text:
Arts of Iran

The arts of Iran are one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many traditional disciplines including architecture, painting, literature, music, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stonemasonry. There is also a very vibrant Iranian modern and contemporary art scene, as well as cinema and photography. For a history of Persian visual art up to the early 20th century, see Persian art, and also Iranian architecture.

The Persian rug

The art of rug weaving in has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors. The Iranian carpet is similar to the Persian garden: full of florae, birds, and beasts.

The colors are usually made from wild flowers, and are rich in colors such as burgundy, navy blue, and accents of ivory. The proto-fabric is often washed in tea to soften the texture, giving it a unique quality. Depending on where the rug is made, patterns and designs vary. And some rugs, such as Gabbeh, and Gelim have a variations in their textures and number of knots as well. Out of about 2 million Iranians who work in the trade, 1.2 million are weavers producing the largest amount of hand woven artistic carpets in the world. exported $517 million worth of carpets in 2002.

The exceptional craftsmanship in weaving these carpets and silken textile thus caught the attention of the likes of Xuanzang, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and Jean Chardin.

Painting and miniature

Oriental historian Basil Gray believes Iran (Persia) " has o unique [sic] art to the world which is excellent in its kind".

Caves in Iran's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes. Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old.

Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting.

Paintings of the Qajar period, are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi. Masters such as Kamal-ol-molk, further pushed forward the European influence in Iran. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting" emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like.

Pottery and ceramics
Prominent archeologist Roman Ghirshman believes "the taste and talent of this people [Iranians] can be seen through the designs of their earthen wares".

Of the thousands of archeological sites and historic ruins of Iran, almost every single one can be found to have been filled, at some point, with earthenware of exceptional quality. Thousands of unique vessels alone were found in Sialk and Jiroft sites.

The occupation of the potter ("kuzeh gar") has a special place in Persian literature.

Music
During the course of Iran's recorded history, a unique distinctive music developed accompanied by numerous musical instruments, several of which came to be the first prototypes of some modern musical instruments of today.

The earliest references to musicians in Iran are found in Susa and Elam in the 3rd millennium BC. Reliefs, sculptures, and mosaics such as those in Bishapur from periods of antiquity depict a vibrant musical culture.

Persian music in its contemporary form has its inception in the Naseri era, who ordered the opening of a "House of Crafts," where all master craftsmen would gather for designing instruments and practicing their art.

Literature

Persian literature is by far the most stalwart expression of the Iranian genius. While there are interesting works in prose, it is poetry where the Iranian literature shines at its most. Flourishing over a period of more than a millennium, it was esteemed and imitated well beyond the confines of the Iranian homeland. The literature of Iran's direct and recently lost territories in the Caucasus (most notably Azerbaijan), as well as Turkey and indirectly the Mughal Empire developed under its influence.

Some notable Iranian poets are: Ferdowsi, Khayyam, Hafiz, Attar, Sa'di, Nizami, Sanai, Rudaki, Rumi, Jami, Nima Yushij and Shahriar.

Architecture
The architecture of Iran is one with an exceedingly ancient Persian tradition and heritage. As Arthur Pope put it, "the meaningful Impact of Persian architecture is versatile. Not overwhelming but dignified, magnificent and impressive".

Persian gardens
The tradition and style in the garden design of Persian gardens (Persian باغ ایرانی) has influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the Alhambra show the influence of Persian Paradise garden philosophy and style in a Moorish Palace scale from the era of Al-Andalus in Spain. The Taj Mahal is one of the largest Persian Garden interpretations in the world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.
 * Examples: see Category: Persian Gardens

Calligraphy

Says writer Will Durant: "Ancient Iranians with an alphabet of 36 letters, used skins and pen to write, Instead of earthen tablets". Such was the creativity spent on the art of writing. The significance of the art of calligraphy in works of pottery, metallic vessels, and historic buildings is such that they are deemed lacking without the adorning decorative calligraphy.

Illuminations, and especially the Quran and works such as the Shahnameh, Divan Hafez, Golestan, Bostan et al. are recognized as highly invaluable because of their delicate calligraphy alone. Vast quantities of these are scattered and preserved in museums and private collections worldwide, such as the Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg and Washington's Freer Gallery of Art among many others.

Styles:

 * Shekasteh
 * Nasta'liq
 * Naskh
 * Mohaqqaq

Tilework
The tilework is a unique feature of the blue mosques of. In the old days, Kashan (kash + an which literally means "land of tiles") and Tabriz were the two famous centers of Iranian mosaic and tile industry.

Cinema
With 300 international awards in the past 25 years, films from Iran continue to be celebrated worldwide. Few of the best known directors are Abbas Kiarostami, Mohsen Makhmalbaf, and Majid Majidi.

Metalwork (Ghalam-zani)
Luristan bronzes, probably from around 1000-650 BCE, are a distinctive group of small objects decorated with figures of animals and human in inventive and vigorous poses.

Khatam-kari
Delicate and meticulous marquetry, produced since the Safavid period: at this time, khatam was so popular in the court that princes learned this technique at the same level of music or painting. In the 18th and 19th centuries, katahm declined, before being stimulated under the reign of Reza Shah, with the creation of craft schools in Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz. "Khatam" means "incrustation", and "Khatam-kari", "incrustation work". This craft consists in the production of incrustation patterns (generally star shaped), with thin sticks of wood (ebony, teak, ziziphus, orange, rose), brass (for golden parts), camel bones (white parts). Ivory, gold or silver can also be used for collection objects. Sticks are assembled in triangular beams, themselves assembled and glued in a strict order to create a cylinder, 70 cm in diameter, whose cross-section is the main motif: a six-branch star included in a hexagon. These cylinders are cut into shorter cylinders, and then compressed and dried between two wooden plates, before being sliced for the last time, in 1 mm wide tranches. These sections are ready to be plated and glued on the object to be decorated, before lacquer finishing. The tranche can also be softened through heating in order to wrap around objects. Many objects can be decorated in this fashion, such as: jewellery/decorative boxes, chessboards, cadres, pipes, desks, frames or some musical instruments. Khatam can be used on Persian miniature, realizing true work of art.

Coming from techniques imported from China and improved by Persian know-how, this craft existed for more than 700 years and is still perennial in Shiraz and Isfahan.

Mina-kari
Enamel working and decorating metals with colorful and baked coats is one of the distinguished courses of art in Isfahan. Mina, is defined as some sort of glasslike colored coat which can be stabilized by heat on different metals particularly copper. Although this course is of abundant use industrially for producing metal and hygienic dishes, it has been paid high attention by painters, goldsmiths and metal engravers since long times ago. In the world, it is categorized into three kinds as below: What of more availability in Isfahan is the painting enamel of which a few have remained in the museums of Iran and abroad indicating that Iranian artists have been interested in this art and used it in their metal works since the Achaemenian and the Sassanid dynasties. The enamels being so delicate, we do not have many of them left from the ancient times. Some documents indicate that throughout the Islamic civilization of and during the Seljuk, Safavid and Zand dynasties there have been outstanding enameled dishes and materials. Most of the enameled dishes related to the past belong to the Qajar dynasty between the years 1810–1890 AD. There have also remained some earrings. Bangles, boxes, water pipe heads, vases, and golden dishes with paintings in blue and green colors from that time, Afterwards, fifty years of stagnation caused by the World War I and the social revolution followed. However, again the enamel red color, having been prepared, this art was fostered from the quantity and quality points of view through the attempts bestowed by Ostad Shokrollah Sani'e zadeh, the outstanding painter of Isfahan in 1935 and up to then for forty years.
 * 1) painting enamel
 * 2) Charkhaneh or chess like enamel
 * 3) Cavity enamel.

Now after a few years of stagnation since 1992, this art has started to continue its briskness having a lot of distinguished artists working in this field. To prepare an enameled dish, the following steps are used. First, choose the suitable dish by the needed size and shape which is usually made by a coppersmith. Then, it is bleached through enameled working which is known as the first coat. It is then put into a seven hundred and fifty degree furnace. At this stage, the enameled metal will be coated with better enamels a few more times and again reheated. The dish is then ready to be painted. The Isfahanian artists, having been inspired by their traditional plans as arabesque, khataii (flowers and birds) and using fireproof paints and special brushes, have made painting of Isfahan monuments such as step, the enameled material is put into the furnace again and heated at five hundred degrees. This causes the enameled painting to be stabilized on the undercoat, creating a special "shining" effect. Most of today's enamel workings are performed on dishes, vases, boxes and frames in various size.

Relief and sculpture
Relief carving has a history dating back thousands of years, especially in rock reliefs. Elamite reliefs are still to be found in Iran with Persepolis being a mecca of relief creations of antiquity.

Other handicrafts

 * Galesh
 * Giveh
 * Iranian Termeh
 * Persian Jewels
 * Kalamkari

title: Arts of Iran


text:
Incheba

Incheba (Expo) (formerly stylized as Incheba €XPO) is a congress and exposition centre located in the Petržalka borough of Bratislava, Slovakia, just near SNP bridge.

