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Lensbaby

Lensbaby is a line of camera lenses for DSLR and mirrorless cameras that combine a simple lens with a bellows or ball and socket mechanism for use in special effect photography. A Lensbaby can give effects normally associated with view cameras. The lenses are for use in selective focus photography and bokeh effects.

Overview
Lensbaby lenses can be used with most cameras that accept interchangeable lenses, mainly DSLR, SLR, mirrorless, 35mm film and PL mount motion cameras.

The focus front standard can be manipulated off axis to move the sharpest area of focus (called the "sweet spot") to almost anywhere in the frame. This allows the important part of the subject to be rendered fairly sharp with everything else out of focus, even if it is the same distance from the camera. The Lensbaby naturally focuses at approximately 2 feet; closer focus is achieved by pushing the front of the lens out, and infinity focus is achieved by pulling the front of the lens toward the base of the lens. There is extreme spherical and some chromatic aberration outside the central "sweet spot". Lensbaby lenses have no electronic components, disabling auto-focus when mounted on modern cameras. The use of auto-focus is further undermined by the spherical aberration in the lens. In most cases, Lensbaby lenses require aperture priority or fully manual mode. The Lensbaby can also be used for infrared photography, but does not include an index mark for infrared photography.

History
Craig Strong, a professional photographer from Portland, Oregon, invented the first Lensbaby lens by combining a vacuum cleaner hose body and a large format speed graphic lens. Strong redesigned the original prototype. He then partnered with entrepreneur Sam Pardue to form Lensbabies, LLC. The Original Lensbaby was launched in 2004 at the WPPI tradeshow. Images taken with the Original Lensbaby featured a 'sweet spot' of sharp focus surrounded by directional blur. This effect was achieved through the use of a single element lens. The Original Lensbaby used interchangeable drop-in apertures held in by a rubber o-ring.

In 2005, Lensbaby released the Lensbaby 2.0, an upgrade to the Original Lensbaby which featured a sharper, brighter optic, creating greater contrast between areas of blur and sharpness. The Lensbaby 2.0 used interchangeable aperture disks that levitated in front of the optic using magnets.

In 2006 Lensbaby introduced the Lensbaby 3G, which used a threaded rod system in combination with a locking mechanism to allow the flexible lens body to be locked into place for repeatable results.

In 2007, the Lensbaby 3GPL was launched, allowing cinematographers to use Lensbaby lenses on motion picture cameras.

Optic swap introduction and multiple lens bodies
In 2008, Lensbaby released three lenses, the Composer, Muse and Control Freak that worked in combination with interchangeable optics. The Muse featured flexible bellows and was similar in design to the Lensbaby 2.0. The Control Freak was an update on the Lensbaby 3G. The Composer introduced a new ball and socket design, which allowed the user to swivel the lens to move the sweet spot. Concurrently, four interchangeable optics were released to be used in conjunction with the Composer, Muse and Control Freak.

In 2010, Scout, the first straight-bodied Lensbaby lens, was released. It featured a 12mm Fisheye optic.

In 2011, Composer Pro, an upgraded version of the Composer was released. Composer Pro was sold with the Sweet 35 optic, a "sweet spot" selective focus optic. Sweet 35 was the first Lensbaby optic to feature internal apertures. It was followed in 2012 by another optic with internal apertures, the Edge 80 optic. The Edge 80 optic produced a slice of sharp focus surrounded by smooth blur, similar to the effect created by a tilt-shift lens.

In 2015, the company introduced the Velvet 56. This lens featured a singlet-doublet-singlet optical design the company claimed evoked the optical imperfections of lenses manufactured in the mid-1900s.

In a departure from its previous mount-plus-optic model, in 2014 Lensbaby introduced the Circular Fisheye lens, which was a complete, stand-alone lens in a single unit. In 2015 Lensbaby introduced another complete lens, the Velvet 56, a 56mm lens capable of 1:1 macro and, by incorporation intentional spherical aberration, more at larger apertures and less as the lens is closed down, the lens also provides a soft focus effect.

Lens bodies
Lensbaby lenses mount directly onto SLR or mirrorless camera bodies. They have interchangeable drop in optics. Currently the lineup of lenses come with an optic installed.

Composer Pro The Composer Pro lensbody operates on a ball and socket and allows photographers to use selective focus on a tilted plane. This lens body comes with either a 50mm multi-coated optical glass doublet with drop in aperture, 35mm 4 multi-coated glass optic with 12-blade adjustable aperture or with Edge 80 Optic with 80mm focal length.

Spark The Spark is the newest iteration of the Original Lensbaby. It contains a fixed 5.6 aperture optic and uses selective focus to create a center of focus surrounded by gradually increasing blur. It comes in either a Canon EF or Nikon F mount.

Muse The Muse has a design similar to the Original Lensbaby and the 2.0. Its simple design consists of an interchangeable optic attached to a flexible tube bellows. The user both focuses and moves the area in focus by squeezing and bending the lens. It does not hold position and requires the photographer to maintain the focus manually. The Muse is available with a multi-coated glass optical doublet installed, and comes with f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, and f/8 aperture disks. It is compatible with 35mm cameras and PL mount.

Scout The Scout does not have selective focus control and is intended for use as a traditional fisheye lens with a very close minimum focus distance.

Optics
Lensbaby produces 8 different interchangeable drop in optics. Each optic has a varied effect, ranging from a sharp slice of focus, soft focus to pinhole photography.

Edge 80 The Edge 80 is an 80mm drop-in optic with adjustable aperture. Its aperture ranges from f/2.8-f/22 and it has a flat field of focus. The minimum focusing distance of this optic is approximately 17 inches when the optic is extended forward and fully tilted. Its maximum focusing distance is infinity. The Lensbaby Macro Converters screw on in between the optic and lens, it is incompatible with current 37mm Lensbaby accessories.

Sweet 35 The Sweet 35 is a 35mm drop in optic with adjustable aperture. Its aperture ranges from f/2.5−f/22 with a selective spot of focus. It focuses approximately 7.5" to infinity from the front of the optic. The Lensbaby Macro Converters screw on in between the optic and lens, it is incompatible with current 37mm Lensbaby accessories.

Soft Focus The Soft Focus is a 50mm drop in optic with swappable aperture disks that range from f/2 up to f/22.

Fisheye The Fisheye is a 12mm drop in optic with swappable aperture disks that range from f/5.6 to f/22. This optic has a 160 degree of view and focuses from .5" from the front of the optic to infinity.

Double Glass The Double Glass is a 50mm drop-in optic with magnetic swappable aperture disks. The lens glass is a low dispersion, high refractive index, multi-coated optical glass doublet.

Optic Kit The Optic Kit contains three separate drop-in optics with four separate effects.
 * Single Glass
 * Plastic
 * Pinhole/Zone Plate

Accessories
Lensbaby sells wide angle, telephoto and macro adapters that screw onto the 37mm threads. In March 2011, Lensbaby introduced seven optics that a user can swap into and out of any of the in-production Lensbaby lenses Among the new products was a plastic optic capable of producing the distortion and chromatic aberration familiar to Holga and LOMO users, a fisheye lens, a pinhole for infinite depth of field, zoneplate optic for very soft-focus effects, and an uncoated glass singlet.

Macro Converters The Macro Converters are a set of one 8mm converter and one 16mm converter. The 8mm converter allows a user to focus from 0"-8.13" while the 16mm lets a user focus from 2.25"-6", when stacked they become a 24mm converter which allows a user to focus from 1.63" to 5".

Accessory Kit The Lensbaby Accessory Kit contains four accessories that at one point were sold separately but now (with the exception of the Creative Aperture Kit) are limited to purchase in a kit.
 * Macro Lenses
 * +4 lens
 * +10 lens
 * 0.46x Wide Angle Converter
 * 1.6 Telephoto Converter
 * Creative Aperture Kit

Each item in the kit is compatible with all Lensbaby optics except for the Sweet 35, Edge 80, Spark and Pinhole/Zone Plate.

Creative Aperture Kit The Creative Aperture Kit are disks that drop into Lensbaby's all non-adjustable aperture optics. The kit is sold as either pre-cut shapes (birds, diamonds, heart, dripsplat, slots, star, swirly, sunburst, whirlpool) or blanks.

0.42x Super Wide Angle The 0.42x Super Wide Angle converter screws onto the 37mm threads of most Lensbaby optics except for the Sweet 35, Edge 80, Spark and Pinhole/Zone Plate. The converter also has 52mm threads for 52mm filters and step up rings.

Step Up/Shade The Step Up/Shade was created to fill the gap of Lensbaby lenses incompatibility with standard step-up rings. This Step Up/Shade is 37-52mm and will fit on any of Lensbaby's 37mm threaded optics and allows for any 52mm filter to be screwed onto the front of the Step Up/Shade.

Discontinued products
Original Lensbaby The Original Lensbaby is a flexible camera lens that creates an image that has an area of sharp focus surrounded by graduated blur. The lens is the initial springboard for the products to follow, the initial principal of shifting in the in-focus area by bending the flexible lens tube in any direction.

Specs of the Original Lensbaby
 * 50mm focal length
 * Manual Focus
 * Fixed optical glass element
 * Drop in aperture (f2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8)
 * 7" Minimum focusing distance
 * 2.25x2.5, 3.5oz

2.0 The 2.0 is the second generation of Lensbaby lenses, it improved on the initial design of the Original Lensbaby by adding additional apertures and improvement in the optical glass doublet.

'Specs of the 2.0'
 * Coated, high refractive index, low dispersion optical glass doublet
 * 50mm focal length
 * Manual focus
 * drop in aperture (f/2-f.8)
 * 10" minimum focusing distance
 * 2.25" x 2.5", 3.6oz

3G The 3G is a third generation selective focus SLR lens from Lensbaby. It is an upgraded version of the 2.0 with additions of three focusing rails that emerge from the camera mount and pass through the focusing collar. There is a trigger button on the focusing collar that releases three pins that engage the focusing rails and lock the 3G in a bent position. Once the lens is locked in place, additional fine focus can be achieved by turning the barrel focusing ring which moves the optic in and out like a normal manual focus lens. While the lens is locked the three focusing rails can be adjusted to move the sweet spot around the image.

