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Polygala

Polygala is a large genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Polygalaceae. They are commonly known as milkworts or snakeroots. The genus is distributed widely throughout much of the world in temperate zones and the tropics. The genus name Polygala comes from the ancient Greek "much milk", as the plant was thought to increase milk yields in cattle.

Description
As traditionally circumscribed, Polygala includes annual and perennial plants, shrubs, vines, and trees. The roots often have a scent reminiscent of wintergreen. The leaf blades are generally undivided and smooth-edged, and are alternately arranged in most species. The inflorescence is a raceme or spikelike array of several flowers; the occasional species bears solitary flowers. The flower is bilateral in shape, with two large petal-like sepals on the sides, often called the "wings", and three smaller sepals behind. There are three petals in shades of reddish purple, yellow or white, which are joined at the bases. The lower of the three is the keel petal, which is "boat-shaped, cucullate [hood-like], or helmet-shaped". The keel petal may have a beak or a fringe on the tip. Stamens and style are within the curve of the keel petal. The fruit is a capsule, sometimes winged. It contains two seeds, which are usually black, hairy and tipped with a large white aril. No members of this genus are known to form nitrogen-fixing nodules.

Taxonomy
The genus Polygala was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1754. Phylogenetic studies showed that, as traditionally circumscribed, the genus was not monophyletic. It had become a "wastebasket taxon"; almost all species with a flower apparently similar to those of the Papilionoideae – two petaloid lateral sepals forming 'wings', two petals forming a 'standard', and one petal forming a 'keel', plus a bilocular fruit capsule – were placed in Polygala, while species with more obviously specialized features, particularly those of the fruit, were placed in other genera. In 2011, John Richard Abbott separated some more sharply defined genera from Polygala.

Species
Partly because of differing circumscriptions, the reported number of valid species in the genus varies from about 350 to 500 to 725 or 730. The Americas have the most species, especially South America, with Africa second in diversity and Asia third. , Plants of the World Online accepted about 660 species in the genus Polygala. These include: • Polygala africana

• Polygala alba – white milkwort

• Polygala alpestris – alpine milkwort

• Polygala amara – bitter milkwort

• Polygala amarella – dwarf milkwort

• Polygala ambigua – whorled milkwort

• Polygala boykinii – Boykin's milkwort

• Polygala calcarea – chalk milkwort

• Polygala cruciata – drumheads

• Polygala curtissii – Curtiss' milkwort

• Polygala helenae

• Polygala incarnata – Pink milkwort

• Polygala kuriensis

• Polygala lewtonii – Lewton's polygala

• Polygala lutea – orange milkwort

• Polygala myrtifolia – butterfly-bush, parrotbush, myrtle-leaf milkwort, cascade curse, augustusbos (Afrikaans)

• Polygala nana – candyroot

• Polygala poaya – syn. Polygala angulata

• Polygala polygama – racemed milkwort

• Polygala quitensis

• Polygala sanguinea – purple milkwort, blood milkwort, field milkwort

• Polygala senega – Seneca snakeroot, senega

• Polygala serpyllifolia – thyme-leaved milkwort

• Polygala sinisica

• Polygala smallii – tiny milkwort

• Polygala tenuifolia – Chinese senega-root, yuan zhi

• Polygala vulgaris – common milkwort

Species now placed in other genera:
 * Polygala acanthoclada = Rhinotropis acanthoclada
 * Polygala californica = Rhinotropis californica
 * Polygala chamaebuxus = Polygaloides chamaebuxus
 * Polygala paucifolia = Polygaloides paucifolia
 * Polygala cornuta = Rhinotropis cornuta
 * Polygala heterorhyncha = Rhinotropis heterorhyncha
 * Polygala intermontana = Rhinotropis intermontana
 * Polygala macradenia = Hebecarpa macradenia
 * Polygala pterolopha = Monrosia pterolopha
 * Polygala rectipilis = Hebecarpa rectipilis
 * Polygala subspinosa = Rhinotropis subspinosa

Hybrid
Polygala × dalmaisiana (of garden origin)

Ecology
Polygala species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including large grizzled skipper.