It includes multi-use exhibition halls, a parking lot with 4,500 places, a main building 85.6 meters high and the Hotel Incheba.

The fair program is oriented to areas such as construction, tourism, gastronomy, chemical industry, automobile industry, cosmetics, fashion, medical equipment and arts. The Coneco, Incheba, Slovmedica and Slovfarma fairs have been included in the Union des Foires Internationales calendar. It is also used for events such as concerts, conferences and tournaments. In 2006, more than a million people visited Incheba, of which 700,000 came to a total of 49 expositions, shows and fairs and 338,000 to other events.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Incheba


text:
Isotopes of niobium

Naturally occurring niobium (41Nb) is composed of one stable isotope (93Nb). The most stable radioisotope is 92Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. The next longest-lived niobium isotopes are 94Nb (half-life: 20,300 years) and 91Nb with a half-life of 680 years. There is also a meta state of 93Nb at 31 keV whose half-life is 16.13 years. Twenty-seven other radioisotopes have been characterized. Most of these have half-lives that are less than two hours, except 95Nb (35 days), 96Nb (23.4 hours) and 90Nb (14.6 hours). The primary decay mode before stable 93Nb is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission with some neutron emission occurring in 104–110Nb.

Only 95Nb (35 days) and 97Nb (72 minutes) and heavier isotopes (half-lives in seconds) are fission products in significant quantity, as the other isotopes are shadowed by stable or very long-lived (93Zr) isotopes of the preceding element zirconium from production via beta decay of neutron-rich fission fragments. 95Nb is the decay product of 95Zr (64 days), so disappearance of 95Nb in used nuclear fuel is slower than would be expected from its own 35-day half-life alone. Small amounts of other isotopes may be produced as direct fission products.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=3|81Nb
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=3|80.94903(161)#
 * rowspan=3|<44 ns
 * β+, p
 * 80Y
 * rowspan=3|3/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * p
 * 80Zr
 * β+
 * 81Zr
 * 82Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 81.94313(32)#
 * 51(5) ms
 * β+
 * 82Zr
 * 0+
 * 83Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 82.93671(34)
 * 4.1(3) s
 * β+
 * 83Zr
 * (5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|84Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|83.93357(32)#
 * rowspan=2|9.8(9) s
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 84Zr
 * rowspan=2|3+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 83Y
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 84mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 338(10) keV
 * 103(19) ns
 * (5−)
 * 85Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 84.92791(24)
 * 20.9(7) s
 * β+
 * 85Zr
 * (9/2+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 85mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 759.0(10) keV
 * 12(5) s
 * (1/2−)
 * 86Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 85.92504(9)
 * 88(1) s
 * β+
 * 86Zr
 * (6+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 86mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 250(160)# keV
 * 56(8) s
 * β+
 * 86Zr
 * high
 * 87Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 86.92036(7)
 * 3.75(9) min
 * β+
 * 87Zr
 * (1/2−)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 87mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3.84(14) keV
 * 2.6(1) min
 * β+
 * 87Zr
 * (9/2+)#
 * 88Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 87.91833(11)
 * 14.55(6) min
 * β+
 * 88Zr
 * (8+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 88mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 40(140) keV
 * 7.8(1) min
 * β+
 * 88Zr
 * (4−)
 * 89Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 88.913418(29)
 * 2.03(7) h
 * β+
 * 89Zr
 * (9/2+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 89mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 0(30)# keV
 * 1.10(3) h
 * β+
 * 89Zr
 * (1/2)−
 * 90Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 89.911265(5)
 * 14.60(5) h
 * β+
 * 90Zr
 * 8+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m1Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 122.370(22) keV
 * 63(2) μs
 * 6+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m2Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 124.67(25) keV
 * 18.81(6) s
 * IT
 * 90Nb
 * 4-
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m3Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 171.10(10) keV
 * <1 μs
 * 7+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m4Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 382.01(25) keV
 * 6.19(8) ms
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m5Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1880.21(20) keV
 * 472(13) ns
 * (11−)
 * rowspan=2|91Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 50
 * rowspan=2|90.906996(4)
 * rowspan=2|680(130) a
 * EC (99.98%)
 * rowspan=2|91Zr
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (.013%)
 * rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 91m1Nb
 * rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 104.60(5) keV
 * rowspan=3|60.86(22) d
 * IT (93%)
 * 91Nb
 * rowspan=3|1/2−
 * rowspan=3|
 * EC (7%)
 * rowspan=2|91Zr
 * β+ (.0028%)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 91m2Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2034.35(19) keV
 * 3.76(12) μs
 * (17/2−)
 * rowspan=2|92Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 51
 * rowspan=2|91.907194(3)
 * rowspan=2|3.47(24)×107 a
 * β+ (99.95%)
 * 92Zr
 * rowspan=2|(7)+
 * rowspan=2|Trace
 * β− (.05%)
 * 92Mo
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 92m1Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 135.5(4) keV
 * 10.15(2) d
 * β+
 * 92Zr
 * (2)+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 92m2Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 225.7(4) keV
 * 5.9(2) μs
 * (2)−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 92m3Nb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2203.3(4) keV
 * 167(4) ns
 * (11−)
 * 93Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 92.9063781(26)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 9/2+
 * 1.0000
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 93mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 30.77(2) keV
 * 16.13(14) a
 * IT
 * 93Nb
 * 1/2−
 * 94Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 53
 * 93.9072839(26)
 * 2.03(16)×104 a
 * β−
 * 94Mo
 * (6)+
 * Trace
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 94mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 40.902(12) keV
 * rowspan=2|6.263(4) min
 * IT (99.5%)
 * 94Nb
 * rowspan=2|3+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (.5%)
 * 94Mo
 * 95Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 94.9068358(21)
 * 34.991(6) d
 * β−
 * 95Mo
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 95mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 235.690(20) keV
 * rowspan=2|3.61(3) d
 * IT (94.4%)
 * 95Nb
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (5.6%)
 * 95Mo
 * 96Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 55
 * 95.908101(4)
 * 23.35(5) h
 * β−
 * 96Mo
 * 6+
 * 97Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 56
 * 96.9080986(27)
 * 72.1(7) min
 * β−
 * 97Mo
 * 9/2+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 97mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 743.35(3) keV
 * 52.7(18) s
 * IT
 * 97Nb
 * 1/2−
 * 98Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 57
 * 97.910328(6)
 * 2.86(6) s
 * β−
 * 98Mo
 * 1+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 98mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 84(4) keV
 * rowspan=2|51.3(4) min
 * β− (99.9%)
 * 98Mo
 * rowspan=2|(5+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (.1%)
 * 98Nb
 * 99Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 58
 * 98.911618(14)
 * 15.0(2) s
 * β−
 * 99Mo
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 99mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 365.29(14) keV
 * rowspan=2|2.6(2) min
 * β− (96.2%)
 * 99Mo
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (3.8%)
 * 99Nb
 * 100Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 59
 * 99.914182(28)
 * 1.5(2) s
 * β−
 * 100Mo
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 100mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 470(40) keV
 * 2.99(11) s
 * β−
 * 100Mo
 * (4+, 5+)
 * 101Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 60
 * 100.915252(20)
 * 7.1(3) s
 * β−
 * 101Mo
 * (5/2#)+
 * 102Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 61
 * 101.91804(4)
 * 1.3(2) s
 * β−
 * 102Mo
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 102mNb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 130(50) keV
 * 4.3(4) s
 * β−
 * 102Mo
 * high
 * 103Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 62
 * 102.91914(7)
 * 1.5(2) s
 * β−
 * 103Mo
 * (5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|104Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=2|103.92246(11)
 * rowspan=2|4.9(3) s
 * β− (99.94%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|(1+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.06%)
 * 103Mo
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 104mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 220(120) keV
 * rowspan=2|940(40) ms
 * β− (99.95%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|high
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.05%)
 * 103Mo
 * rowspan=2|105Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|104.92394(11)
 * rowspan=2|2.95(6) s
 * β− (98.3%)
 * 105Mo
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.7%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|106Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|105.92797(21)#
 * rowspan=2|920(40) ms
 * β− (95.5%)
 * 106Mo
 * rowspan=2|2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (4.5%)
 * 105Mo
 * rowspan=2|107Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 66
 * rowspan=2|106.93031(43)#
 * rowspan=2|300(9) ms
 * β− (94%)
 * 107Mo
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6%)
 * 106Mo
 * rowspan=2|108Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 67
 * rowspan=2|107.93484(32)#
 * rowspan=2|0.193(17) s
 * β− (93.8%)
 * 108Mo
 * rowspan=2|(2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6.2%)
 * 107Mo
 * rowspan=2|109Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 68
 * rowspan=2|108.93763(54)#
 * rowspan=2|190(30) ms
 * β− (69%)
 * 109Mo
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (31%)
 * 108Mo
 * rowspan=2|110Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 69
 * rowspan=2|109.94244(54)#
 * rowspan=2|170(20) ms
 * β− (60%)
 * 110Mo
 * rowspan=2|2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (40%)
 * 109Mo
 * 111Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110.94565(54)#
 * 80# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 112Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111.95083(75)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 2+#
 * 113Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 112.95470(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 114Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 115Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * rowspan=2|103.92246(11)
 * rowspan=2|4.9(3) s
 * β− (99.94%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|(1+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.06%)
 * 103Mo
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 104mNb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 220(120) keV
 * rowspan=2|940(40) ms
 * β− (99.95%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|high
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.05%)
 * 103Mo
 * rowspan=2|105Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|104.92394(11)
 * rowspan=2|2.95(6) s
 * β− (98.3%)
 * 105Mo
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.7%)
 * 104Mo
 * rowspan=2|106Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|105.92797(21)#
 * rowspan=2|920(40) ms
 * β− (95.5%)
 * 106Mo
 * rowspan=2|2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (4.5%)
 * 105Mo
 * rowspan=2|107Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 66
 * rowspan=2|106.93031(43)#
 * rowspan=2|300(9) ms
 * β− (94%)
 * 107Mo
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6%)
 * 106Mo
 * rowspan=2|108Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 67
 * rowspan=2|107.93484(32)#
 * rowspan=2|0.193(17) s
 * β− (93.8%)
 * 108Mo
 * rowspan=2|(2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6.2%)
 * 107Mo
 * rowspan=2|109Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 68
 * rowspan=2|108.93763(54)#
 * rowspan=2|190(30) ms
 * β− (69%)
 * 109Mo
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (31%)
 * 108Mo
 * rowspan=2|110Nb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 69
 * rowspan=2|109.94244(54)#
 * rowspan=2|170(20) ms
 * β− (60%)
 * 110Mo
 * rowspan=2|2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (40%)
 * 109Mo
 * 111Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110.94565(54)#
 * 80# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 112Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111.95083(75)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 2+#
 * 113Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 112.95470(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 114Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 115Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 2+#
 * 113Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 112.95470(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 114Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 115Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 115Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 116Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 75
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * 117Nb
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * style="text-align:right" | 76