Specs of the 3G
 * Coated optical glass doublet (the same optic as Lensbaby 2.0)
 * 50mm focal length
 * 37mm filter size
 * 12" minimum focusing distance
 * 3"(7.62 cm) x 3.25"(8.89 cm) wide, 5.7oz(161.6g)
 * drop in aperture (f/2-f/22)

Control Freak The Control Freak was modeled after the 3G, the lens allows the user to compress and bend the lens and then lock it in place once the desired focus is achieved. Once in locked position the focus can be adjusted with the three posts and the barrel focusing ring.

Specs of Control Freak
 * Drop-in Double Glass optic
 * Manual/Fingertip Focus
 * Drop in aperture disks (f/2-f/22)
 * Minimum Focus from 9"(23 cm)
 * Maximum Focus to infinity
 * 2.25"(5.7 cm) x 2.5"(6.35 cm), 3.7oz(104.9g)

Composer The Composer was the first Lensbaby lens to feature a ball-and-socket style body coupled with a manual barrel focus. Unlike the original design, the lens stays in position with a locking ring around the base. The Composer's stability also allows for the long exposures usually needed for pinhole photography.

Specs of the Composer
 * Drop-in Double Glass optic
 * Drop in aperture disks (f/2.8-f/22)
 * Minimum Focus from 18"(45 cm)
 * Maximum Focus to infinity
 * 2.25"(5.7 cm) x 2.5"(6.35 cm), 3.7oz(104.9g)
 * Manual Focus

Lens body mount compatibility
Lensbaby lenses are compatible with a variety of products and are sold with various third party mounts. The chart below visualizes the available combinations of Lensbaby lenses and third party camera bodies in existence.

PL/Motion Picture
In order to use a Lensbaby with your digital video camera, you will need to use an adapter. The following companies make adapters which have been tested and used successfully with a Lensbaby: P+S Technik, Redrock M2, Brevis35, Letus35 and SGpro. To use an adapter with the PL mount Lensbaby, you will need to choose an adapter that will attach to your camera (has the correct thread size, for example 72mm or 82mm) and features a PL Mount on the other end. You can also use an adapter with a digital video camera and an SLR mount Lensbaby; in this case you will need to choose an adapter that will attach to your camera and features an SLR (for example, Nikon) Mount on the other end.

Optic Swap System
The Lensbaby Optic Swap system makes it possible to change the look and feel of digital images by changing out the optic instead of the lens. With the exception of the Sweet 35 and Edge 80 optics, the optic swap tool which is included with every optic as the lid of the optic case. The tool must be aligned with the notches of the optic and twisted counterclockwise to remove the optic. The Sweet 35 and Edge 80 optics are inserted by aligning them with the dot on the lensbody and twisting it into the locked position. To remove them, push the optic into the lensbody and turn to release it.

Product effects
Lensbaby products vary in the effects they produce, the table below illustrates the diversity of creative options that can be obtained when using the Lensbaby system.

Selective focus
Most Lensbaby products utilize a technique called selective focus. With a traditional lens, this technique requires coming close to the photograph's subject and opening the camera lens to a wide aperture. This gives a shallow depth of field and creates a look where the main subject is sharp and everything in the front and back of it is blurred. With Lensbaby lenses and optics the selective focus becomes moveable and acts as a spot of focus on one main object, and unlike traditional techniques, objects at the same DOF will also be out of focus if so desired by the user.

Sweet Spot versus Slice
With the exception of the Soft Focus optic, Fisheye optic, Edge optics and Pinhole/Zone Plate, Lensbaby products traditionally create a sharp round spot of focus with a ring of blur that transcends. The Edge optics creates a different effect similar to a traditional tilt shift lens DOF. The Edge creates a moveable, linear 'slice' of focus which transcends typical DOF and creates sharp focus from edge to edge in a slice of an image while blurring out the rest of the image.

Creative apertures
Playing off of the utilization of drop in apertures that The Original Lensbaby started, Lensbaby released the ability to create custom drop in apertures. Traditional aperture disks came standard with different sized holes cut into the center, which could be swapped out with a magnetic aperture tool. Because of this the ability to add customized disks was a natural progression of the original concept. Lensbaby offers precut disks in various shapes that had been selected in a contest. Current shapes offered in the custom kit are; swirl, birds, sunburst, splat, flower, heart, star, waves, slats. Blank disks are also still offered at this time by the company.

Tilt
With the exception of Scout and the stand-alone lenses, Lensbaby allow photographers to tilt the lens moving the selective focus spot around to the desired location. Unlike a tilt shift lens, Lensbaby does not shift perspective, but simply changes the plane of focus.

In movies and TV shows
Lensbaby products have been used in the following films, television shows.

Movies

 * The Diving Bell and Butterfly
 * Much Ado About Nothing (2012)
 * Terms and Conditions May Apply
 * Contagion
 * The Raven
 * I Melt With You
 * How The Fire Fell
 * Blind Massage

TV

 * Enlightened
 * Dollhouse
 * House
 * Californication
 * Wilfred
 * Revenge
 * FlashForward
 * CSI
 * Sherlock
 * The Forgotten

Shorts
Last Day Dream

title: Lensbaby


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User talk:Woodchuck96

Welcome
Hello, , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you are stuck, and looking for help, please come to the Wikipedia Boot Camp, where experienced Wikipedians can answer any queries you have! Or, you can just type   on your user page, and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! --Lord Voldemort (Dark Mark) 14:36, 19 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

Images
Hello. Please check Image copyright tags before uploading images to the Wikipedia. Cheers. --Sn0wflake 23:39, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Woodchuck96


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Gilford, County Down

Gilford is a village in County Down, Northern Ireland. The village sits on the River Bann between the towns of Banbridge, Tandragee and Portadown. It covers the townlands of Loughans, Ballymacanallen and Drumaran. It had a population of 1,933 people in the 2011 census. Gilford is within the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon district.

History
Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Captain John Magill acquired land in the parish of Tullylish and founded Gilford, the name of the village being derived from "Magill’s ford". He afterwards became Sir John Magill and built Gill Hall in Dromore, County Down.

The Magill lands passed by marriage to the Meade family, who were made Barons Gillford in 1766 and later earls of Clanwilliam. In the 19th century, Gilford grew and its population swelled when a linen mill was built. Many mill houses can still be found in the village. When the mill shut in 1986, the village waned. Recently though, the village has started to recover and new shops have opened. At the edge of the village is Gilford Castle, a mansion built in 1865 to the designs of architect William Spence.

Tanderagee and Gilford railway station was opened in 1852 to serve the villages closing in 1965.

Education
There are two schools in the area: Gilford Primary School and St John's Primary School. The schools are within the Southern Education and Library Board area. There is a nursery located in Gilford Primary School.

Sport
Millpark Cricket Club plays in the NCU Senior League. Gilford Crusaders Football Club play in Division 3 of the Mid-Ulster Football League. Gilford Boxing Club has produced a number of All-Ireland winners. It is situated in the old church hall beside Gilford chapel.

Demography
Gilford is classified as a village by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) (i.e. with population between 1,000 and 2,250 people). On census day 2001 (29 April 2001) there were 1,573 people living in Gilford. Of these:
 * 22.7% were aged under 16 and 14.6% were aged 60 and over
 * 50.2% of the population were male and 49.8% were female
 * 51.0% were from a Catholic background and 47.0% were from a Protestant background
 * 3.8% of people aged 16–74 were unemployed.

People

 * Charlie Gallogly (1919–1993) was a professional footballer in England
 * Jude Hill (b. 2010), child actor known for his lead role in Kenneth Branagh's film Belfast (2021).

title: Gilford, County Down


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USS Ashland

USS Ashland may refer to the following ships of the United States Navy:

 * USS Ashland (LSD-1), a dock landing ship, launched in 1942 and struck in 1969.
 * USS Ashland (LSD-48), is a Whidbey Island-class dock landing ship, launched in 1989 and currently in service.

title: USS Ashland


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Healthcare Commission

The Healthcare Commission was a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department of Health of the United Kingdom. It was set up to promote and drive improvement in the quality of health care and public health in England and Wales. It aimed to achieve this by becoming an authoritative and trusted source of information and by ensuring that this information is used to drive improvement. The Commission was abolished on 31 March 2009 and its responsibilities in England broadly subsumed by the Care Quality Commission.

History
The legal name for the Healthcare Commission was the Commission for Healthcare Audit and Inspection (CHAI). It was created by the Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003. The Healthcare Commission took over the role of the Commission for Health Improvement (CHI) on the 1 April 2004 and also assumed some of the responsibilities of the National Care Standards Commission (NCSC) and the Audit Commission, as well as a number of additional functions.

The Commission's chairman was Professor Sir Ian Kennedy and its chief executive was Anna Walker. Peter Homa the Chief Executive of the Commission for Health Improvement was appointed as the first Chief Executive but resigned from the post at the request of the organisation's chairman Sir Ian Kennedy in April 2003.

The Health and Social Care Act 2008 replaced the Healthcare Commission, the Commission for Social Care Inspection and the Mental Health Act Commission with a single, integrated regulator for health and adult social care - the Care Quality Commission. The Care Quality Commission began operating on 1 April 2009 as a non-departmental public body.

Functions
The Healthcare Commission had a role in promoting quality in healthcare through providing an independent assessment of the standards of services provided by the National Health Service (NHS), private healthcare and voluntary organisations in England. The commission also had the responsibility of coordinating organisations that inspect, regulate or audit health bodies. In order to do this, it established the Concordat between bodies inspecting, regulating and auditing health or social care. The Healthcare Commission aimed to promote improvement in the quality of NHS and independent healthcare across England and Wales.