Cultivation
Some species are valued in cultivation. Polygala × dalmaisiana, an evergreen shrub, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

title: Polygala


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Walter Giffen

Walter Frank Giffen (20 September 1861 – 28 June 1949) was an Australian sportsman who played in three Test cricket matches between 1887 and 1892 and played in Australian rules football for Norwood Football Club in the South Australian Football Association.

Early life and career
The younger brother of leading Australian cricketer and Australian rules footballer George Giffen, Walter Giffen was born in Norwood, South Australia on 20 September 1861, to Richard Giffen, a carpenter and his wife Elizabeth (née Challand).

Giffen played alongside his brother at Norwood Football Club, where he was a member of the 1879 Norwood premiership team, and firstly at Norwood Cricket Club before they moved to Adelaide Cricket Club ahead of the 1894/95 season.

First-class cricket career
Giffen made his first-class debut for South Australia on 24 March 1883, against Victoria at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, scoring a duck (out of a total of 23) and eight as South Australia lost by an innings and 98 runs. He struck better form the next season, against Victoria at Adelaide Oval, top scoring in South Australia's second innings with what was called "a faultless 89" (his highest first-class score) as South Australia lost by four wickets.

Giffen lost the tops of two fingers when he got his left hand trapped between a pair of cog-wheels in 1886 at the South Australian Gas Company's Brompton Gasworks.

Considered a sound batsman with a solid defence, Giffen's strength was his fielding in the deep and he "possessed a capital return to the wicket".

Giffen made his Test debut against England in February 1887 and was involved in a controversial event when Giffen, batting, hit the ball back to the bowler George Lohmann, who knocked the ball on the half volley to W.G. Grace at point. Grace then claimed the catch, and the unsighted umpire gave Giffen out.

In 1891 Giffen played for South Australia against the touring English side, making 65 in a total of 562, South Australia's then highest ever score, before being forced to retire hurt when his brother drove a ball straight back down the wicket, hitting the non-striker Giffen on the fingers of his right hand, injuring them so he was unable to continue his innings.

In a 1894/95 match against the touring English side, Giffen and Clem Hill added 192 for the eighth wicket, which remained the record South Australian first-class eighth wicket stand until February 2002/03 when Brad Young and Mick Miller added 222 against Queensland.

Controversy over Australian selection
Giffen has been called "one of the worst Test batsmen of all time" and it was alleged that Giffen played Test cricket only because George refused to play unless Walter was also selected.

The Australian media was particularly scathing of Giffen's national selection, with The Bulletin publishing a poem ridiculing him and stating "The big black spot on the selection of the Australian Eleven for England is Walter Giffen, whose proper place is in a second eleven. He is simply the brother of George Giffen and that is all."

George Giffen always denied having any influence over his brother's inclusion in Australian teams, arguing that Giffen had been picked on the strength of very good batting and when he did not have success in England, "nobody was more surprised than myself, for I had always thought that he would acquit himself well on English grounds."

Personal
In 1896 it was reported that Giffen was an owner of the lucrative "Lucky Hit" gold mine near Blumberg in the Adelaide Hills as well as working in the mine. While there Giffen continued to play cricket, including scoring 150* and 150 for Blumberg Cricket Club against Mount Pleasant and Mount Torrens respectively.

He worked for the South Australian Gas Company for nearly 50 years.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Walter Giffen


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User:Charles Matthews/Robinson2