Niobium-92
Niobium-92 is an extinct radionuclide with a half-life of 34.7 million years, decaying predominantly via β+ decay. Its abundance relative to the stable 93Nb in the early Solar System, estimated at 1.7×10−5, has been measured to investigate the origin of p-nuclei. A higher initial abundance of 92Nb has been estimated for material in the outer protosolar disk (sampled from the meteorite NWA 6704), suggesting that this nuclide was predominantly formed via the gamma process (photodisintegration) in a nearby core-collapse supernova.

Niobium-92, along with niobium-94, has been detected in refined samples of terrestrial niobium and may originate from bombardment by cosmic ray muons in Earth's crust.

title: Isotopes of niobium


text:
Isotopes of zirconium

Naturally occurring zirconium (40Zr) is composed of four stable isotopes (of which one may in the future be found radioactive), and one very long-lived radioisotope (96Zr), a primordial nuclide that decays via double beta decay with an observed half-life of 2.0×1019 years; it can also undergo single beta decay, which is not yet observed, but the theoretically predicted value of t1/2 is 2.4×1020 years. The second most stable radioisotope is 93Zr, which has a half-life of 1.53 million years. Thirty other radioisotopes have been observed. All have half-lives less than a day except for 95Zr (64.02 days), 88Zr (83.4 days), and 89Zr (78.41 hours). The primary decay mode is electron capture for isotopes lighter than 92Zr, and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta decay.

List of isotopes

 * 78Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 77.95523(54)#
 * 50# ms [>170 ns]
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|79Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2|78.94916(43)#
 * rowspan=2|56(30) ms
 * β+, p
 * 78Sr
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+
 * 79Y
 * 80Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 79.9404(16)
 * 4.6(6) s
 * β+
 * 80Y
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|81Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2|80.93721(18)
 * rowspan=2|5.5(4) s
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 81Y
 * rowspan=2|(3/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 80Sr
 * 82Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 81.93109(24)#
 * 32(5) s
 * β+
 * 82Y
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|83Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|82.92865(10)
 * rowspan=2|41.6(24) s
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 83Y
 * rowspan=2|(1/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 82Sr
 * 84Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 83.92325(21)#
 * 25.9(7) min
 * β+
 * 84Y
 * 0+
 * 85Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 84.92147(11)
 * 7.86(4) min
 * β+
 * 85Y
 * 7/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 85mZr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 292.2(3) keV
 * rowspan=2|10.9(3) s
 * IT (92%)
 * 85Zr
 * rowspan=2|(1/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (8%)
 * 85Y
 * 86Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 85.91647(3)
 * 16.5(1) h
 * β+
 * 86Y
 * 0+
 * 87Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 86.914816(9)
 * 1.68(1) h
 * β+
 * 87Y
 * (9/2)+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 87mZr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 335.84(19) keV
 * 14.0(2) s
 * IT
 * 87Zr
 * (1/2)−
 * 88Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 87.910227(11)
 * 83.4(3) d
 * EC
 * 88Y
 * 0+
 * 89Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 88.908890(4)
 * 78.41(12) h
 * β+
 * 89Y
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 89mZr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 587.82(10) keV
 * rowspan=2|4.161(17) min
 * IT (93.77%)
 * 89Zr
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (6.23%)
 * 89Y
 * 90Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 89.9047044(25)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.5145(40)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m1Zr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2319.000(10) keV
 * 809.2(20) ms
 * IT
 * 90Zr
 * 5-
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 90m2Zr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3589.419(16) keV
 * 131(4) ns
 * 8+
 * 91Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 90.9056458(25)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 5/2+
 * 0.1122(5)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 91mZr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3167.3(4) keV
 * 4.35(14) μs
 * (21/2+)
 * 92Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 91.9050408(25)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.1715(8)
 * rowspan=2 | 93Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 53
 * rowspan=2 | 92.9064760(25)
 * rowspan=2 | 1.53(10)×106 y
 * β− (73%)
 * 93mNb
 * rowspan=2 | 5/2+
 * rowspan=2 |
 * rowspan=2 |
 * β− (27%)
 * 93Nb
 * 94Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 93.9063152(26)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally stable
 * 0+
 * 0.1738(28)
 * 95Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 55
 * 94.9080426(26)
 * 64.032(6) d
 * β−
 * 95Nb
 * 5/2+
 * 96Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 56
 * 95.9082734(30)
 * 2.0(4)×1019 y
 * β−β−
 * 96Mo
 * 0+
 * 0.0280(9)
 * 97Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 57
 * 96.9109531(30)
 * 16.744(11) h
 * β−
 * 97mNb
 * 1/2+
 * 98Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 58
 * 97.912735(21)
 * 30.7(4) s
 * β−
 * 98Nb
 * 0+
 * 99Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 59
 * 98.916512(22)
 * 2.1(1) s
 * β−
 * 99mNb
 * 1/2+
 * 100Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 60
 * 99.91776(4)
 * 7.1(4) s
 * β−
 * 100Nb
 * 0+
 * 101Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 61
 * 100.92114(3)
 * 2.3(1) s
 * β−
 * 101Nb
 * 3/2+
 * 102Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 62
 * 101.92298(5)
 * 2.9(2) s
 * β−
 * 102Nb
 * 0+
 * 103Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 63
 * 102.92660(12)
 * 1.3(1) s
 * β−
 * 103Nb
 * (5/2−)
 * 104Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 64
 * 103.92878(43)#
 * 1.2(3) s
 * β−
 * 104Nb
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|105Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|104.93305(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.6(1) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 105Nb
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 104Nb
 * 106Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 105.93591(54)#
 * 200# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 106Nb
 * 0+
 * 107Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 106.94075(32)#
 * 150# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 107Nb
 * 108Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107.94396(64)#
 * 80# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 108Nb
 * 0+
 * 109Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108.94924(54)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 110Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 109.95287(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 111Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 112Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 102Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 62
 * 101.92298(5)
 * 2.9(2) s
 * β−
 * 102Nb
 * 0+
 * 103Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 63
 * 102.92660(12)
 * 1.3(1) s
 * β−
 * 103Nb
 * (5/2−)
 * 104Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 64
 * 103.92878(43)#
 * 1.2(3) s
 * β−
 * 104Nb
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|105Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|104.93305(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.6(1) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 105Nb
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 104Nb
 * 106Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 105.93591(54)#
 * 200# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 106Nb
 * 0+
 * 107Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 106.94075(32)#
 * 150# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 107Nb
 * 108Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107.94396(64)#
 * 80# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 108Nb
 * 0+
 * 109Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108.94924(54)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 110Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 109.95287(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 111Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 112Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108.94924(54)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * 110Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 109.95287(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 111Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 112Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 112Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 113Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 73
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 114Zr
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * style="text-align:right" | 74
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 0+

Zirconium-88
88Zr is a radioisotope of zirconium with a half-life of 83.4 days. In January 2019, this isotope was discovered to have a neutron capture cross section of approximately 861,000 barns; this is several orders of magnitude greater than predicted, and greater than that of any other nuclide except xenon-135.