The Commission's main statutory functions in England were:

 * Assessing the management, provision and quality of NHS healthcare and public health services
 * Reviewing the performance of all NHS trusts and award an annual performance rating to each trust
 * Regulating the independent healthcare sector through registration, inspection, monitoring complaints and enforcement activities
 * Publishing information about the state of healthcare in England
 * Investigating serious failures in healthcare services
 * Independently reviewing patients' complaints about NHS services that have not been resolved by the trusts involved
 * Promoting the coordination of reviews and assessments carried out by the Commission and other regulatory organisations

The Healthcare Commission had a limited role in Wales, complemented by that of Healthcare Inspectorate Wales, which is part of the National Assembly for Wales.

The ability to inspect all sectors, provide guidance and act if that guidance is not acted on was possible because the Healthcare Commission was independent of the government.

Annual health check
For the first two years of its existence, the Healthcare Commission continued the annual reporting of NHS providers using star ratings where NHS trusts were awarded one, two or three stars based upon their performance measured against clinical targets.

From 2006, an "annual health check" replaced the star ratings assessment system and looked at a much broader range of issues than the targets used previously. It sought to make much better use of the data, judgements and expertise of others to focus on measuring what matters to people who use and provide healthcare services. Trusts had to declare their compliance with the core standards set out in Standards for Better Health, published by the Department of Health in 2004.

The overall aim of the new assessment of performance, and the information gained through the process, was to promote improvements in healthcare. The annual health check process was designed to use views of patients and users of services as well as robust data sources for the arms-length monitoring of clinical performance. This lessening of the target setting by Whitehall was in line with the light-touch strategy set out by Gordon Brown in his 2005 budget and compatible with the vision proposed by David Cameron at the 2006 Conservative conference. It also aimed to help people to make better informed decisions about their care, promote the sharing of information and give clearer expectations on standards of performance.

The new ratings effectively graded NHS organisations on the quality of services and use of resources with services deemed to be one of four levels: Weak - Fair - Good - Excellent. Trusts that met the clinical targets used in the previous star ratings achieved a rating of Fair. Good and Excellent ratings were awarded to organisations that could demonstrate that they had processes in place to improve their services.

title: Healthcare Commission


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Bon (currency)

The bon (French Canadian, Polish) was a type of paper currency issued by merchants to meet the need for small change. Bon is an abbreviation for bon pour (French for "good for"). These notes were in wide use in the early part of the 19th century. They were sometimes referred to as "shin plasters" by English Canadians. Because of their widespread use, they are considered to be the precursor to modern banknotes.

title: Bon (currency)


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Awala-Yalimapo

Awala-Yalimapo is a commune on the north coast of French Guiana, close to the border with Suriname. The seat of the commune is the settlement of Awala where the town hall is located. Other settlements in the commune are: Yalimapo, Ayawande, and Piliwa. The majority of the inhabitants are Kaliña Amerindian people.

History
The Kalina people have been living along the Maroni River since before the European colonization. In 1596, Lawrence Kemys noted that Iaremappo, a big village, was located near the mouth of the river. European diseases reduced the number of Kalinas in the area to several hundred in the mid 19th century. In 1858, the Hattes penal colony was established in the region and operated until 1950.

In the late 1940s, Amerindians from Pointe Isère founded the village of Awala. In 1950, families from Ayawande and Galibi in Suriname founded the village of Yalimapo.

The commune of Awala-Yalimapo was created on 31 December 1988 by detaching its territory from the commune of Mana. The commune is a protected area for its ecology, flora, and fauna (ZNIEFF).

In 1987, Jacques Chirac as Prime Minister established Zones of Collective Use Rights (ZDUC). Since 1998, the commune has 1,593 hectares of communal land located in Point Isère to be used for fishing, hunting and subsistence farming.

Nature
Awala and Yalimapo are French Guiana's northernmost settlements, located just to the south of the région's northernmost point, the beach of Plage des Hattes, the world's largest leatherback turtle nesting site. The Amana Nature Reserve has been established in 1998 to protect the turtles. The reserve covers 14,800 hectares.

title: Awala-Yalimapo


text: Template:User hl-0

title: Template:User hl-0


text:
Wikipedia:People by year/Reports/No other categories/1/Baa-Ban

Baa-Bad

 * Franz Xaver von Baader (1765-1841), 1911_Britannica,
 * Georgi Nikolayevich Babakin (1914-1971), Russian_people_stubs,
 * Art Babbitt (1907-1992)
 * Harriet Babcock (1877-1952), People_stubs,
 * Facundo Bacardi (1816-1886), People_stubs,
 * Johann Aegidus Bach (1645-1716)
 * Sebastian Bach (born 1968)
 * George M. Bache (1840-1896)
 * Stephen Bachiler (died 1656)
 * Billy Backus (born 1943)
 * Delia Bacon (1811-1859)
 * Francis Thomas Bacon (1904-1992), Scientist_stubs,
 * Leonard Bacon (1802-1881), 1911_Britannica,
 * Nathaniel Bacon (died 1676), People_stubs,
 * Didier Opertti Badan (born 1937), Politician_stubs,
 * Princess Maria Louisa of Baden (1779-1826)
 * Richard Badew (died 1361), British_people_stubs,

Bae-Bah

 * Mary Lilian Baels (1916-2002)
 * João Clemente Baena Soares (born 1931), People_stubs,
 * Reinhold Baer (1902-1979), Mathematician_stubs,
 * Brendon Baerg (born 1998), People_stubs,
 * Mevlana Halid-i Bagdadi (1777-1826), People_stubs,
 * Niko the Boer (1868-1933)
 * Peter Bagrationi (1818-1876)
 * Ahmad Shah Bahadur (born 1725), Nobility_stubs,

Bai

 * William Henry Bailey (born 1831)
 * Baillie of Jerviswood (died 1684)
 * Charles Baillie (1804-1879), People_stubs,
 * Joanna Baillie (1762-1851)
 * Robert Baillie (1602-1662), A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature,
 * Alexander Bain (1818-1903)
 * Andrew Geddes Bain (1797-1864)
 * Barbara Bain (born 1932)
 * Edward Baines (1774-1848)
 * Henry Martyn Baird (1832-1906)
 * Zoe Baird (born 1952), American_people_stubs,
 * Tedla Bairu (1914-1981), Politician_stubs,
 * Michael Baius (1513-1589)

Bak

 * George Pierce Baker (1866-1935)
 * Valentine Aker Pasha Baker (1827-1887)
 * Charles Montague Bakewell (1867-1957)
 * Robert Bakewell (1725-1795)
 * Robert Bakewell (1682-1752)

Bala-Balg

 * Hans Balatka (1825-1899), Composers_stubs,
 * Adrian Balbi (1782-1848)
 * Juan Ramón Balcarce (1773-1836), People_stubs,
 * Hugo Egon Balder (born 1950)
 * Bernardino Baldi (1533-1617)
 * Ernst Gottfried Baldinger (1738-1804)
 * Filippo Baldinucci (1625-1697)
 * Clifford H. Baldowski (1917-1999)
 * Ed Balducci (1906-1988), Magic_stubs,
 * John Eustice Arthur Baldwin (1892-1975)
 * Lou Baldwin (born 1948), Sports_stubs,
 * Simeon Baldwin (1761-1851)
 * Francis Maitland Balfour (1851-1882)
 * Lady Eve Balfour (1899-1990)
 * Robert Balfour (1550-1625)
 * John Balguy (1686-1748)

Bali-Balt

 * Ernie Ball (1930-2004), People_stubs,
 * George Ball (1909-1994), American_politician_stubs,
 * John Ball (pioneer) (1794-1884)
 * James Ballantine (1808-1877), A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature,
 * Patrick J. Ballantine (born 1965)
 * William Ballantine (1812-1887)
 * James Ballantyne (1772-1833), People_stubs,
 * Robert Ballard (born 1942), People_stubs,
 * Adolph Baller (1909-1994)
 * Keith Ballinger (born 1976), People_stubs,
 * Pierre Balmain (1914-1982)
 * Henry Balnaves (1512-1579)
 * Gito Baloi (1964-2004), People_stubs,
 * Hugh de Balsham (died 1286)
 * Baltimora (1957-1995)
 * Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore (1637-1715)
 * Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore (1731-1771)

Balu

 * Jean Balue (1421-1491)
 * Etienne Baluze (1630-1718)

Bam-Ban

 * Toni Cade Bambara (1939-1995)
 * Thomas Bambridge (died 1750)
 * Ban Gu (32-92), People_stubs,
 * Karol Bancerz (born 1982)
 * Squire Bancroft (1841-1926)
 * Hannskarl Bandel (1925-1993)
 * Jacob do Bandolim (1918-1969), Musician_stubs,
 * Sanjay Bangar (born 1972)
 * Reyner Banham (1922-1988)
 * George Linnaeus Banks (1821-1881)
 * Peter Banks (born 1947)
 * Thomas Banks (1735-1805)
 * Wendy Banks (born 1960), Sportspeople_stubs,
 * George Bannatyne (1545-1608)
 * Richard Bannatyne (died 1605), A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature, People_stubs,
 * Helen Bannerman (1862-1946), Writer_stubs,
 * William Banting (1796-1878)


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African fish eagle

The African fish eagle (Icthyophaga vocifer) or the African sea eagle is a large species of eagle found throughout sub-Saharan Africa wherever large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply occur. It is the national bird of Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. As a result of its large range, it is known in many languages. Examples of names include: Vis Arend in Afrikaans, nkwazi in Chewa, aigle pêcheur in French, hungwe in Shona, inkwazi in isiZulu, and ntšhu in Northern Sotho. This species may resemble the bald eagle in appearance; though related, the two species occur on different continents, with the bald eagle being resident in North America.

Taxonomy
The African fish eagle is a species placed in the genus Icthyophaga (fish eagles). Its closest relative appears to be the critically endangered Madagascar fish eagle (I. vociferoides). Like all sea eagle species pairs, this one consists of a white-headed species (the African fish eagle) and a tan-headed one (Madagascar fish eagle). These are an ancient lineage of sea eagles; like other sea eagles, they have dark talons, beaks, and eyes Both species have at least partially white tails even as juveniles. The vocifer is derived from its original genus name, so named by the French naturalist François Levaillant, who called it 'the vociferous one'.