Wade Baskin - F. W. Bateson - George Bedell - Brent Berlin - Max Black - Leonard Bloomfield - Dwight Bolinger - Roger Brown - Marina K. Burt - John B. Carroll - Seymour Chatman - A. Chevalley - M. Chevalley - Bruce L. Derwing - Francis P. Dinneen - R. M. W. Dixon - M. O'C. Drury - E. L. Epstein - J. R. Firth - Roger Fowler - F. H. George - H. A. Gleason - Judith Greene - Marjorie Grene - Allen D. Grimshaw - Roger Gurney - Robert A. Hall - Morris Halle - Oswald Hanfling - Gilbert Harman - T. Hawkes - Joseph Heller - Charles F. Hockett - G. M. Hopkins - F. W. Householder, Jr. - Charles S. Hughes - Dell Hymes - Roderick A. Jacobs - Jerrold J. Katz - Paul Kay - Roy Kerridge - George Lakoff - Geoffrey Leech - M. M. Lewis - Hugh Loftus - Colin Lyas - John Lyons - André Martinet - James McCawley - John Morton - Winifred Nowottny - F. R. Palmer - Leonard K. Palmer - John E. Pfeiffer - Michael Polanyi - Rush Rhees - Ian Robinson -Peter S. Rosenbaum - A. S. C. Ross - G. Ryle - I. M. Schlesinger - H. L. Smith - Leo Spitzer - L. S. Stebbing - Stephen P. Stich - James Peter Thorne - Count L. N. Tolstoy - G. L. Trager - Stephen Ullmann - Zeno Vendler - Walter V. Wartburg - Washoe - W. H. Whiteley - Whorf-Sapir hypothesis

title: User:Charles Matthews/Robinson2


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Gaius Livius Salinator

Gaius Livius Salinator (died c. 170 BC ) was a Roman consul in the year 188 BC and general who fought during the Antiochene war.

Salinator was the son of the Marcus Livius Salinator who was twice consul (219 and 207 BC) and censor in 204 BC. Gaius Salinator was inducted into the pontifices by 211 BC and served until around 170 BC. He held the curule aedileship in 204 BC and was elected to a praetorship two years later in 202; he served the year in Bruttium. He may have been a legate, commanding a fleet in Greece, during the Second Macedonian War from 199–98 before being relieved by Lucius Quinctius Flaminius. In 193 BC, he was a cavalry prefect under the consul Lucius Cornelius Merula in Gaul, during which he engaged in a battle near Mutina against the Boii.

Salinator was elected as praetor in the year 191 BC during which he was assigned to command a Roman fleet in the Aegean during the war on Antiochus there defeated Antiochus' fleet near Corycus. He was prorogued into 190 BC before being succeeded by Lucius Aemilius Regillus, one of the praetors of that year, and completed a mission in Lycia and headed an embassy to Bithynia before returning home. Elected to the consulship of 188 BC, Salinator was assigned to Gaul but three days before he left, on 17 July under the proleptic Julian calendar, a total solar eclipse placed Rome into darkness. During his time in Gaul he founded the city of Forum Livii.

title: Gaius Livius Salinator


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Miquel Barceló

Miquel Barceló Artigues (born 1957) is a Spanish painter.

Career
Barceló was born at Felanitx, Mallorca.

After having studied at the Arts and Crafts School of Palma for two years, he enrolled at the Fine Arts School of Barcelona in 1974. However, he only studied at this school for a few months. A year later he returned to Mallorca to participate in the happenings and actions of protest of the group "Taller Llunàtic", a conceptual avantgarde group. He also took part in the creation of their artist periodical Neon de Suro (21 issues from 1957–1982).

A year after his return to Mallorca, he had his first one-man show at the Palma Museum. Initially, the Avant-garde, Art Brut and American abstract Expressionism (e.g. Pollock had a big impact on him) influenced Barceló's work. On the other hand, he was always particularly interested in the Baroque paintings of Diego Velázquez, Tintoretto and Rembrandt. Jean Dubuffet inspired Barceló in adopting an experimental attitude.

Throughout the 1980s, he travelled extensively across Europe, the United States and West Africa – always returning to Paris which became a second home and where he set up a second studio. The time Barceló spent in different countries, his nomadism or peripatetic habits essentially influenced and inspired his work, most strongly the impressions of West Africa.

His participation at the "Documenta 7", Kassel, Germany, in 1982 gained him international recognition.