Zirconium-89
89Zr is a radioisotope of zirconium with a half-life of 78.41 hours. It is produced by proton irradiation of natural yttrium-89. Its most prominent gamma photon has an energy of 909 keV.

Zirconium-89 is employed in specialized diagnostic applications using positron emission tomography imaging, for example, with zirconium-89 labeled antibodies (immuno-PET). For a decay table, see

Zirconium-93
93Zr is a radioisotope of zirconium with a half-life of 1.53 million years, decaying through emission of a low-energy beta particle. 73% of decays populate an excited state of niobium-93, which decays with a halflife of 14 years and a low-energy gamma ray to the stable ground state of 93Nb, while the remaining 27% of decays directly populate the ground state. It is one of only 7 long-lived fission products. The low specific activity and low energy of its radiations limit the radioactive hazards of this isotope.

Nuclear fission produces it at a fission yield of 6.3% (thermal neutron fission of 235U), on a par with the other most abundant fission products. Nuclear reactors usually contain large amounts of zirconium as fuel rod cladding (see zircaloy), and neutron irradiation of 92Zr also produces some 93Zr, though this is limited by 92Zr's low neutron capture cross section of 0.22 barns. Indeed, one of the primary reasons for using zirconium in fuel rod cladding is its low cross section.

93Zr also has a low neutron capture cross section of 0.7 barns. Most fission zirconium consists of other isotopes; the other isotope with a significant neutron absorption cross section is 91Zr with a cross section of 1.24 barns. 93Zr is a less attractive candidate for disposal by nuclear transmutation than are 99Tc and 129I. Mobility in soil is relatively low, so that geological disposal may be an adequate solution. Alternatively, if the effect on the neutron economy of 's higher cross section is deemed acceptable, irradiated cladding and fission product Zirconium (which are mixed together in most current nuclear reprocessing methods) could be used to form new zircalloy cladding. Once the cladding is inside the reactor, the relatively low level radioactivity can be tolerated, but transport and manufacturing might require special precautions.

title: Isotopes of zirconium


text:
Isotopes of yttrium

Natural yttrium (39Y) is composed of a single isotope yttrium-89. The most stable radioisotopes are 88Y, which has a half-life of 106.6 days, and 91Y, with a half-life of 58.51 days. All the other isotopes have half-lives of less than a day, except 87Y, which has a half-life of 79.8 hours, and 90Y, with 64 hours. The dominant decay mode below the stable 89Y is electron capture and the dominant mode after it is beta emission. Thirty-five unstable isotopes have been characterized.

90Y exists in equilibrium with its parent isotope strontium-90, which is a product of nuclear fission.

List of isotopes

 * 76Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 75.95845(54)#
 * 500# ns [>170 ns]
 * rowspan=2|77Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2|76.94965(7)#
 * rowspan=2|63(17) ms
 * p (>99.9%)
 * 76Sr
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (<.1%)
 * 77Sr
 * 78Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 77.94361(43)#
 * 54(5) ms
 * β+
 * 78Sr
 * (0+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 78mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 0(500)# keV
 * 5.8(5) s
 * 5+#
 * rowspan=2|79Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2|78.93735(48)
 * rowspan=2|14.8(6) s
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 79Sr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 78Rb
 * 80Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 79.93428(19)
 * 30.1(5) s
 * β+
 * 80Sr
 * 4−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 80m1Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 228.5(1) keV
 * 4.8(3) s
 * (1−)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 80m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 312.6(9) keV
 * 4.7(3) μs
 * (2+)
 * 81Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 80.92913(7)
 * 70.4(10) s
 * β+
 * 81Sr
 * (5/2+)
 * 82Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 81.92679(11)
 * 8.30(20) s
 * β+
 * 82Sr
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 82m1Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 402.63(14) keV
 * 268(25) ns
 * 4−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 82m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 507.50(13) keV
 * 147(7) ns
 * 6+
 * 83Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 82.92235(5)
 * 7.08(6) min
 * β+
 * 83Sr
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 83mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 61.98(11) keV
 * rowspan=2|2.85(2) min
 * β+ (60%)
 * 83Sr
 * rowspan=2|(3/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (40%)
 * 83Y
 * 84Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 83.92039(10)
 * 39.5(8) min
 * β+
 * 84Sr
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 84mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | −80(190) keV
 * 4.6(2) s
 * β+
 * 84Sr
 * (5−)
 * 85Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 84.916433(20)
 * 2.68(5) h
 * β+
 * 85Sr
 * (1/2)−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 85m1Y
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 19.8(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|4.86(13) h
 * β+ (99.998%)
 * 85Sr
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (.002%)
 * 85Y
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 85m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 266.30(20) keV
 * 178(6) ns
 * 5/2−
 * 86Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 85.914886(15)
 * 14.74(2) h
 * β+
 * 86Sr
 * 4−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 86m1Y
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 218.30(20) keV
 * rowspan=2|48(1) min
 * IT (99.31%)
 * 86Y
 * rowspan=2|(8+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (.69%)
 * 86Sr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 86m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 302.2(5) keV
 * 125(6) ns
 * (7−)
 * 87Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 86.9108757(17)
 * 79.8(3) h
 * β+
 * 87Sr
 * 1/2−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 87mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 380.82(7) keV
 * rowspan=2|13.37(3) h
 * IT (98.43%)
 * 87Y
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (1.56%)
 * 87Sr
 * 88Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 87.9095011(20)
 * 106.616(13) d
 * β+
 * 88Sr
 * 4−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 88m1Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 674.55(4) keV
 * 13.9(2) ms
 * IT
 * 88Y
 * (8)+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 88m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 392.86(9) keV
 * 300(3) μs
 * 1+
 * 89Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 88.9058483(27)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 1/2−
 * 1.0000
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 89mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 908.97(3) keV
 * 15.663(5) s
 * IT
 * 89Y
 * 9/2+
 * 90Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 89.9071519(27)
 * 64.053(20) h
 * β−
 * 90Zr
 * 2−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 90mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 681.67(10) keV
 * rowspan=2|3.19(6) h
 * IT (99.99%)
 * 90Y
 * rowspan=2|7+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (.0018%)
 * 90Zr
 * 91Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 90.907305(3)
 * 58.51(6) d
 * β−
 * 91Zr
 * 1/2−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 91mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 555.58(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|49.71(4) min
 * IT (98.5%)
 * 91Y
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (1.5%)
 * 91Zr
 * 92Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 53
 * 91.908949(10)
 * 3.54(1) h
 * β−
 * 92Zr
 * 2−
 * 93Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 92.909583(11)
 * 10.18(8) h
 * β−
 * 93Zr
 * 1/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 93mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 758.719(21) keV
 * 820(40) ms
 * IT
 * 93Y
 * 7/2+
 * 94Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 55
 * 93.911595(8)
 * 18.7(1) min
 * β−
 * 94Zr
 * 2−
 * 95Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 56
 * 94.912821(8)
 * 10.3(1) min
 * β−
 * 95Zr
 * 1/2−
 * 96Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 57
 * 95.915891(25)
 * 5.34(5) s
 * β−
 * 96Zr
 * 0−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 96mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1140(30) keV
 * 9.6(2) s
 * β−
 * 96Zr
 * (8)+
 * rowspan=2|97Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 58
 * rowspan=2|96.918134(13)
 * rowspan=2|3.75(3) s
 * β− (99.942%)
 * 97Zr
 * rowspan=2|(1/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.058%)
 * 96Zr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 97m1Y
 * rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 667.51(23) keV
 * rowspan=3|1.17(3) s
 * β− (99.3%)
 * 97Zr
 * rowspan=3|(9/2)+
 * rowspan=3|
 * IT (.7%)
 * 97Y
 * β−, n (.08%)
 * 96Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 97m2Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3523.3(4) keV
 * 142(8) ms
 * (27/2−)
 * rowspan=2|98Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 59
 * rowspan=2|97.922203(26)
 * rowspan=2|0.548(2) s
 * β− (99.669%)
 * 98Zr
 * rowspan=2|(0)−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.331%)
 * 97Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98m1Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 170.74(6) keV
 * 620(80) ns
 * (2)−
 * rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 98m2Y
 * rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 410(30) keV
 * rowspan=3|2.0(2) s
 * β− (86.6%)
 * 98Zr
 * rowspan=3|(5+,4−)
 * rowspan=3|
 * IT (10%)
 * 98Y
 * β−, n (3.4%)
 * 97Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98m3Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 496.19(15) keV
 * 7.6(4) μs
 * (2−)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98m4Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1181.1(4) keV
 * 0.83(10) μs
 * (8−)
 * rowspan=2|99Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|98.924636(26)
 * rowspan=2|1.470(7) s
 * β− (98.1%)
 * 99Zr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.9%)
 * 98Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 99mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2141.65(19) keV
 * 8.6(8) μs
 * (17/2+)
 * rowspan=2|100Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=2|99.92776(8)
 * rowspan=2|735(7) ms
 * β− (98.98%)
 * 100Zr
 * rowspan=2|1−,2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.02%)
 * 99Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 100mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * 940(30) ms
 * β−
 * 100Zr
 * (3,4,5)(+#)
 * rowspan=2|101Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|100.93031(10)
 * rowspan=2|426(20) ms
 * β− (98.06%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.94%)
 * 100Zr
 * rowspan=2|102Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=2|101.93356(9)
 * rowspan=2|0.30(1) s
 * β− (95.1%)
 * 102Zr
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (4.9%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 102mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * rowspan=2|360(40) ms
 * β− (94%)
 * 102Zr
 * rowspan=2|high
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2|103Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|102.93673(32)#
 * rowspan=2|224(19) ms
 * β− (91.7%)
 * 103Zr
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (8.3%)
 * 102Zr
 * 104Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 65
 * 103.94105(43)#
 * 180(60) ms
 * β−
 * 104Zr
 * 105Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 104.94487(54)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 105Zr
 * 5/2+#
 * 106Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 105.94979(75)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 106Zr
 * 107Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106.95414(54)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 108Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 107.95948(86)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 109Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98m4Y
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1181.1(4) keV
 * 0.83(10) μs
 * (8−)
 * rowspan=2|99Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|98.924636(26)
 * rowspan=2|1.470(7) s
 * β− (98.1%)
 * 99Zr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.9%)
 * 98Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 99mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2141.65(19) keV
 * 8.6(8) μs
 * (17/2+)
 * rowspan=2|100Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=2|99.92776(8)
 * rowspan=2|735(7) ms
 * β− (98.98%)
 * 100Zr
 * rowspan=2|1−,2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.02%)
 * 99Zr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 100mY
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * 940(30) ms
 * β−
 * 100Zr
 * (3,4,5)(+#)
 * rowspan=2|101Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|100.93031(10)
 * rowspan=2|426(20) ms
 * β− (98.06%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.94%)
 * 100Zr
 * rowspan=2|102Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=2|101.93356(9)
 * rowspan=2|0.30(1) s
 * β− (95.1%)
 * 102Zr
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (4.9%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 102mY
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * rowspan=2|360(40) ms
 * β− (94%)
 * 102Zr
 * rowspan=2|high
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (6%)
 * 101Zr
 * rowspan=2|103Y
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|102.93673(32)#
 * rowspan=2|224(19) ms
 * β− (91.7%)
 * 103Zr
 * rowspan=2|5/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (8.3%)
 * 102Zr
 * 104Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 65
 * 103.94105(43)#
 * 180(60) ms
 * β−
 * 104Zr
 * 105Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 104.94487(54)#
 * 60# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 105Zr
 * 5/2+#
 * 106Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 105.94979(75)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 106Zr
 * 107Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106.95414(54)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 108Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 107.95948(86)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 109Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 106Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 105.94979(75)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 106Zr
 * 107Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106.95414(54)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 5/2+#
 * 108Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 107.95948(86)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 109Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 109Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 110Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 110Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 71
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * 111Y
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * style="text-align:right" | 72
 * style="text-align:right" | 72

