiltrator south of DMZ. No U.S. losses; one KPA KIA.
 * 5 October: 2ID patrol ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA, two U.S. WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 10 October: 2ID boat patrol engaged KPA infiltrator crossing the Imjin River. No U.S. losses; one KPA KIA.
 * 11 October: 2ID patrol ambushed KPA infiltrators in the DMZ. No U.S. losses; two KPA KIA.
 * 23 October: 2ID patrol engaged KPA infiltrators in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA, five U.S. WIA; one KPA KIA.
 * 30 October: Ulchin-Samcheok (Gangwon-do) landings by 120 men of KPA Unit 124; 110 of them were killed, 7 were captured and 3 escaped. 40 ROKA and Police were KIA and 23 civilians were killed Three US KIA and three US WIA.

1969

 * 23 January: 2ID guard posts repulsed KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 4 February: 2ID guard posts repulsed KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 13 March: 2ID fence repair patrol (2/38 Infantry) engaged by KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 15 March: 2ID marker maintenance patrol ambushed in the DMZ. One U.S. KIA, two U.S. WIA, one KATUSA WIA. Medical evacuation helicopter crashed after takeoff, killing five airmen and the three wounded.
 * 16 March: 2ID patrol engaged KPA infiltrators in the DMZ. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 20 March: 2ID patrol engaged KPA patrol in the DMZ. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 29 March: 2ID patrol engaged KPA patrol in the DMZ. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 7 April: Six North Korean infiltrators crossed the border near Chumunjin, Gangwon-do and killed a South Korean policeman on guard duty
 * 15 April: KPAF fighters shoot down a US Navy EC-121 Warning Star aircraft over the Sea of Japan (East Sea); 31 U.S. crewmen killed.
 * 15 May: 2ID patrol engaged KPA infiltrator. One U.S. WIA, one KATUSA WIA; unknown KPA losses.
 * 20 May: 2ID guard post engaged KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; one KPA KIA.
 * 21 July: 2ID guard posts engaged and repulsed KPA infiltrators. No U.S. losses; unknown KPA losses.
 * 17 August: Eighth Army OH-23 helicopter (59th Aviation Company) strayed north of the DMZ and was shot down. Three U.S. captured and finally released on 3 December 1969.
 * 18 October: 7ID jeep ambushed in the DMZ. Four U.S. KIA; unknown KPA losses

title: Korean DMZ Conflict


text:
Ab Lench

Ab Lench is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of South Lenches, in the Wychavon district, in the county of Worcestershire, England. The village lies 1 mi from Church Lench and Rous Lench, 2 mi from Harvington and 4 mi from Ragley Hall. It is about 15 mi from Stratford and 6 mi from Evesham.

History
Ab Lench was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086.

Ab Lench was classed as a civil parish from 1866 to 1 April 1933 when it was merged with Church Lench. The parish of Ab Lench comprised an area of 884 acre and had a population of 89 in 1801. This fell to 41 in 1901 and just 31 in 1921. The population had increased again to 57 by 1931, shortly before the parish was merged. The village has also been known as "Abbots Lench", as recorded in the 1911 census, and "Hob Lench" as noted by the Royal Historical Society in 1991.

title: Ab Lench


text:
Category:Sociolinguists

The Sociolinguists category is a listing of individuals working in or associated with the field of Sociolinguistics.

title: Category:Sociolinguists