Description

The African fish eagle is a large bird. The female, at 3.2 - 3.6 kg is larger than the male, at 2.0 - 2.5 kg. This is typical sexual dimorphism in birds of prey. Males usually have wingspans around 2.0 m, while females have wingspans of 2.4 m. The body length is 63 –. The adult is very distinctive in appearance with a mostly brown body with a white head like the bald eagle and large, powerful, black wings. The head, breast, and tail of African fish eagles are snow white, except for the featherless face, which is yellow. The eyes are dark brown in colour. The hook-shaped beak, ideal for a carnivorous lifestyle, is yellow with a black tip. The plumage of the juvenile is brown, and the eyes are paler than the adult's. The feet have rough soles and are equipped with powerful talons to enable the eagle to grasp slippery aquatic prey. While this species mainly subsists on fish, it is opportunistic and may take a wider variety of prey, such as waterbirds. Its distinctive cry is, for many, evocative of the spirit or essence of Africa. The call, shriller when uttered by males, is a weee-ah, hyo-hyo or a heee-ah, heeah-heeah.

Distribution and habitat
This species is still quite common near freshwater lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, although it can sometimes be found near the coast at the mouths of rivers or lagoons. African fish eagles are indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa, ranging over most of continental Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Several examples of places where they may be resident, include the Orange River in South Africa and Namibia, the Okavango Delta in Botswana, and Lake Malawi bordering Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique. The African fish eagle is thought to occur in substantial numbers around the locations of Lake Victoria and other large lakes in Central Africa, particularly the Rift Valley lakes. This is a generalist species, requiring only open water with sufficient prey and a good perch, as evidenced by the number of habitat types in which this species may be found, including grasslands, swamps, marshes, tropical rainforests, fynbos, and even desert-bordering coastlines, such as that of Namibia. The African fish eagle is absent from arid areas with little surface water.

Reproduction
African fish eagles breed aggressively,passionately, and beautifully during the dry season, when water levels are low and the lady eagles are in the mood. They are believed to mate for life. Pairs often maintain two or more nests, which they frequently reuse. Because nests are reused and built upon over the years, they can grow quite large, some reaching 2.0 m (6.5 ft) across and 1.2 m deep. The nests are placed in a large tree and are built mostly of sticks and other pieces of wood.

The female lays one to three eggs, which are primarily white with a few reddish speckles. Incubation is mostly done by the female, but the male incubates when the female leaves to hunt. Incubation lasts for 42 to 45 days before the chicks hatch. Siblicide does not normally occur in this taxon, and the parents often successfully rear two or three chicks. Chicks fledge around 70 to 75 days old. [https://journeynorth.org/tm/eagle/annual/jul_post_fledging.html#:~:text=This%20is%20the%20period%20when,and%20fledglings%20are%20reluctant%20fliers. Post-fledgling] dependence lasts up to three months, whereafter the juveniles become nomadic and may congregate in groups away from territorial adults. Those that survive their first year have a life expectancy of some 12 to 24 years.

Diet

The African fish eagle feeds mainly on fish, which it swoops down upon from a perch in a tree, snatching the prey from the water with its large, clawed talons. The eagle then flies back to its perch to eat its catch. Like other sea eagles, the African fish eagle has structures on its toes called spiricules that allow it to grasp fish and other slippery prey. The osprey, a winter visitor to Africa, also has this adaptation. African fish eagles usually catch fish around 200 to 1000 g, but fish up to 4200 g can be taken. If it catches a fish too heavy to allow the eagle to sustain flight, it will drop into the water and paddle to the nearest shore with its wings. Mullets and catfish (Clarias) are common prey, though various fish such as cichlids, tilapias (Oreochromis), lungfish (Protopterus), and characins can be also taken. Even African Tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) can be preyed upon by fish eagles, especially while predating barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) in flight.

It also feeds on birds, especially waterbirds such as ducks, cormorants, grebes, darters, hatchlings of herons and egrets, and greater and lesser flamingos. Other prey include small turtles and terrapins, baby crocodiles, Nile monitors, skinks, frogs, insects (especially termites), and carrion. Occasionally, it may even take mammalian prey, such as hyrax, monkeys, rats, hares, and dik diks. It has also been observed feeding on domestic fowl (chickens). The African fish eagle is known to steal the catch of other bird species, a practice known as kleptoparasitism. Targeted species are usually large wading birds such as Goliath herons, hammerkops, and shoebills, as well as kingfishers, pelicans, ospreys, and other fish eagles, which usually hunt large fish and take a long time to handle them.

Conservation
This species is listed as least concern by the IUCN. The estimated population size is about 300,000 individuals with a distribution area of 18,300,000 km2.

Heraldry
In the form of the Zimbabwe Bird, it is the national bird of Zimbabwe and appears on the Zimbabwean flag. The bird also figures in the coats of arms of Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and South Sudan, and on the Zambian flag.

Mummies
Mummified examples of the African fish eagle have been found at the Necropolis at Elkab.

title: African fish eagle


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John Nathan Cobb

John Nathan Cobb (February 20, 1868 – January 13, 1930) was an American author, naturalist, conservationist, canneryman, and educator. He attained a high position in academia without the benefit of a college education. In a career that began as a printer's aide for a newspaper, he worked as a stenographer and clerk, a newspaper reporter, a field agent for the U.S. Fish Commission (USFC) and its successor the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, as an editor for a commercial fishing trade magazine of the Pacific Northwest, and as a supervisor for companies in the commercial fishing industry. He took photographs during his extensive travels documenting scenes and people. In 1919, Cobb was appointed the founding director of the College of Fisheries at the University of Washington (UW), the first such college established in the United States.

Early life and education
John Nathan Cobb was born in Oxford, New Jersey, on February 20, 1868, the son of Samuel Spencer Cobb (1842‒1921), a railroad engineer, and Louise Catherine Richard (1845?‒1918), a native of Belfort, France. He was one of at least twelve children in the family. He attended public schools and discontinued his education at an early age to go to work.

Early career
His family moved in the 1880s to Pennsylvania and records indicate that in 1884, at the age of 16 years, he was working for a Pennsylvania newspaper, the Carbondale Reader. He rose to become an editor of that periodical. For the next 15 years or so, Cobb worked, apparently as a stenographer and typist, in a variety of positions for a railroad company, a law firm, a supply and machinery enterprise, and a brick manufacturing company. In 1898, he married Harriet Collin Bidwell (1869‒1941), a cousin, with whom he had a daughter, Genevieve Catherine Cobb (1900‒1977) who graduated in zoology from the University of Washington and, after receiving a degree in librarianship at the UW, became a librarian at Princeton University and remained there until her retirement.

In 1895, Cobb successfully passed a civil service examination for the U.S. Government, qualifying him for a position as stenographer and typist at a salary of $720 per year. He accepted a position in Washington, D.C., on 1 July 1895 with the U.S. Fish Commission, where he was appointed clerk in the Division of Statistics. He was promoted to "Field Agent" on February 11, 1896, at a salary of $1,000 per annum and was responsible for collecting commercial fishery statistics. Thus, Cobb began a career in fisheries that was to last until his death 35 years later and one that led to his recognition as an "expert" in fisheries statistics.

Cobb's position with the Fish Commission demanded considerable travel, as he was required to proceed throughout the eastern seaboard to collect statistics on the commercial catch of fish and shell fish. For example, from 1896 to 1897 Cobb visited Jacksonville, Florida; Havre de Grace, Maryland; Key West, Florida; Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania; Key West again; and Cape Vincent, New York. After most of these trips he returned to the USFC headquarters in Washington, D.C. This pattern of frequent travel continued through 1900. Cobb's first publication for the Fish Commission, on the fisheries of Lake Ontario, was issued in 1898.

Alaska
In 1904, Cobb began to lobby the Bureau of Fisheries for a position in Alaska as a Field Agent in that territory. Cobb obtained the desired position in February 1905 and his appointment as "Assistant Agent" paid $200 per month. Still based in Washington, D.C., Cobb traveled to Alaska each summer to observe the commercial salmon fisheries and to collect catch statistics. He was apparently a conscientious worker and was known for his aggressive enforcement of fishery regulations.

Cobb wrote books and reports about fisheries. These included annual reports from 1905 to 1910 on the fisheries of Alaska and a book on Alaska salmon. He produced about 18 scientific publications and books during his tenure with the Fish Commission from 1895 to 1911.

Private sector
By early 1911, Cobb was eager for a transfer from Washington, D.C., to the west coast. In March of that year he wrote to George Mead Bowers (1863‒1925), Commissioner of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, asking to be transferred to Seattle. His request was denied, so Cobb turned to the private sector for employment. On March 5, 1912, Cobb wrote again to Commissioner Bowers, this time tendering his resignation. Cobb thus left the employ of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries to pursue greener paths. He never worked for the Bureau again, but he was always interested in returning if an attractive position became available.

Into the commercial world
In the spring of 1912, Cobb joined the Union Fish Company in San Francisco in a management position at a considerable increase in salary. The company fished for Pacific cod in Alaska, and Cobb traveled north on the company boats, the Union Jack in 1912 and the Sequoia in 1913, operating out of Sand Point and Unga, Alaska. Cobb's experience with the Union Fish Company was not satisfactory, as he apparently was not granted the freedom to manage as he had hoped, and he left the company on good terms in November 1913.

Cobb sought to improve his position, as he continually did, and in November 1913 the commercial fishing trade magazine Pacific Fisherman, based in Seattle, hired him, although at a significantly lower salary than that paid by the Union Fish Company. In his letter of acceptance, Cobb agreed to move to Seattle about 15 November 1913 and to accept a salary of $40 a week "for the present." His salary at the Union Fish Company was $200 a month. This monthly publication was the preeminent voice for the fishing industry of the west coast. He was hired as the editor of the journal and his particular experience in fisheries for the Bureau of Fisheries and the Union Fish Company brought rare skills to the magazine. The owner of the periodical, Leigh Miller Freeman (1875‒1955), became a power in the commercial fisheries industry and in fisheries conservation efforts. The Pacific Fisherman was a large format magazine devoted to all aspects of the fishing industry on the west coast. It paid particular attention to fishing developments in Alaska, and Cobb's experience in that territory was likely valuable to the magazine.