title: Isotopes of yttrium


text:
Isotopes of strontium

The alkaline earth metal strontium (38Sr) has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: 84Sr (0.56%), 86Sr (9.86%), 87Sr (7.0%) and 88Sr (82.58%). Its standard atomic weight is 87.62(1).

Only 87Sr is radiogenic; it is produced by decay from the radioactive alkali metal 87Rb, which has a half-life of 4.88 × 1010 years (i.e. more than three times longer than the current age of the universe). Thus, there are two sources of 87Sr in any material: primordial, formed during nucleosynthesis along with 84Sr, 86Sr and 88Sr; and that formed by radioactive decay of 87Rb. The ratio 87Sr/86Sr is the parameter typically reported in geologic investigations; ratios in minerals and rocks have values ranging from about 0.7 to greater than 4.0 (see rubidium–strontium dating). Because strontium has an electron configuration similar to that of calcium, it readily substitutes for calcium in minerals.

In addition to the four stable isotopes, thirty-two unstable isotopes of strontium are known to exist, ranging from 73Sr to 108Sr. Radioactive isotopes of strontium primarily decay into the neighbouring elements yttrium (89Sr and heavier isotopes, via beta minus decay) and rubidium (85Sr, 83Sr and lighter isotopes, via positron emission or electron capture). The longest-lived of these isotopes, and the most relevantly studied, are 90Sr with a half-life of 28.9 years, 85Sr with a half-life of 64.853 days, and 89Sr (89Sr) with a half-life of 50.57 days. All other strontium isotopes have half-lives shorter than 50 days, most under 100 minutes.

Strontium-89 is an artificial radioisotope used in treatment of bone cancer; this application utilizes its chemical similarity to calcium, which allows it to substitute calcium in bone structures. In circumstances where cancer patients have widespread and painful bony metastases, the administration of 89Sr results in the delivery of beta particles directly to the cancerous portions of the bone, where calcium turnover is greatest. Strontium-90 is a by-product of nuclear fission, present in nuclear fallout. The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident contaminated a vast area with 90Sr. It causes health problems, as it substitutes for calcium in bone, preventing expulsion from the body. Because it is a long-lived high-energy beta emitter, it is used in SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) devices. These devices hold promise for use in spacecraft, remote weather stations, navigational buoys, etc., where a lightweight, long-lived, nuclear-electric power source is required.

In 2020, researchers have found that mirror nuclides 73Sr and 73Br were found to not behave identically to each other as expected.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=2|73Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" |38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 35
 * rowspan=2|72.96597(64)#
 * rowspan=2|>25 ms
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 73Rb
 * rowspan=2|1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 72Kr
 * 74Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 73.95631(54)#
 * 50# ms [>1.5 μs]
 * β+
 * 74Rb
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|75Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2|74.94995(24)
 * rowspan=2|88(3) ms
 * β+ (93.5%)
 * 75Rb
 * rowspan=2|(3/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (6.5%)
 * 74Kr
 * 76Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 75.94177(4)
 * 7.89(7) s
 * β+
 * 76Rb
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|77Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2|76.937945(10)
 * rowspan=2|9.0(2) s
 * β+ (99.75%)
 * 77Rb
 * rowspan=2|5/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (.25%)
 * 76Kr
 * 78Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 77.932180(8)
 * 159(8) s
 * β+
 * 78Rb
 * 0+
 * 79Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 78.929708(9)
 * 2.25(10) min
 * β+
 * 79Rb
 * 3/2(−)
 * 80Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 79.924521(7)
 * 106.3(15) min
 * β+
 * 80Rb
 * 0+
 * 81Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 80.923212(7)
 * 22.3(4) min
 * β+
 * 81Rb
 * 1/2−
 * 82Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 81.918402(6)
 * 25.36(3) d
 * EC
 * 82Rb
 * 0+
 * 83Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 82.917557(11)
 * 32.41(3) h
 * β+
 * 83Rb
 * 7/2+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 83mSr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 259.15(9) keV
 * 4.95(12) s
 * IT
 * 83Sr
 * 1/2−
 * 84Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 83.913425(3)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.0056
 * 0.0055–0.0058
 * 85Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 84.912933(3)
 * 64.853(8) d
 * EC
 * 85Rb
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 85mSr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 238.66(6) keV
 * rowspan=2|67.63(4) min
 * IT (86.6%)
 * 85Sr
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (13.4%)
 * 85Rb
 * 86Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 85.9092607309(91)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.0986
 * 0.0975–0.0999
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 86mSr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2955.68(21) keV
 * 455(7) ns
 * 8+
 * 87Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 86.9088774970(91)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 9/2+
 * 0.0700
 * 0.0694–0.0714
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 87mSr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 388.533(3) keV
 * rowspan=2|2.815(12) h
 * IT (99.7%)
 * 87Sr
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * EC (.3%)
 * 87Rb
 * 88Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 87.9056122571(97)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.8258
 * 0.8229–0.8275
 * 89Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 88.9074507(12)
 * 50.57(3) d
 * β−
 * 89Y
 * 5/2+
 * 90Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 89.907738(3)
 * 28.90(3) y
 * β−
 * 90Y
 * 0+
 * 91Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 53
 * 90.910203(5)
 * 9.63(5) h
 * β−
 * 91Y
 * 5/2+
 * 92Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 91.911038(4)
 * 2.66(4) h
 * β−
 * 92Y
 * 0+
 * 93Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 55
 * 92.914026(8)
 * 7.423(24) min
 * β−
 * 93Y
 * 5/2+
 * 94Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 56
 * 93.915361(8)
 * 75.3(2) s
 * β−
 * 94Y
 * 0+
 * 95Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 57
 * 94.919359(8)
 * 23.90(14) s
 * β−
 * 95Y
 * 1/2+
 * 96Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 58
 * 95.921697(29)
 * 1.07(1) s
 * β−
 * 96Y
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|97Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 59
 * rowspan=2|96.926153(21)
 * rowspan=2|429(5) ms
 * β− (99.95%)
 * 97Y
 * rowspan=2|1/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.05%)
 * 96Y
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 97m1Sr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 308.13(11) keV
 * 170(10) ns
 * (7/2)+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 97m2Sr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 830.8(2) keV
 * 255(10) ns
 * (11/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|98Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|97.928453(28)
 * rowspan=2|0.653(2) s
 * β− (99.75%)
 * 98Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.25%)
 * 97Y
 * rowspan=2|99Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=2|98.93324(9)
 * rowspan=2|0.269(1) s
 * β− (99.9%)
 * 99Y
 * rowspan=2|3/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.1%)
 * 98Y
 * rowspan=2|100Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|99.93535(14)
 * rowspan=2|202(3) ms
 * β− (99.02%)
 * 100Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.98%)
 * 99Y
 * rowspan=2|101Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=2|100.94052(13)
 * rowspan=2|118(3) ms
 * β− (97.63%)
 * 101Y
 * rowspan=2|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (2.37%)
 * 100Y
 * rowspan=2|102Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|101.94302(12)
 * rowspan=2|69(6) ms
 * β− (94.5%)
 * 102Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (5.5%)
 * 101Y
 * 103Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 65
 * 102.94895(54)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 103Y
 * 104Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 103.95233(75)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 104Y
 * 0+
 * 105Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 104.95858(75)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 106Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * rowspan=2|97.928453(28)
 * rowspan=2|0.653(2) s
 * β− (99.75%)
 * 98Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.25%)
 * 97Y
 * rowspan=2|99Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=2|98.93324(9)
 * rowspan=2|0.269(1) s
 * β− (99.9%)
 * 99Y
 * rowspan=2|3/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.1%)
 * 98Y
 * rowspan=2|100Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|99.93535(14)
 * rowspan=2|202(3) ms
 * β− (99.02%)
 * 100Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.98%)
 * 99Y
 * rowspan=2|101Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=2|100.94052(13)
 * rowspan=2|118(3) ms
 * β− (97.63%)
 * 101Y
 * rowspan=2|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (2.37%)
 * 100Y
 * rowspan=2|102Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|101.94302(12)
 * rowspan=2|69(6) ms
 * β− (94.5%)
 * 102Y
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (5.5%)
 * 101Y
 * 103Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 65
 * 102.94895(54)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 103Y
 * 104Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 103.95233(75)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 104Y
 * 0+
 * 105Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 104.95858(75)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 106Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 105Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 104.95858(75)#
 * 20# ms [>300 ns]
 * 106Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 106Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 107Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 107Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * 108Sr
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * style="text-align:right" | 70
 * style="text-align:right" | 70