In 1983 he moved to Naples for five months. Here he realized some works made with volcanic cinder, for an exhibition at the Lucio Amelio's atelier. In this occasion he also answered the international call of the Neapolitan gallerist, after the 1980s earthquake, in which he asked the major contemporary artist of that time to create a work for the Terrae Motus collection. His work L'ombra che trema, now exhibited at the Royal Palace of Caserta, as he declared: "It's a self portrait: I made myself in the painting act. the shadow seems to reflect the other part of myself and at the same time is the destruction of the order."

In 1986 he received Spain's National Award for Plastic Arts.

In 2004 Barceló's watercolours, illustrating Dante's Divine Comedy, were shown at the Louvre Museum in Paris. For Palma Cathedral's Chapel of Sant Pere, Barceló covered the entire chapel with terracotta, decorating it with images related to the sixth chapter of the Gospel of St. John, the miracle of the multiplication of bread and fish, a theme chosen because the chapel is dedicated to the Last Supper. In 1990 he designed the costumes and stage sets for Manuel de Falla's opera El retablo de maese Pedro at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, and in 2006 at the Festival d'Avignon he was part of a performance with choreographer Joseph Nadj.

On 18 November 2008 the Spanish government officially presented Miquel Barceló's latest immense work of art in the United Nations Palace of Nations in Geneva. The work of art is a massive sculptural installation located on the domed ceiling of the building's newly created Chamber XX of Human rights and Alliance of Civilizations. The work consists of 1500 m2 of multi-coloured stalactite forms for which the artist used 100 tons of paint, that appear to be dripping from the ceiling.

In 2010, Barceló was invited to teach at a workshop by the École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles.

Barceló's work (paintings, drawings, sculptures and ceramics) is nowadays represented by Tobias Mueller Modern Art in Zürich, Galerie Bruno Bischofberger in Zürich and Acquavella Galleries in New York City.

In 2017, Miquel Barceló has been elected a vice-president of CISAC at the 2017 General Assembly in Lisbon.

In 2017 he was invested Doctor Honoris Causa by the University of Salamanca, as part of the commemoration of the VIII centenary of this University.

Exhibitions

 * 2011 : Les Rencontres d'Arles Festival, France.

title: Miquel Barceló


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Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/aurora panorama

Aurora Panorama
A truly spectacular image of one of a really unexpected subject. I was just getting into bed when I looked out my window (which fortunately faces south) and I saw this wierd red glow over the hills. I looked it for about a minute judging whether or not it would be worth taking a photo or if my eyes were just playing tricks. Anyway it suddenly flared up and there was these beams of green and red and yellow light going up into space. Naturally I jumped out of bed and went for the camera and tripod. Unfortunately I couldn't find the tripod and by the time I had got all my equipment ready the best of the aurora had died down. So considering this is the tail end of the aurora I think it is pretty good, especially since it was taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia which is about 100km north of the coast.
 * Support Self Nom. --Fir0002 09:44, August 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * I'd noticed there weren't any featured aurora pictures (that I noticed, anyway). It looks good and it's big. I like this one a lot. Raven4x4x 10:13, August 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm not a fan of self nominations, but I always like panoramas.;) This one is especially interesting, because of the story behind it (you should consider adding your story to the image description page too). The framing feels a bit lopsided, but that's difficult to avoid with some panoramas.;) (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 11:07, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I could see myself support this when the commenting period is over. - Mgm|(talk) 12:19, August 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Nice shot, but I am not keen on the large amount of ground in shot at the expense of the upper parts of the aurora. While any aurora is thrilling to see, this one is not one of the most spectacular examples.  I think that, from the aurora article, Image:Auroraborealissm.jpg and Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.JPG are more striking and featurable. Worldtraveller 15:22, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I disagree. Those pictures are far too low resolution.  While they do have the potential to be better FPs, currently, I think Fir's is better. --CVaneg 16:02, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Outstandind pic, very impressive, will support when voting starts - Adrian Pingstone 20:29, 26 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Neutral. Beautiful...but I would like to see a bit more aurora and less ground. --ScottyBoy900Q ∞ 03:23, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Support-- ZeWrestler  Talk 14:38, 29 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. James F. (talk) 12:58, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

-- Enochlau 06:11, 10 September 2005 (UTC)


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Chambon (disambiguation)

A chambon is a training device used on horses.