Cobb remained with the magazine for four years. During this period, he established himself as an informed observer of the commercial fishing and fisheries scenes. As editor, Cobb most likely had wide latitude over what was published in the journal. He wrote articles that appeared in the journal under his byline, such as "Utilizing waste products in the salmon industry" and "New methods in Pacific coast fisheries." Cobb also wrote for the scientific world, publishing in professional journals. An example of the latter includes "Pacific halibut fishery declining", published in the Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. During his years with the periodical he published one book Pacific Cod Fisheries, a revised edition of which was issued in 1927, and in 1917 he published a revised version of his book, Pacific Salmon Fisheries.

In Seattle in 1914, Cobb also helped found the Pacific Fisheries Society. Patterned after the American Fisheries Society, the new organization was directed toward the interests of fisheries workers, mainly scientific but also for members of the commercial industry of the U.S. west coast. Active membership in this new organization enabled Cobb to meet and to socialize with the leading men in both the scientific and commercial aspects of the Pacific coast fisheries. He longed, however, for a return to the Bureau of Fisheries. But a position with the latter agency was not forthcoming, so in 1917 he joined the Alaska Packers Association (APA) of San Francisco, California, at a salary nearly twice what he was receiving from the Pacific Fisherman. The Association was the largest and most influential commercial fishing enterprise in Alaska. At that time the APA operated the most fishing boats, employed the most workers, and canned the most salmon of any Alaska cannery. His move to the APA seemed part of his continuous desire to improve his status, economic and otherwise.

During the salmon fishing season in Alaska in the summers of 1917 and 1918, Cobb traveled north to visit the various APA concerns. His work involved inspecting the working and sanitary conditions in the canneries. Because of his previous work in Alaska with the Bureau of Fisheries, Cobb was familiar with most of the APA packing operations there. He was apparently satisfied with his work with the APA, but he again sought another position of advancement. Cobb's experience in the fisheries of Alaska, his former position at the Pacific Fisherman, and his involvement with the Pacific Fisheries Society placed him at the forefront of a burgeoning movement to establish a "school of fisheries" at the University of Washington. He was not an unwitting observer of this movement. Indeed, he kept his name always fresh to the University administration and the result was that Cobb resigned from the APA in January 1919 to accept the founding directorship of the College of Fisheries at the University of Washington. This new position would serve him well and allow him to use his diverse talents in the fisheries field.

College of Fisheries
The origin of the idea of a fisheries school at the University of Washington is unknown, but Miller Freeman, owner of Pacific Fisherman magazine and Cobb's one-time supervisor, likely played a vital role in the establishment of this new College. In his memoirs, Freeman wrote that he used the editorial pages of Pacific Fisherman to advocate the establishment of a school of fisheries at the University of Washington as early as 1914. Hugh McCormick Smith (1865‒1941), Commissioner, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, was also an active supporter of the proposed school.

At the University of Washington, planning for a school of fisheries continued at a more rapid pace. In October 1918, UW President Henry Suzzallo (1875‒1933) wrote Cobb that through Miller Freeman he had heard that Cobb "might like to participate in the organization of such a school as a member of this faculty." Suzzallo was most concerned about the salary Cobb would require, noting that "Until this year our maximum salary has been $3,000." Cobb responded to Suzzallo on December 26, 1918, with his application for the position of director, and he noted that he had merely a common school education. He listed some 35 publications on fisheries topics in his application. Suzzallo answered Cobb on January 4, 1919, appointing him Professor of Fisheries, administrative head of the Department of Fisheries, and Director of the College of Fisheries, at a salary of $4,000 per year. Cobb's initial appointment was for a four-year period. Two weeks later, on 17 January 1919, Suzzallo recommended to the Board of Regents that a College of Fisheries be established at the University of Washington. The Board agreed and the establishment of the College was authorized. This event was duly reported in the Pacific Fisherman.

Cobb began the new College on a fast track. In an announcement for the College of Fisheries issued in early 1919, he wrote that so much interest was generated by the announcement of the establishment of the College that "Professor Cobb, the Director, is open [sic] it for the coming spring quarter, March 31st, instead of waiting until the beginning of the fall quarter as originally planned." The announcement indicated the College would offer a four-year course of instruction in Fish Culture and Fisheries Technology, and briefly described the potential job market for graduates. The announcement further stated that the College would, so far as possible, "assist students in securing employment during summer vacations" in various aspects of the fishing industry, hatcheries, and elsewhere.

The new college apparently began life housed in two temporary wooden buildings along the Lake Washington Ship Canal at the southern margin of the UW campus. The College soon relocated to other "temporary" housing located just north of the present UW Medical Center, where it remained until new quarters were built in the early 1950s. The initial faculty consisted of two new hires, one who taught courses in fish culture and another who was responsible for courses in fisheries technology. Trevor Charles Digby Kincaid (1872‒1970) of the Zoology Department taught ichthyology. Cobb taught at various times Introduction to Fisheries, Fisheries Methods, Fisheries Problems, and History of Fisheries.

[[File:UW Fisheries Faculty.jpg|thumb| Faculty of the UW College of Fisheries, 1929.

Left to right: Norman Jarvis, Donald Crawford, John Cobb, Clarence Parks, and Leonard Schultz. University of Washington Archives, UW 15484.]]

During Cobb's directorship, the faculty remained small and underwent considerable turnover, likely caused in part by the low salaries paid to instructors. The number of faculty listed in course catalogs from 1919 to 1930 ranged from two to five, including Cobb. Numerous "Associated Faculty" drawn from other UW departments or from industry or government agencies were listed in the Colleges entry in UW Course Catalogs.

The design of the curriculum largely followed that suggested earlier to the UW President by Professor Kincaid and previously outlined by Cobb. Two curricular tracks were initially established, fish culture and fisheries technology. The two lines of inquiry were quite similar for the first two years, differing mainly in that the requirements for the technology major included twice as many chemistry credits as did the fish culture major. The number of fisheries courses offered increased from 12 in the initial year of the College to 24 in the academic year 1928 to 1929.

Enrollment in the college was strong during the first decade of its existence, ranging from 30 to 117 students a year. The College initially offered Bachelor and Master of Science Degrees and, later, a Doctor of Philosophy Degree. The first graduating class in Fisheries was in 1922, with five B.S. degrees conferred as well as the first Ph.D. degree, awarded to Ray Clough, then on the College of Fisheries faculty. Identical numbers of degrees were apparently awarded each year in 1923, 1924, and 1925. The first M.S. degree was awarded in 1924 to Clarence Anderson, also on the faculty of the College. During Cobb's reign as Director and Dean, there were 31 B.S. degrees granted (from 1919 through the 1928 academic year) as well as one M.A., eight M.S., and two Ph.D. degrees. Thus, only about 42 students graduated during the first decade of the College.

Cobb vigorously promoted the college in a variety of ways. As a former newspaperman, he ensured that many articles were published in the local press. The College was also the subject of attention in the national and international print media. As Dean, he was the subject of a number of profiles in various newspapers and magazines. Cobb published several articles about the College  and gave talks about fisheries to various clubs and organizations in Seattle as well as towns in outlying areas. Cobb was also active in the community, holding memberships in the Arctic Club of Seattle, the Puget Sound Academy of Science, and the Aquarium Society of Seattle for which he served as founding president. All of these social engagements served as a focal point for the College and for Cobb.

After spending some time in the university system, Cobb became aware that the college was not held in high esteem by many of his colleagues, likely because of its applied emphasis and lack of scholarly endeavor. Cobb initiated three actions likely designed to counter some of this criticism. In 1924 he began a research program on the passage of salmon over dams in which he was the sole investigator, he initiated in 1925 a journal of the College titled UW Publications in Fisheries, and he hired a trained ichthyologist to teach and conduct research.

Cobb and the department became involved in opposing the rise of new hydroelectric dams in the Northwest. Cobb himself began research on how to pass salmon over high dams, but was not qualified to do such research. He did not seek help from either biologists or engineers and his efforts became the focus of strong criticism. Cobb's experiments were a failure and he encountered substantial criticism from various quarters. It was obvious that he did not have a sufficient background in science or engineering to conduct this work.

In the late 1920s, Cobb planned to create a Department of Ichthyology that would be "separate" from the applied courses in the College. Presumably this new department would engage in "scholarly research." In 1927, he began to search for a qualified ichthyologist to teach, conduct research, and to begin a systematic fish collection in the College. After a nation-wide search, Cobb selected Leonard Peter Schultz (1901‒1986) whom Cobb had met in 1926. Schultz had received an M.S. degree at the University of Michigan and was teaching zoology at the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti. Schultz was apparently planning to pursue a Ph.D. degree in ichthyology at the University of Michigan. Schultz moved to Seattle in the fall of 1928 and immediately began to teach and to assemble a research collection of fishes.

Cobb was well known for having a "strong personality." He apparently antagonized the faculty, but the hostility of his colleagues did not surface until Cobb's incapacitation due to ill health in 1929. In a ten-page memorandum titled "Confidential: Conditions at the College of Fisheries" and signed "Staff," the authors laid out a series of complaints against the Dean. The authors wrote that the College had lost prestige, mainly since 1925, due to the Dean's activities. They criticized Cobb's work on passage of salmon over dams complaining that he was unqualified to do so because he lacked training as a scientist and was neither a biologist nor an engineer. Complaints about his "science" also reached the news media.

Later life and death
John Nathan Cobb suffered from heart disease and endured a heart attack in the summer of 1929. He was ill for many months and spent his final days in the warmer climate of La Jolla, California, where he died on January 13, 1930, at the age of 61. His death was prominently noted in local newspapers and in numerous fisheries publications.