title: Isotopes of strontium


text:
Isotopes of rubidium

Rubidium (37Rb) has 36 isotopes, with naturally occurring rubidium being composed of just two isotopes; 85Rb (72.2%) and the radioactive 87Rb (27.8%).

87Rb has a half-life of $4.92 years$. It readily substitutes for potassium in minerals, and is therefore fairly widespread. 87Rb has been used extensively in dating rocks; 87Rb decays to stable strontium-87 by emission of a beta particle (an electron ejected from the nucleus). During fractional crystallization, Sr tends to become concentrated in plagioclase, leaving Rb in the liquid phase. Hence, the Rb/Sr ratio in residual magma may increase over time, resulting in rocks with increasing Rb/Sr ratios with increasing differentiation. The highest ratios (10 or higher) occur in pegmatites. If the initial amount of Sr is known or can be extrapolated, the age can be determined by measurement of the Rb and Sr concentrations and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio. The dates indicate the true age of the minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently altered. See rubidium–strontium dating for a more detailed discussion.

Other than 87Rb, the longest-lived radioisotopes are 83Rb with a half-life of 86.2 days, 84Rb with a half-life of 33.1 days, and 86Rb with a half-life of 18.642 days. All other radioisotopes have half-lives less than a day.

82Rb is used in some cardiac positron emission tomography scans to assess myocardial perfusion. It has a half-life of 1.273 minutes. It does not exist naturally, but can be made from the decay of 82Sr.

List of isotopes

 * 71Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 70.96532(54)#
 * p
 * 70Kr
 * 5/2−#
 * 72Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 71.95908(54)#
 * <1.5 μs
 * p
 * 71Kr
 * 3+#
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 72mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 100(100)# keV
 * 1# μs
 * p
 * 71Kr
 * 1−#
 * 73Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 72.95056(16)#
 * <30 ns
 * p
 * 72Kr
 * 3/2−#
 * 74Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 73.944265(4)
 * 64.76(3) ms
 * β+
 * 74Kr
 * (0+)
 * 75Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 74.938570(8)
 * 19.0(12) s
 * β+
 * 75Kr
 * (3/2−)
 * rowspan=2|76Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2|75.9350722(20)
 * rowspan=2|36.5(6) s
 * β+
 * 76Kr
 * rowspan=2|1(−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, α (3.8×10−7%)
 * 72Se
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 76mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 316.93(8) keV
 * 3.050(7) μs
 * (4+)
 * 77Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 76.930408(8)
 * 3.77(4) min
 * β+
 * 77Kr
 * 3/2−
 * 78Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 77.928141(8)
 * 17.66(8) min
 * β+
 * 78Kr
 * 0(+)
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 78mRb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 111.20(10) keV
 * rowspan=2|5.74(5) min
 * β+ (90%)
 * 78Kr
 * rowspan=2|4(−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (10%)
 * 78Rb
 * 79Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 78.923989(6)
 * 22.9(5) min
 * β+
 * 79Kr
 * 5/2+
 * 80Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 79.922519(7)
 * 33.4(7) s
 * β+
 * 80Kr
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 80mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 494.4(5) keV
 * 1.6(2) μs
 * 6+
 * 81Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 80.918996(6)
 * 4.570(4) h
 * β+
 * 81Kr
 * 3/2−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 81mRb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 86.31(7) keV
 * rowspan=2|30.5(3) min
 * IT (97.6%)
 * 81Rb
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (2.4%)
 * 81Kr
 * 82Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 81.9182086(30)
 * 1.273(2) min
 * β+
 * 82Kr
 * 1+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 82mRb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 69.0(15) keV
 * rowspan=2|6.472(5) h
 * β+ (99.67%)
 * 82Kr
 * rowspan=2|5−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (.33%)
 * 82Rb
 * 83Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 82.915110(6)
 * 86.2(1) d
 * EC
 * 83Kr
 * 5/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 83mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 42.11(4) keV
 * 7.8(7) ms
 * IT
 * 83Rb
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2|84Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=2|83.914385(3)
 * rowspan=2|33.1(1) d
 * β+ (96.2%)
 * 84Kr
 * rowspan=2|2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (3.8%)
 * 84Sr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 84mRb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 463.62(9) keV
 * rowspan=2|20.26(4) min
 * IT (>99.9%)
 * 84Rb
 * rowspan=2|6−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (<.1%)
 * 84Kr
 * 85Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 84.911789738(12)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 5/2−
 * 0.7217(2)
 * rowspan=2|86Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 49
 * rowspan=2|85.91116742(21)
 * rowspan=2|18.642(18) d
 * β− (99.9948%)
 * 86Sr
 * rowspan=2|2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * EC (.0052%)
 * 86Kr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 86mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 556.05(18) keV
 * 1.017(3) min
 * IT
 * 86Rb
 * 6−
 * 87Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 86.909180527(13)
 * 4.923(22)×1010 y
 * β−
 * 87Sr
 * 3/2−
 * 0.2783(2)
 * 88Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 87.91131559(17)
 * 17.773(11) min
 * β−
 * 88Sr
 * 2−
 * 89Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 88.912278(6)
 * 15.15(12) min
 * β−
 * 89Sr
 * 3/2−
 * 90Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 53
 * 89.914802(7)
 * 158(5) s
 * β−
 * 90Sr
 * 0−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 90mRb
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 106.90(3) keV
 * rowspan=2|258(4) s
 * β− (97.4%)
 * 90Sr
 * rowspan=2|3−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (2.6%)
 * 90 Rb
 * 91Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 90.916537(9)
 * 58.4(4) s
 * β−
 * 91Sr
 * 3/2(−)
 * rowspan=2|92Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 55
 * rowspan=2|91.919729(7)
 * rowspan=2|4.492(20) s
 * β− (99.98%)
 * 92Sr
 * rowspan=2|0−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (.0107%)
 * 91Sr
 * rowspan=2|93Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 56
 * rowspan=2|92.922042(8)
 * rowspan=2|5.84(2) s
 * β− (98.65%)
 * 93Sr
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.35%)
 * 92Sr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 93mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 253.38(3) keV
 * 57(15) μs
 * (3/2−,5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|94Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 57
 * rowspan=2|93.926405(9)
 * rowspan=2|2.702(5) s
 * β− (89.99%)
 * 94Sr
 * rowspan=2|3(−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (10.01%)
 * 93Sr
 * rowspan=2|95Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 58
 * rowspan=2|94.929303(23)
 * rowspan=2|377.5(8) ms
 * β− (91.27%)
 * 95Sr
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (8.73%)
 * 94Sr
 * rowspan=2|96Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 59
 * rowspan=2|95.93427(3)
 * rowspan=2|202.8(33) ms
 * β− (86.6%)
 * 96Sr
 * rowspan=2|2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (13.4%)
 * 95Sr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 96mRb
 * rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 0(200)# keV
 * rowspan=3|200# ms [>1 ms]
 * β−
 * 96Sr
 * rowspan=3|1(−#)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * IT
 * 96Rb
 * β−, n
 * 95Sr
 * rowspan=2|97Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|96.93735(3)
 * rowspan=2|169.9(7) ms
 * β− (74.3%)
 * 97Sr
 * rowspan=2|3/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (25.7%)
 * 96Sr
 * rowspan=3|98Rb
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=3|97.94179(5)
 * rowspan=3|114(5) ms
 * β−(86.14%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=3|(0,1)(−#)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (13.8%)
 * 97Sr
 * β−, 2n (.051%)
 * 96Sr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 290(130) keV
 * 96(3) ms
 * β−
 * 97Sr
 * (3,4)(+#)
 * rowspan=2|99Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|98.94538(13)
 * rowspan=2|50.3(7) ms
 * β− (84.1%)
 * 99Sr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (15.9%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=3|100Rb
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=3|99.94987(32)#
 * rowspan=3|51(8) ms
 * β− (94.25%)
 * 100Sr
 * rowspan=3|(3+)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (5.6%)
 * 99Sr
 * β−, 2n (.15%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=2|101Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|100.95320(18)
 * rowspan=2|32(5) ms
 * β− (69%)
 * 101Sr
 * rowspan=2|(3/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (31%)
 * 100Sr
 * rowspan=2|102Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|101.95887(54)#
 * rowspan=2|37(5) ms
 * β− (82%)
 * 102Sr
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (18%)
 * 101Sr
 * 103Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 26 ms
 * β−
 * 103Sr
 * 104Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 35# ms (>550 ns)
 * β−?
 * 104Sr
 * 105Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * IT
 * 96Rb
 * β−, n
 * 95Sr
 * rowspan=2|97Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|96.93735(3)
 * rowspan=2|169.9(7) ms
 * β− (74.3%)
 * 97Sr
 * rowspan=2|3/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (25.7%)
 * 96Sr
 * rowspan=3|98Rb
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=3|97.94179(5)
 * rowspan=3|114(5) ms
 * β−(86.14%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=3|(0,1)(−#)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (13.8%)
 * 97Sr
 * β−, 2n (.051%)
 * 96Sr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 98mRb
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 290(130) keV
 * 96(3) ms
 * β−
 * 97Sr
 * (3,4)(+#)
 * rowspan=2|99Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=2|98.94538(13)
 * rowspan=2|50.3(7) ms
 * β− (84.1%)
 * 99Sr
 * rowspan=2|(5/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (15.9%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=3|100Rb
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=3|99.94987(32)#
 * rowspan=3|51(8) ms
 * β− (94.25%)
 * 100Sr
 * rowspan=3|(3+)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (5.6%)
 * 99Sr
 * β−, 2n (.15%)
 * 98Sr
 * rowspan=2|101Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=2|100.95320(18)
 * rowspan=2|32(5) ms
 * β− (69%)
 * 101Sr
 * rowspan=2|(3/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (31%)
 * 100Sr
 * rowspan=2|102Rb
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 65
 * rowspan=2|101.95887(54)#
 * rowspan=2|37(5) ms
 * β− (82%)
 * 102Sr
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (18%)
 * 101Sr
 * 103Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 26 ms
 * β−
 * 103Sr
 * 104Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 35# ms (>550 ns)
 * β−?
 * 104Sr
 * 105Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 101Sr
 * 103Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 26 ms
 * β−
 * 103Sr
 * 104Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 35# ms (>550 ns)
 * β−?
 * 104Sr
 * 105Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 104Sr
 * 105Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * style="text-align:right" | 68
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * 106Rb
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * style="text-align:right" | 69