Chambon may also refer to:

Places

 * Chambon, Charente-Maritime, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Chambon, Cher, in the Cher département
 * Chambon, Gard, in the Gard département
 * Chambon, Indre-et-Loire, in the Indre-et-Loire département
 * Chambon-la-Forêt, in the Loiret département
 * Chambon-le-Château, in the Lozère département
 * Chambon-Sainte-Croix, in the Creuse département
 * Chambon-sur-Cisse, in the Loir-et-Cher département
 * Chambon-sur-Dolore, in the Puy-de-Dôme département
 * Chambon-sur-Lac, in the Puy-de-Dôme département
 * Chambon-sur-Voueize, in the Creuse département
 * Le Chambon, Ardèche, in the Ardèche département
 * Le Chambon-Feugerolles, in the Loire département
 * Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, in the Haute-Loire département

Lakes

 * Lac de Chambon, artificial lake in the Indre département
 * Lac Chambon, volcanic lake in the Puy-de-Dôme département
 * Lac du Chambon, artificial lake in the Isère département

People with the surname

 * Emile Chambon (1905–1993), Swiss painter
 * Nicolas Chambon (1748-1826), French politician who served as Mayor of Paris from 1792 to 1793.
 * Pierre Chambon, French biochemist and a genetist
 * Marie Martha Chambon, French Roman Catholic nun

title: Chambon (disambiguation)


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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Wikipedians for encyclopedic merit/Decent image proposal

Refactored from Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Wikipedians for encyclopedic merit. - brenneman (t) (c)  09:45, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Decent image proposal
Folks, we all saw the royal mess that occured during the WikiProject's VfD. The only argument written there against this project that could have persuaded me a bit was that it could become a breeding place for censorship. I imagine that if that ends up happening, we'll see another VfD quite soon.

As a result of that, I'm proposing something about obscene images: we admit that they are, well, necessary, in some articles, but they have no place in others. I don't want a picture of a naked woman in shadow, like a recent edit suggested, but sexual images in sexology articles do have some merit. So, the WikiProject could turn into a project to ensure that indecent images are placed only where appropriate. This isn't as difficult as it may appear: have a list of obscene images, click on one, use the Special:Whatlinkshere tool once in the image's page, and then, verify that they are linked only from pages that need it. I don't know what others may think, but if this proposal is debated and accepted, I'll be interested in joining the WikiProject. --Tito xd 03:30, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I think it would be good to try to clarify the nomenclature used. Titoxd moves between several terms that have quite different meanings, without making corresponding distinctions about how we might treat them.  Part of the reason I've urged keeping in some of the legal stuff, despite the dire warnings that amateur lawyering by Wikipedians might result, is that law treats several terms very differently.  For the most part, the distinctions made by courts and legislatures are helpful to us as well.

 * Obscene: Under the Miller test (slightly US-centric), material which has "serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value is ipso facto not obscene. Quite apart from legal ramifications, I do not believe that obscene material has any place anywhere on Wikipedia.

 * Indecent: After Miller, this term was somewhat discredited. Generally this means (non-obscene) sexually explicit material that may legally be prohibited from provision to children, but which adults have the right to obtain and possess.  Recent laws like the COPA, CDA, and some FCC regulation prohibit indecent material in some (limited) contexts.

 * Pornographic: Literally "writing of prostitutes." Generally nowadays used to refer to sexually explicit images in particular, mostly those that depict actual sexual acts rather than nudity or poses that might merely titillate sexually.  However, the use of this word varies greatly.  Pornography is usually not considered "work safe" or "school safe", not as a matter of law, but of convention and discretion.

 * Sexual: In the context of human sexuality, and in the sense of images or narrative, this can describe a broad array of content, of which "pornography" is only a subset. Nudity, even partial, or "provocative" poses, are often judged sexual in this meaning.  Sexual images may fail to be germane in many WP articles, but there is little plausible case that being merely sexual is a bar to content being used in schools, universities, academic publication, etc.

 * Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters 04:34, 2005 August 25 (UTC)

 * That sounds like your opinion, not out of some legal treatise on the subject. Bottomline...if the article is about an overt sex act, no image, none. If about nudity, then an image but only if the article is incapable of providing the necessary details in written form. Should a picture of Ms. January be the "choice" to go with the aticle on nudity or should it be the a picture of the 600 pound naked fat lady at the circus...they both would display nudity, wouldn't they? As Jimbo wales stated that now we have a drawing of autofellatio instead of the picture "for better or for worse"...meaning as I would seee it that he doesn't hink this sort of thing needs an image to describe the action...it would seem to be self explanatory without that image in either drawing or picture. You seem to come from some far off left viewpoint as to what constitutes encyclopedic merit for inclusion.--MONGO 04:44, August 25, 2005 (UTC)

 * My prior comment—and everything I write on any talk page—is, of course, my opinion. That said, I have tried to state these usages with a NPOV, under the possibility that they might act as starting points for definitions this project later adopts.

 * I disagree with the recommendations MONGO makes above, but let's see what WP, and this project particularly, thinks: (Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters 04:53, 2005 August 25 (UTC))

 * I disagree wholeheartedly with MONGO's disgust at the human form. Hipocrite 19:33, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Then both of you disagree with what the purpose of this project is and should be removed from it...you will, of course be welcome to continue to voice opinions in the discussions, however.--MONGO 18:38, August 27, 2005 (UTC)

 * Apparently, you read much more semantics than I had expected. What I meant was that images that could be considered { inaproppriate | indecent | obscene | pornographic | sexual | prurient | erotic | dirty | filthy | or whatever the correct word may be } could be allowed to live in a confined space about sexology articles. My point is, Wikipedia doesn't need to have these kinds of images in most, but not all articles (yes, they are useful in some articles), and the way to stop images like these from being abused is by using the Whatlinkshere tool. So, apart from any semantic issues, what is everyone's opinion about it? --Tito xd  00:09, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

 * All together now! Wikipedia is not censored for the protection of minors Radiant_ >|< 08:30, August 26, 2005 (UTC)

 * What I'm thinking is more in the lines of an anti-vandalism effort, not censorship. If a reason for the image is found, there is no need to block it. --Tito xd 22:27, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

Technological Solution
I (and others) have suggested at various times that ultimately a technological solution could exist. Images could be tagged with descriptive words such as "simulated violence" "partial nudity" "sexuality". Users would then have the option (probably through browser cookies) of choosing that they are OK with seeing nudity but not sexuality, or whatever their choice is. I recognize that there will still be arguments, (E.g. "what about a picture of two people kissing, does that qualify as sexuality?") but at least it would be an improvement. Johntex 17:11, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I paste here some comments that came into the Help desk:
 * "Is it possible to sanitise content within Wikipedia for profane language, for example http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunt, for use within a Primary school. We would like to use this resource as its probably more complete then any encyclopedia we currently have access to, but we need to make sure that things that parents might object to cannot be viewed easly.  Thanks, John Bradshaw"

 * He was basically pointed in the direction of filtering software - but it was pointed out that filtering software can't interpret images. He was also told he could mirror Wikipedia and remove objectionable content itself (true, but a ton of work, and loses the ongoing additions to the project).
 * Then, apparently still John Bradshaw but now with a username said:
 * "...is it possible to suggest to the 'powers that be' some sort of Family Filter similar to google, where you actively have to click off or view if someone considers this to be unsafe material. Similar to the 'This content is controversial' options that you can have on entries into the encyclopedia? Machtzu 02:53, 29 August 2005 (UTC)"

 * I would like to reiterate my support for such a technological solution. This would allow the user to have some control over the encyclopedic nature of their experience here.  Johntex 17:11, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