Shortly after Cobb's death, Washington State Governor Roland Hill Hartley (1864‒1952) appointed a new President of the University, Matthew Lyle Spencer (1881‒1969). Spencer sought scholarship and high academic standards at the UW and he did not think highly of the College of Fisheries. Apparently, courses in canning and fishing methods did not meet the new President's criteria of scholarship. As a result, the College was dissolved in April, 1930, and all faculty of the College were dismissed, except for Leonard Schultz, who was apparently considered a bona-fide academic and was assigned to a position in the new College of Science.

Uproar occurred among the students in the College who now faced a situation wherein they now had no major field. They sent a telegram to Governor Hartley protesting President Spencer's decision, stating in part that his judgment was "Protested by unanimous action of fisheries students." Upon his inquiry of the UW, Governor Hartley was told that the Board of Regents had created a new College of Science and had elected to consolidate the College of Fisheries as a Department in the new College.

A new director was appointed for the department in the person of William Francis Thompson (1888‒1965), who was to become the dominant figure in the UW Department (later, School) of Fisheries for over 16 years and the preeminent fishery scientist of the Pacific Northwest for nearly 40 years. Thompson had offices in the College of Fisheries where, since 1925, he was Director of the International Fisheries Commission (now International Pacific Halibut Commission) charged with the management of, and research on, the Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis, fishery. A Ph.D. from Stanford University, Thompson was appointed Research Professor and Director of the new department on a part-time basis, as he remained Director of the International Fisheries Commission. He remained Director of the School until 1947 when he resigned to establish and head the UW's new Fisheries Research Institute.

Thompson instituted an entirely new approach to fisheries education at the UW, concentrating on the emerging field of fisheries science. He revised the curriculum to emphasize basic science and not the technology of the commercial fishing industry. To the present day, the School of Fisheries (now School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences) has continued the emphasis on fisheries science and on graduate study.

Legacy
Through self-education, work, and ambition, John Cobb rose from unpretentious beginnings to become dean in a major university. His career was testimony not only to the democratic ideals of the United States, but it was evidence of his competence and an affirmation of the high level of respect in which he was held by his peers. Cobb excelled in knowledge of the commercial fisheries industry.

Cobb's tenure as Director (later, Dean) of the College of Fisheries from 1919 to 1930 must be considered successful, based upon the number of students enrolled in the College as well as in the records of attainment of its graduates. His approach to the educational focus of the College reflected his experience and mindset, focusing on the practical applied aspects of the commercial fishing industry. Initially, this approach was also that favored by the University administration. By the time of his death in 1930, however, it became apparent that his educational philosophy was out of date and was not accepted by the new University administration because of the College's failure to emphasize scholarly achievement. This was demonstrated by the rapid termination of the College by the UW administration upon Cobb's passing in 1930.

Cobb was a well-known "professional" naturalist of his day and his reputation was based on his keen knowledge of the commercial fisheries industry which was reflected in his many publications. He was a skilled compiler of fisheries catch statistics, and he produced well-received books on the fisheries of both Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus spp., and Pacific cod, Gadus macrocephalus. Cobb's position as Dean of the College of Fisheries at the University of Washington emphasized his role as a leading national expert on fisheries.

Namesake
The research ship NOAAS John N. Cobb (R 552) was named for Cobb. She served in the fleet of the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries from 1950 to 1970 and in the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) fleet from 1970 until 2008. She was the longest-serving ship of the NOAA fleet and its predecessors at the time she left service, and has been listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places since 2009.

title: John Nathan Cobb


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Roman Catholic Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan

The Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan (Diocesis Tribuniensis-Marcanensis) is a particular church of the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Established in the 10th century, is the oldest Catholic diocese in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the number of faithful, it is also the smallest. Its seat is in Trebinje.

The Diocese of Trebinje was established in the 10th century, and by the end of the century, it became a suffragan diocese of the newly established Archdiocese of Dubrovnik. In the mid 13th century, the Eastern Orthodox Serbian King Stefan Uroš I expelled its bishop Salvio, who took refuge in the Republic of Ragusa. Due to the anti-Catholicism of the Serbian kings, it was impossible to appoint the new residential bishop, so the territory of the Diocese of Trebinje was taken care of by the bishop of Kotor. At the end of the 13th or at the beginning of the 14th century, the Republic of Ragusa gave its islands of Mrkan, Bobara and Supetar to the bishop of Trebinje, and the first recorded usage of the joint title of "the bishop of Trebinje and Mrkan" was recorded in 1322. The Holy See regards the Diocese of Trebinje and the Diocese of Mrkan as the two dioceses canonically unified ever since. Since that time, the two dioceses were administered mostly from Dubrovnik and less from Mrkan. With the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina and fall of Herzegovina in the late 15th century, part of the territory of the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan fell to the Ottomans. Since then, the bishops of Trebinje–Mrkan had to receive a special firman from the Ottoman sultans for free activity on the Ottoman part of their diocese.

With Austrians taking Dalmatia and Dubrovnik in 1815, they tried to impose their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the death of the last residential bishop Nikola Ferić, the Austrians, with their diplomatic efforts, managed to put the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan under the indefinite administration of the bishops of Dubrovnik in 1839. And again, thanks to the diplomatic efforts from the Austria-Hungary that occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the administration over the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan was given to the bishops of Mostar-Duvno in 1890, who administer the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan to the present-day. Today, the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan is divided into two deaneries – one seated in Trebinje and the other in Stolac. The current apostolic administrator is Petar Palić who was installed in 2020.

History
The Diocese of Trebinje was established somewhere in the 10th century. With the establishment of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Dubrovnik at the end of the 10th century, the Diocese of Trebinje became its suffragan diocese. At the time, the Diocese of Trebinje encompassed the territory of Trebinja, Konavle and Dračevice.

In the mid-13th century, when these territories came under the rule of Serbian Eastern Orthodox King Stefan Uroš I, Bishop Salvio was expelled from the diocesan territory. At first, he found a refuge in the Republic of Ragusa, and was given care over the Benedictine monastery at the isle of Lokrum, where he was a monk before becoming a bishop. In 1276, Pope John XXI named him the archbishop of Dubrovnik.

The seat of the bishop of Trebinje thus became vacant, while the appointment of the new bishop was impossible due to the anti-Catholic sentiment of the Serbian kings. The care over the diocese was given to the bishop of Kotor. While the territory of the Diocese of Trebinje was administered by the bishop of Kotor, the Republic of Ragusa in the later 13th or early 14th century, gave some of its isles, including Mrkan, Bobara and Supetar to the bishop of Trebinje. The first bishop to use the title of "the bishop of Trebinje and Mrkan" was a Franciscan Nikola, who styled himself as the bishop of Trebinje and Mrkan for the first time in 1322.

A document of the Holy See from 3 October 1425, that mentions Bishop Dominik as being elected bishop of the "unified dioceses of Trebinje and Mrkan", as well as later documents, testify that these are two dioceses, canonically unified, and were regarded by the Holy See as such.

After the Council of Trent (1545–1563) that confirmed the obligation of having an episcopal residence on the territory of the diocese and reforms taken by Pope Sixtus V from 1585 to 1590, the bishops of Trebinje–Mrkan used the isle of Mrkan as their residence. Bishop Šimun Menčetić by sending a report to Rome about his diocese in 1588, referred to himself only as "the bishop of Mrkan" and reported only about the Diocese of Mrkan. His other successor, on the other hand, Bishop Ambrozije Gučetić sent a report about both dioceses in 1610, and styled himself as "the bishop of Trebinje–Mrkan".

Bishop Krizostom Antić renewed the episcopal residence and the church of St. Michael in Mrkan, and lived partly in Mrkan and partly in Dubrovnik. His successor, Bishop Sabin Cvjetković also occasionally lived in Mrkan, but due to pillages from hajduks and pirates during the Cretan War, mostly spent time in Dubrovnik. Because of that, the Holy See requested from the new bishop Scipion de Martinis to take a vow that he would live on the territory of his diocese, which he did. This provision was included in the bull on his appointment from 1663. However, in the summer of 1664, Martinis reported that the hajduks ransacked the isle of Mrkan and pillaged and burned the church and the episcopal residence. Martinis also spent a lot of time on the part of the territory of the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan under the Ottoman rule. Martinis' successor no longer lived on the isle of Mrkan.

Martinis received approval to conduct episcopal rites in Dubrovnik only once in 1633. It is not known whether he conducted any episcopal rites in Mrkan, where he did conduct priestly ordinations, as confirmed by a case from 1667, after an earthquake in Dubrovnik. His successors nor resided nor conducted any episcopal rites in Mrkan. Martinis' successors, including Antun Primi and Antun Righi, conducted priestly ordinations at the Church of St. Peter at the isle Supetar, as reported by the Archbishop of Dubrovnik Toma Antun Scottus. However, neither Primi nor Righi mentions this in their reports. Their successor, Bishop Sigismund Tudišić, mentions that he had ordained several priests at the Church of St. Peter from 1737 to 1743.

Apostolic administration

After the death of the last residential bishop Nikola Ferić in 1819, the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan was led by the diocesan administrators until 1839. Though the clergy of Trebinje–Mrkan named one of their own Grgo Matuško as the diocesan administrator, the administrator of the Archdiocese of Dubrovnik, Ferić's brother Đuro, appointed his secretary Dominik Sokolović as the Trebinje–Mrkan's diocesan administrator. The Dalmatian government confirmed this appointment, and Sokolović served as the diocesan administrator for the next eighteen years. Austria tried to put the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan under the control of the Archdiocese of Dubrovnik since Sokolović's term, however, failed. Finally, through the diplomatic efforts, the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan was put under the administration of the bishops of Dubrovnik for an indefinite time by Pope Gregory XVI's bull Apostolici nostri muneris on 12 September 1839.

The first two apostolic administrators, Antun Guriceo and Toma Jederlinić never made an official visit to the diocese. Thus, the Holy See decided on 21 October 1855, to give a right to officiate chrism to the Italian Jesuit Vincenzo Basileo, who previously served as a missionary in Neumski Gradac. After finishing the visit in the Diocese of Trebinje, he asked the diocesan administrator of Dubrovnik Bože Rešetar to visit the Diocese of Mrkan, but the access to him was denied, as Rešetar considered his appointment irregular.