Rubidium-87
Rubidium-87 was the first and the most popular atom for making Bose–Einstein condensates in dilute atomic gases. Even though rubidium-85 is more abundant, rubidium-87 has a positive scattering length, which means it is mutually repulsive, at low temperatures. This prevents a collapse of all but the smallest condensates. It is also easy to evaporatively cool, with a consistent strong mutual scattering. There is also a strong supply of cheap uncoated diode lasers typically used in CD writers, which can operate at the correct wavelength.

Rubidium-87 has an atomic mass of 86.9091835 u, and a binding energy of 757,853 keV. Its atomic percent abundance is 27.835%, and has a half-life of $4.92 years$.

title: Isotopes of rubidium


text:
White, black and grey routes

In telecommunications business, a white route is a route where both source and destination are legal termination. This is opposed to a black route, which is a route that is illegal in both ends. Also common in telecom (especially VoIP) is the term grey route, which defines a route that is legal for one country or the party on one end, but illegal on the alternative end.

An example of the white/grey/black trichotomy is often seen in telecom routes from the United States to India. In India, a telecom oligopoly is granted to a few large corporations. Hence, all legal ("white") telecom traffic to the country is subject to the rates imposed by these corporations. To overcome this restriction for the purpose of achieving lower costs for consumers, and to make a profit in the process, many small parties set up VoIP routers in homes and offices around India. Telecom traffic from other countries is sent to these VoIP routers via IP and terminated to the local Indian PSTN. This process is illegal in India ("black"), but completely lawful in the USA ("white"). A route like this, white on one end and black on the other is said to be "grey".

SIM boxes
A "SIM box" is an unofficial voice over IP gateway which uses multiple mobile telephones and SIM cards for PSTN connectivity, while connecting to the Internet by conventional means. These are normally operated clandestinely in third-world calling destinations as the "black" end of a "grey route" where conventional private branch exchange lines (such as T-carrier primary rate interface) are not available to VoIP operators due to a hostile local regulatory environment.

In India, for instance, an Internet Service Licensee is not permitted to have PSTN/PLMN connectivity as voice communication to and from a telephone connected to PSTN/PLMN and following E.164 numbering is prohibited in India. By using licensing restrictions and regulations to ensure that the interconnection between the PSTN/PLMN network and Internet is not permitted, the government in India delivers a lucrative monopoly to International Long Distance (ILD) service providers licensed under Section 4 of the Indian Telegraph Act as the only carriers officially allowed to carry international long distance traffic into India.