With the restoration of the regular church hierarchy in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1881, the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan became a suffragan diocese of the newly established Archdiocese of Vrhbosna. In the bull Ex hac augusta of Pope Leo XIII, it was designated that the diocese will be administered by the bishops of Dubrovnik, until otherwise be ordered. The Diocese of Treibnje-Mrkan maintained its existing borders.

The Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan suffered heavily during the Herzegovina uprising between 1875 and 1877; many Catholics and priests fled the area, and houses and churches were destroyed. At the time, Trebinje–Mrkan was administered by the Bishop of Dubrovnik. After the Austrian-Hungarian occupation, the situation improved and the refugees returned to their homes. The churches and schools were renovated and rebuilt, and the number of Catholics in the territory increased.

During the talks about the organization of the Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Governor of Dalmatia General Gavrilo Rodić and Bishop of Dubrovnik Ivan Zaffron opposed the idea Trebinje–Mrkan should be exempted from the Bishop of Dubrovnik but the Catholic population and clergy wanted their own bishop. Zaffron later supported the initiative and proposed Apostolic Vicar of Egypt Bishop Ljudevit Ćurčija as a new bishop of Trebinje–Mrkan.

The Austrian-Hungarian government, however, could not meet these requests due to financial obligations and the consideration for the Eastern Orthodox. The government could not allow the Catholics, who were fewer in numbers, to have more bishops than the Eastern Orthodox so they agreed in the Convention of 1881 to leave Trebinje–Mrkan under the administration of the bishop of Dubrovnik.

The Catholics of Trebinje–Mrkan became frustrated with the lack of material aid from the new authorities and the inactivity of the new Bishop of Dubrovnik Mato Vodopić. Bishop of Mostar-Duvno Paškal Buconjić systematically usurped northern and north-eastern parts of the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan for his own diocese of Mostar-Duvno. According to Ex hac augusta, the borders of the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno reached Novi Pazar while the northern border between the Dioceses of Mostar-Duvno and Trebinje–Mrkan remained unclear.

Provicar of Trebinje–Mrkan Lazar Lazarević wrote to the Propaganda in Rome on 11 June 1887, again requesting the appointment of a new bishop and protection of Catholics from the new authorities. In mid-1887, Lazarević also wrote to the Austrian-Hungarian government in Sarajevo about Buconjić's encroachment in Trebinje–Mrkan but his petition drew no positive response. Lazarević also warned Vodopić about his duties as Apostolic Administrator but Vodopić showed little interest.

Head of the Propaganda Cardinal Giovanni Simeoni asked the State Secretary Cardinal Mariano Rampolla to help with the improvement of the condition of Catholics in Trebinje–Mrkan. Rampolla informed the pope about the situation; the pope requested new negotiations with the Austrian-Hungarian government. Cardinal Luigi Galimberti, the new Nuncio in Vienna, started negotiations with Foreign Minister Count Gustav Kálnoky and showed him Rampolla's letter. Kálnoky informed the Minister of Finances Béni Kállay about the situation and in June 1888, Kállay ordered an investigation into the Buconjić's pretensions to Trebinje–Mrkan. Buconjić's predecessor Apostolic Vicar Barišić also requested subordination of Trebinje–Mrkan to him in 1846.

On 5 September 1888, the clergy of Trebinje–Mrkan again asked Nuncio Galimberti for the new bishop and for Buconjić to respects the boundaries of Trebinje–Mrkan as established in the 1881 bull Ex hac augusta. On 17 June 1889, the Austrian-Hungarian government in Sarajevo and the Joint Ministry of Finance presented their proposal to Galimberti, in which they suggested the Bishop of Mostar-Duvno should administer Trebinje–Mrkan. The main motive for the proposal was not to dissatisfy the Eastern Orthodox population. The Austrian-Hungarian government also requested the Bishop of Mostar-Duvno, even though just an apostolic administrator, should have a regular jurisdiction in Trebinje–Mrkan and that he could appoint Franciscans to priestly duties. Cardinals Simeoni and Rampolla agreed with the first proposal but rejected the others. The Austrian-Hungarian government was informed about their decision on 23 September 1889. On 16 June 1890, the Propaganda decreed the bishop of Mostar-Duvno would administer Trebinje–Mrkan and the pope confirmed this decision on 8 July the same year. With the new decree, Buconjić's jurisdiction was extended to the whole of Herzegovina.

In 1891, the border between the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno and the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan was changed, which was confirmed by the Pope on 24 March 1891. The borders of the Diocese of Trebinje–Mrkan with the Diocese of Dubrovnik remained unchanged.


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Stephen Macht

Stephen Robert Macht (born May 1, 1942) is an American television and film actor.

Early life
Macht was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Jewish parents Janette and Jerome Irving Macht. He was raised in Brooklyn Heights, New York until, at age nine, his father died and he moved with his mother and older brother, to live with his maternal grandfather, a haberdasher, in Mystic, Connecticut.

Career
Spotted by a Universal Studios talent scout while performing at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Canada in 1975, Macht was signed to a contract and by the mid-1970s had left teaching and was making frequent appearances in TV episodes and movies.

In Raid on Entebbe (1977), he portrayed Yoni Netanyahu, the Israeli officer killed in the rescue of hostages in Uganda. In 1978, he had a lead role in The Immigrants, a syndicated miniseries about the rise of the son of Italian immigrants in turn-of-the-century San Francisco and, also in 1978, the role of German boxing champion Max Schmeling alongside Bernie Casey's Joe Louis in NBC's made-for-TV movie Ring of Passion.

After his appearance in the television movie American Dream (ABC, 1981) he was cast in a short-lived series which cast Macht in the role of a family man who chucks the suburban life to set up home in the inner city of Chicago. The following season, he landed the role of Joe Cooper, brother of Karen MacKenzie (Michele Lee), on Knots Landing (CBS, 1982–83). Other notable roles included playing Nancy McKeon's father in Strange Voices (NBC, 1987). He was Benedict Arnold in the miniseries George Washington (1984) and played one of the survivors of an air crash in Flight 90: Disaster on the Potomac (NBC, 1984). He spent three seasons (1985–88) as David Keeler, love interest to Cagney (Sharon Gless), on Cagney & Lacey (CBS). During his run on the show, he moved behind the cameras to make his directorial debut. In 1993, Macht played Krim Aldos in "The Siege", an early Season 2 episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Macht had been Gene Roddenberry's first choice to play Captain Jean-Luc Picard in Star Trek: The Next Generation, but the role eventually went to Patrick Stewart in 1986.

Later credits have included playing an Austrian Jew who must be baptized along with his wife and daughter in order to escape the Nazis in A Friendship in Vienna (1988 The Disney Channel); a doctor helping Jane Seymour in the syndicated miniseries Sidney Sheldon's Memories of Midnight (1991), and as cult member Joan Van Ark's suffering husband in Moment of Truth: A Mother's Deception (1994 NBC). Macht appeared in the 1995 third season Babylon 5 episode "A Day in the Strife" as the character 'Na'Far'. Na'Far was the new official Narn representative, replacing G'Kar, after the Centauri's invasion of the Narn homeworld. In 1996 he did a six-month stint on the ABC daytime drama One Life to Live as Elliot Durban. From August 24, 2007 to February 13, 2009 he portrayed Trevor Lansing, attorney of organized crime boss Anthony Zacchara and father of attorney Ric Lansing, in the soap opera General Hospital for which Soap Opera Digest nominated him Best Villain of 2007. In 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2019, Macht guest starred opposite his son, actor Gabriel Macht, in Suits.

Macht's work in feature films has included The Choirboys (1977). He also had roles in Nightwing (1979), The Mountain Men (1980), Galaxina (1980), The Last Winter (1984), The Monster Squad (1987), Stephen King's Graveyard Shift (1990), Amityville: It's About Time (1992), The Legend of Galgameth (1996), and Watchers Reborn (1998). Macht has also played Dr. Harris in three installments of the Trancers series of films.

Personal life
Macht has been married to Suzanne Victoria Pulier, an archivist and museum curator since 1964. They have four children: Julie, Ari Serbin, actor Gabriel and Jesse, a musician. Macht is also an ordained chaplain; and his book Moral Change: a Tragedy or a Return?: How Aristotle’s Tragic Reversal Illuminates Maimonides’ Teshuva was published on Amazon.com in October 2016.

title: Stephen Macht


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Iracoubo

Iracoubo (Yakoubo) is a commune on the coast of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France, located in South America.

Geography
The settlement of Iracoubo, seat of the commune, is located between the settlement of Sinnamary and the hamlet of Organabo.

The village of Bellevue is 5 km west of Iracoubo.

Trou Poisson, a near abandoned village is located to the south. The village has a cemetery of priests deported during the French Revolution.

History
The commune was originally settled by Amerindians near Organabo. The first settlers arrived in 1626, but were driven back. In 1765, the Galibis who had left the area for Suriname because an epidemic had broken out, returned.

In the beginning of the 19th century, Iracoubo started as a cotton plantation owned by Colonel Jacquet. In 1859, the cotton shed is donated to the community to serve as church. During the late 19th century indigenous Kalina lived along the Rococoua river in Counama and Organabo. In 1886, Father Raffray arrived in the village, and started to build the Saint Joseph's Church which opened in 1893. The church is notable for its elaborate decorations on the walls and ceiling created by Pierre Huguet, a convict of the penal colony. Saint-Joseph was declared a monument in 1978.

In 1912, the introduction of bananas and rosewood strengthened the economy which remains based on agriculture, hunting and fishing. Iracoubo is located on the Route nationale 1 connecting Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni to Cayenne.

Organabo
Organabo is a Galibi village located in the commune. As of 2020, the population is about 200 people, and consisted mainly of elderly people, because the youth had moved on to the city. The village used to be on the estuary of the Iracaoubo River facing the Atlantic Ocean, but is now several kilometres land inwards. The population primarily lives from fishing, and agriculture. In December 2018, the villagers were given communal land. The village is self sufficient, and therefore self isolated during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.

Nature
Crique et Pripri Yiyi is a 284 km2 protected area and wetland located in the commune.