title: White, black and grey routes


text:
Isotopes of krypton

There are 34 known isotopes of krypton (36Kr) with atomic mass numbers from 69 through 102. Naturally occurring krypton is made of five stable isotopes and one (78krypton) which is slightly radioactive with an extremely long half-life, plus traces of radioisotopes that are produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=2|67Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 31
 * rowspan=2|66.98331(46)#
 * rowspan=2|7.4(29) ms
 * β+? (63%)
 * 67Br
 * rowspan=2|3/2-#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * 2p (37%)
 * 65Se
 * rowspan=3|68Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 32
 * rowspan=3|67.97249(54)#
 * rowspan=3|21.6(33) ms
 * β+, p (>90%)
 * 67Se
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β+? (<10%)
 * 68Br
 * p?
 * 67Br
 * rowspan=2|69Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 33
 * rowspan=2|68.96550(32)#
 * rowspan=2|27.9(8) ms
 * β+, p (94%)
 * 68Se
 * rowspan=2|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (6%)
 * 69Br
 * rowspan=2|70Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 34
 * rowspan=2|69.95588(22)#
 * rowspan=2|45.00(14) ms
 * β+ (>98.7%)
 * 70Br
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<1.3%)
 * 69Se
 * rowspan=2|71Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 35
 * rowspan=2|70.95027(14)
 * rowspan=2|98.8(3) ms
 * β+ (97.9%)
 * 71Br
 * rowspan=2|(5/2)−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (2.1%)
 * 70Se
 * 72Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 71.9420924(86)
 * 17.16(18) s
 * β+
 * 72Br
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|73Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2|72.9392892(71)
 * rowspan=2|27.3(10) s
 * β+ (99.75%)
 * 73Br
 * rowspan=2|(3/2)−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (0.25%)
 * 72Se
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 73mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 433.55(13) keV
 * 107(10) ns
 * IT
 * 73Kr
 * (9/2+)
 * 74Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 73.9330840(22)
 * 11.50(11) min
 * β+
 * 74Br
 * 0+
 * 75Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 74.9309457(87)
 * 4.60(7) min
 * β+
 * 75Br
 * 5/2+
 * 76Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 75.9259107(43)
 * 14.8(1) h
 * β+
 * 76Br
 * 0+
 * 77Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 76.9246700(21)
 * 72.6(9) min
 * β+
 * 77Br
 * 5/2+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 77mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 66.50(5) keV
 * 118(12) ns
 * IT
 * 77Kr
 * 3/2−
 * 78Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 77.92036634(33)
 * align=center|9.2 $$ $$ y
 * Double EC
 * 78Se
 * 0+
 * 0.00355(3)
 * 79Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 78.9200829(37)
 * 35.04(10) h
 * β+
 * 79Br
 * 1/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 79mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 129.77(5) keV
 * 50(3) s
 * IT
 * 79Kr
 * 7/2+
 * 80Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 79.91637794(75)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.02286(10)
 * 81Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 80.9165897(12)
 * 2.29(11)×105 y
 * EC
 * 81Br
 * 7/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 81mKr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 190.64(4) keV
 * rowspan=2|13.10(3) s
 * IT
 * 81Kr
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * EC (0.0025%)
 * 81Br
 * 82Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 81.9134811537(59)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.11593(31)
 * 83Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 82 914126.516(9)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 9/2+
 * 0.11500(19)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 83m1Kr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 9.4053(8) keV
 * 156.8(5) ns
 * IT
 * 83Kr
 * 7/2+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 83m2Kr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 41.5575(7) keV
 * 1.830(13) h
 * IT
 * 83Kr
 * 1/2−
 * 84Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 83.9114977271(41)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.56987(15)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 84mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3236.07(18) keV
 * 1.83(4) μs
 * IT
 * 84Kr
 * 8+
 * 85Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 84.9125273(21)
 * 10.728(7) y
 * β−
 * 85Rb
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 85m1Kr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 304.871(20) keV
 * rowspan=2|4.480(8) h
 * β− (78.8%)
 * 85Rb
 * rowspan=2|1/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (21.2%)
 * 85Kr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 85m2Kr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1991.8(2) keV
 * 1.82(5) μs
 * IT
 * 85Kr
 * (17/2+)
 * 86Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 85.9106106247(40)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.17279(41)
 * 87Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 86.91335476(26)
 * 76.3(5) min
 * β−
 * 87Rb
 * 5/2+
 * 88Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 87.9144479(28)
 * 2.825(19) h
 * β−
 * 88Rb
 * 0+
 * 89Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 53
 * 88.9178354(23)
 * 3.15(4) min
 * β−
 * 89Rb
 * 3/2+
 * 90Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 54
 * 89.9195279(20)
 * 32.32(9) s
 * β−
 * 90mRb
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|91Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 55
 * rowspan=2|90.9238063(24)
 * rowspan=2|8.57(4) s
 * β−
 * 91Rb
 * rowspan=2|5/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 90Rb
 * rowspan=2|92Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 56
 * rowspan=2|91.9261731(29)
 * rowspan=2|1.840(8) s
 * β− (99.97%)
 * 92Rb
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (0.0332%)
 * 91Rb
 * rowspan=2|93Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 57
 * rowspan=2|92.9311472(27)
 * rowspan=2|1.287(10) s
 * β− (98.05%)
 * 93Rb
 * rowspan=2|1/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.95%)
 * 92Rb
 * rowspan=2|94Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 58
 * rowspan=2|93.934140(13)
 * rowspan=2|212(4) ms
 * β− (98.89%)
 * 94Rb
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.11%)
 * 93Rb
 * rowspan=3|95Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 59
 * rowspan=3|94.939711(20)
 * rowspan=3|114(3) ms
 * β− (97.13%)
 * 95Rb
 * rowspan=3|1/2+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (2.87%)
 * 94Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 93Rb
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 95mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 195.5(3) keV
 * 1.582(22) μs
 * IT
 * 85Kr
 * (7/2+)
 * rowspan=2|96Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|95.942998(62)
 * rowspan=2|80(8) ms
 * β− (96.3%)
 * 96Rb
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (3.7%)
 * 95Rb
 * rowspan=3|97Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=3|96.94909(14)
 * rowspan=3|62.2(32) ms
 * β− (93.3%)
 * 97Rb
 * rowspan=3|3/2+#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (6.7%)
 * 96Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 95Rb
 * rowspan=3|98Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=3|97.95264(32)#
 * rowspan=3|42.8(36) ms
 * β− (93.0%)
 * 98Rb
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (7.0%)
 * 97Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 96Rb
 * rowspan=3|99Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=3|98.95878(43)#
 * rowspan=3|40(11) ms
 * β− (89%)
 * 99Rb
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (11%)
 * 98Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 97Rb
 * rowspan=3|100Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=3|99.96300(43)#
 * rowspan=3|12(8) ms
 * β−
 * 100Rb
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 99Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 98Rb
 * rowspan=3 | 101Kr
 * rowspan=3 | 36
 * rowspan=3 | 65
 * rowspan=3 | 100.96932(54)#
 * rowspan=3 | 9# ms [>400 ns]
 * β−?
 * 101Rb
 * rowspan=3 | 5/2+#
 * rowspan=3 |
 * rowspan=3 |
 * β−, n?
 * 100Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 99Rb
 * 102Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 0+
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * β−, 2n?
 * 93Rb
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 95mKr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 195.5(3) keV
 * 1.582(22) μs
 * IT
 * 85Kr
 * (7/2+)
 * rowspan=2|96Kr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 60
 * rowspan=2|95.942998(62)
 * rowspan=2|80(8) ms
 * β− (96.3%)
 * 96Rb
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (3.7%)
 * 95Rb
 * rowspan=3|97Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 61
 * rowspan=3|96.94909(14)
 * rowspan=3|62.2(32) ms
 * β− (93.3%)
 * 97Rb
 * rowspan=3|3/2+#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (6.7%)
 * 96Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 95Rb
 * rowspan=3|98Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 62
 * rowspan=3|97.95264(32)#
 * rowspan=3|42.8(36) ms
 * β− (93.0%)
 * 98Rb
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (7.0%)
 * 97Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 96Rb
 * rowspan=3|99Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 63
 * rowspan=3|98.95878(43)#
 * rowspan=3|40(11) ms
 * β− (89%)
 * 99Rb
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (11%)
 * 98Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 97Rb
 * rowspan=3|100Kr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 64
 * rowspan=3|99.96300(43)#
 * rowspan=3|12(8) ms
 * β−
 * 100Rb
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 99Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 98Rb
 * rowspan=3 | 101Kr
 * rowspan=3 | 36
 * rowspan=3 | 65
 * rowspan=3 | 100.96932(54)#
 * rowspan=3 | 9# ms [>400 ns]
 * β−?
 * 101Rb
 * rowspan=3 | 5/2+#
 * rowspan=3 |
 * rowspan=3 |
 * β−, n?
 * 100Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 99Rb
 * 102Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 0+
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * rowspan=3 | 100.96932(54)#
 * rowspan=3 | 9# ms [>400 ns]
 * β−?
 * 101Rb
 * rowspan=3 | 5/2+#
 * rowspan=3 |
 * rowspan=3 |
 * β−, n?
 * 100Rb
 * β−, 2n?
 * 99Rb
 * 102Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 66
 * 0+
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 0+
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67
 * 103Kr
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * style="text-align:right" | 67

 * The isotopic composition refers to that in air.

Krypton-81
Radioactive krypton-81 is the product of spallation reactions with cosmic rays striking gases present in the Earth atmosphere, along with the six stable or nearly stable krypton isotopes. Krypton-81 has a half-life of about 229,000 years.

Krypton-81 is used for dating ancient (50,000- to 800,000-year-old) groundwater and to determine their residence time in deep aquifers. One of the main technical limitations of the method is that it requires the sampling of very large volumes of water: several hundred liters or a few cubic meters of water. This is particularly challenging for dating pore water in deep clay aquitards with very low hydraulic conductivity.

Krypton-85
Krypton-85 has a half-life of about 10.75 years. This isotope is produced by the nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear weapons testing and in nuclear reactors, as well as by cosmic rays. An important goal of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was to eliminate the release of such radioisotopes into the atmosphere, and since 1963 much of that krypton-85 has had time to decay. However, it is inevitable that krypton-85 is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors.

Atmospheric concentration
The atmospheric concentration of krypton-85 around the North Pole is about 30 percent higher than that at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station because nearly all of the world's nuclear reactors and all of its major nuclear reprocessing plants are located in the northern hemisphere, and also well-north of the equator. To be more specific, those nuclear reprocessing plants with significant capacities are located in the United States, the United Kingdom, the French Republic, the Russian Federation, Mainland China (PRC), Japan, India, and Pakistan.

Krypton-86
Krypton-86 was formerly used to define the meter from 1960 until 1983, when the definition of the meter was based on the wavelength of the 606 nm (orange) spectral line of a krypton-86 atom.

Others
All other radioisotopes of krypton have half-lives of less than one day, except for krypton-79, a positron emitter with a half-life of about 35.0 hours.

title: Isotopes of krypton