River
Iracoubo is also a river in French Guiana. Its mouth is located at 5.54506°N, -53.29293°W. The river is 160 kilometres long and flows into Atlantic Ocean.

title: Iracoubo


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Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941 film)

Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a 1941 American horror film starring Spencer Tracy, Ingrid Bergman, and Lana Turner. The production also features Donald Crisp, Ian Hunter, Barton MacLane, C. Aubrey Smith, and Sara Allgood. Its storyline is based on the 1886 Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde written by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson. There have been many filmed adaptations of the novella. This movie was a remake of the Oscar-winning 1931 version starring Fredric March.

Released in August 1941, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde was a commercial success, and was nominated for three Academy Awards.

Plot
In 1887 London, Dr. Henry Jekyll performs research experiments on the possibility of separating the good and evil aspects of human nature. Jekyll is in love with Beatrix Emery, but her father, Sir Charles, is skeptical of Jekyll's radical ideas. Jekyll develops a serum, takes it, and is transformed in mindset and countenance into an alter ego. Jekyll takes an antidote to reverse the serum's effects, but not before hallucinating a voice that says: "Mr. Hyde".

Beatrix departs England on a trip abroad with her father, who is concerned about her love affair. When Beatrix's father extends their time away from London, Jekyll continues to experiment with the serum, ingesting another dose. As Mr. Hyde, he ventures into a music hall and spots barmaid Ivy Peterson, whom he saved from an attacker in the streets weeks before. Because his face and manner is disfigured by the serum, Ivy does not recognize him, and becomes frightened when approaching his table. Hyde instigates mayhem in the music hall, tripping one man, hitting another with a cane, poking another in the eye, pitting one patron against another until a brawl ensues. Hyde convinces the owner that Ivy was the cause of the trouble, and bribes him to fire her. Hyde takes a reluctant Ivy home with him, and rapes her in the carriage.

While Beatrix grows concerned after receiving no correspondence, Hyde provides Ivy housing in a flat, although she lives in fear of Hyde's controlling and violent behavior. Her friend Marcia eventually visits her, sees bruises on Ivy's back and suspects Ivy is being abused. However, before she can find out what is going on, Hyde appears and menaces Marcia, who leaves; afterward, Hyde taunts Ivy that Marcia is more beautiful than Ivy, and he may leave Ivy to pursue Marcia, before forcing Ivy to sing and raping her.

Upon learning that Beatrix has returned to England, Jekyll vows not to take the serum again. He sends Ivy an anonymous gift of money before destroying the key to the street entrance of his laboratory, the entrance that he uses while under the influence of Hyde. Later, Ivy visits Jekyll as a patient, and recognizes him as the man who helped her in the street. She shows him her injuries, and he realizes what Hyde has done to her.

Later that night, as Jekyll ventures to meet Beatrix, who has returned to England, he transforms into Hyde without having ingested the serum. Hyde ventures to Ivy's flat and finds her drunk and celebrating her freedom from him. When Hyde repeats phrases that Jekyll spoke to her, she grows terrified and begins screaming, resulting in Hyde strangling her to death. Hyde flees to the laboratory, but cannot enter as Jekyll destroyed the key; instead, Hyde visits Dr. John Lanyon, a friend of Jekyll. Lanyon provides him the medication that works as the antidote, and Hyde reverts back to Jekyll.

Jekyll confesses to a horrified Lanyon everything that transpired, and proceeds to visit Beatrix to end their engagement. Distraught by the incident, Beatrix is horrified when Jekyll returns transformed as Hyde. Beatrix screams before losing consciousness. Her father, roused by Beatrix's scream, enters the room, only to be bludgeoned to death by Hyde with Jekyll's cane. Hyde flees back to the laboratory, and, unable to enter through the street door, pushes past Jekyll's butler, Poole. Meanwhile, as police investigate Sir Charles's body, Lanyon arrives, observes that Jekyll's cane was the murder weapon and realizes what happened. In the laboratory, Jekyll reverts to normal and checks himself in the mirror but sees Hyde's reflection taunting him. Lanyon and the authorities arrive at Jekyll's home moments after Hyde has ingested the antidote and turned back into Jekyll. They confront him about Sir Charles's murder. The psychological stress of the situation triggers Jekyll into returning back into Hyde, and he becomes violent. While attempting to fight police, Hyde is shot by Lanyon. As he dies, his demeanor and countenance morphs back into that of Jekyll.

Analysis
Scholar Angela Smith writes that the film does not depict a significant physical difference between Jekyll and Hyde, suggesting that, unlike in other iterations of the story, the film places "greater emphasis on the psychological and neurological elements of physical disorders and testifies to the unreliability of the bodily exterior as a sign of health or degeneracy." She further cites that the hallucinatory sequences in the film featuring both Ivy and Beatrix (which occur when Jekyll ingests the serum) "conflate epileptic and sexual release, pointing to repressed sexual desires as the source of individual malaise." Smith summarizes that the film's treatment of the source material "suggests the complex network of physiology, neurology, psychology, sexuality, and environment that is shaped in the relationship between impairment and medicine."

Development
Rather than being a new film version of Robert Louis Stevenson's novella, this Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a direct remake of the 1931 film of the same title. Both Hollywood productions differ greatly from the original literary work due to their heavy reliance on Thomas Russell Sullivan's 1887 stage adaptation of the story. The director for the 1941 film was Victor Fleming, who had directed Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz, two major releases by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1939. MGM, where Fleming was under contract, acquired full rights to the 1931 film from Paramount Pictures prior to Fleming's production. According to the Robert Louis Stevenson website being archived and preserved by the British Library, subsequent to that acquisition MGM studio executives “hid the [1931] film away to avoid competition with their remake”. The Oscar-winning 1931 version then, due to ongoing legal restrictions and the lack of readily available copies, was effectively “lost” for over a quarter of a century, not generally available again for re-screenings and study until 1967.

MGM's 1941 remake was produced by Victor Saville and adapted by John Lee Mahin from the screenplay of the earlier film by Percy Heath and Samuel Hoffenstein. The score was composed by Franz Waxman with uncredited contributions by Daniele Amfitheatrof and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco. The cinematographer was Joseph Ruttenberg, the art director was Cedric Gibbons, and the costume designers were Adrian and Gile Steele. Jack Dawn created the make-up for the dissolute Mr. Hyde's appearance.

The PCA was very specific in characterizing Ivy as a barmaid rather than a prostitute, as she is characterized in the source material.

Casting
Despite having not yet met his later co-star Katharine Hepburn (they met working on Woman of the Year in 1942), Tracy originally wanted her to play both Bergman's and Turner's roles as the "bad" and "good" woman, who would then turn out to be the same person.

Initial casting had Bergman playing the virtuous fiancée of Jekyll and Turner as Ivy. However, Bergman, tired of playing saintly characters and fearing typecasting, pleaded with Victor Fleming that she and Turner switch roles. After a screen test, Fleming allowed Bergman to play a grittier role for the first time.

Box office
According to MGM records the film earned $2,351,000 resulting in a profit of $350,000.

Critical reception
After its preview of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in late July 1941, the trade paper Variety cited some weaknesses in the development of characters and situations in the film's plot; but, overall, the popular New York publication gave the production a very positive assessment. Variety predicted the film would be “one of the big ones for fall release” and focused special attention on Bergman's performance and screen presence. It compared too Hyde's physical appearance with his portrayals in the 1920 and 1931 interpretations of Stevenson's novella:"...Tracy plays the dual roles with conviction. His transformations from the young physician...to the demonic Mr. Hyde are brought about with considerably less alterations in face and stature than audiences might expect, remembering John Barrymore and Frederic March in earlier versions. What is likely to happen when the new “Jekyll” moves into general distribution after Sept. 1, is more generous recognition of Ingrid Bergman as a screen actress of exceptional ability....In every scene in which the two appear, she is Tracy’s equal as a strong screen personality." The Film Daily praised the film in its review, heaping most of its accolades on Victor Fleming and his direction. The trade paper, which was widely read by theater owners or “exhibitors”, complimented Fleming's pacing and staging of the story and described his “handling of the players” as “flawless”.

Outside the realm of film-industry trade papers, the general public in 1941 had more mixed reviews about Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. One example of those reactions can be found in the contemporary fan magazine Hollywood, which was distributed nationally each month by Fawcett Publications in Louisville, Kentucky. Hollywood recommended that its readership “should see the picture”, citing once again Bergman's excellent, “breath-taking” portrayal of Ivy. The monthly did, though, find the film's plot passé and Tracy's Hyde far too understated in appearance to be effective:"In the ten years that have elapsed since Frederic March won his Academy Award for his work in the title roles, movie-goers have become too sophisticated for the sort of medical hocus-pocus on which the Stevenson story is based. Too many Frankensteins and bogey-men have stalked across the screen in the interim for Mr. Hyde to be a convincing monster. While Spencer Tracy does a grand job in his dual role, his Mr. Hyde is inclined to be more humorous than terrifying." Another fan-based publication, Modern Screen, was less subtle in its November 1941 review of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, calling the film “quite the oddest picture of the year”. The magazine, in part, considered the remake “funniest when apparently it is trying to be most serious and never so routine as when it is trying hardest to be different.”

With regard to more recent critical responses to this version of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, American film reviewer and historian Leonard Maltin in 2014 gave the production 3 out of a possible 4 stars, praising in particular Tracy and Bergman's performances. The online film-review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported, as of 2023, an approval rating of 60% among professional critics, a score based on 25 reviews, with a rating average of 6.7/10, with the critical consensus reading "Despite its powerful cast, Stevenson's classic story loses its social and sexual undertones in this lustless, but still decently entertaining, adaptation." General audience reactions to Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde were slightly higher on Rotten Tomatoes in approvals, scoring at 60% and registering a rating average of 3.5/5 based on over 2,500 responses.

Home media
Warner Bros. released 1941 version on DVD in May 22, 2018 and Blu-ray in May 17, 2022.

Awards and honors

 * In 2005, the film was nominated by the American Film Institute to “AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores”.

title: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941 film)


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