Why?
Why is it necessary for a content host to self-censor itself to its entire audience?? Those who want to be censored should take responsibility into their own hands to provide their own personal forms of censorship, many of which have been available for quite some time. This prevents unnecessary pains for the rest of us who aren't as easily filled with personal shame, and doesn't lead us down any slippery slopes. — BRIAN 0918 • 2005-10-7 02:37


text:
User:Charles Matthews/Shaffer

Elinor H. Shaffer

A
William Alexander - Jean Astruc

B
Pierre Simon Ballanche - G. L. Bauer - F. C. Baur - Pierre Bayle - James Beattie - William Beckford - Thomas Beddoes - Thomas Belsham - Johann Albrecht Bengel - Nicolas Berdyaev - Claude Bernard - John Blackwood - Isa Blagden - J. F. Blumenbach - J. J. Bodmer - Jacob Boehme - Nicolas Antoine Boulanger - Robert Herbert Brabant - Charles Bray - James Bruce - Robert Buchanan

C
Cerinthus - André-Marie Chénier - Jules Clarétie - Joannes Cocceius - John William Colenso - Anthony Collins - Mrs. Collyer - Joseph Cottle - Henry Crabb Robinson - Friedrich Creuzer - Ralph Cudworth

D
Alphonse Daudet - Emily Davies - Humphry Davy - W. M. L. De Wette - Emanuel Deutsch - C. H. Dodd - Guillaume Du Bartas - C. F. Dupuis - George Dyer - Johann Gottfried Eichhorn - J. A. Ernesti - John Prior Estlin - Mary Ann Evans - Heinrich Ewald - Austin Farrer - Duncan Forbes - Friedrich de la Motte-Fouqué - W. J. Fox - William Frend - Albert Friedman - Johann Philipp Gabler - J. C. Gatterer - Johann Christoph Gatterer - Alexander Geddes - Salomon Gessner - William Gilpin - Mrs Glazebrook - William Godwin - Lucien Goldmann - Theodor Goldstücker - Joseph Görres - Johann Joseph Griesbach - J. C. A. Grohmann - Johann Georg Hamann - Pierre François Hugues d'Hancarville - Barbara Hardy - Julius Hare - Frederic Harrison - David Hartley - W. J. Harvey - Philip Harwood - Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse - Charles Hennell - Sara Hennell - Barthélemy d'Herbelot - J. Herbert - C. G. Heyne - Philipp Friedrich Hiller - Thomas Hyde - Iamblichus - Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi - John of Giscala - Henry Jones - Sir William Jones - Athanasius Kircher - Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock

L
Nathaniel Lardner - Comte de Lautréamont - Q. D. Leavis - Robert Leighton - G. H. Lewes - John Lightfoot - A. H. Lloyd - J. L. Lowes - Robert Lowth - Ludolphus - Isaac Luria - Macrobius - Marcion - Herbert Marsh - James Marsh - Johann David Michaelis - Henry Hart Milman - William Newcome - G. B. Niebuhr - Christoph Friedrich Oetinger - Mrs Orr - H. E. G. Paulus - Richard Payne Knight - Thomas Percy - Elizabeth Stuart Phelps - Thomas Poole - Uvedale Price - Humphrey Prideaux - Samuel Purchas - Hermann Samuel Reimarus - J. F. Reuss - Albrecht Ritschl - Friedrich Rückert

S
Charles Sainte-Beuve - George Sale - George Sandys - Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling - Gershom Scholem - Johann Salomon Semler - Simon of Gerasa - Benedictus de Spinoza - Germaine de Staël - Arthur Stanley - David Friedrich Strauss - Tasso - Thomas Taylor - William Taylor - John Thelwall - Connop Thirlwall - John Toland - Nikolaus Trübner - C. Volney - G. Voss - Johann Heinrich Voss - Gilbert Wakefield - William Warburton - Johann Jakob Wettstein - William Whiston - Christoph Martin Wieland - Johann Joachim Winckelmann - F. A. Wolf - Robert Wood - Edward Young

title: User:Charles Matthews/Shaffer


text:
Jack Lyons (cricketer)

John James Lyons (21 May 1863 – 21 July 1927) was an Australian cricketer who played in 14 Test matches between 1887 and 1897.

Life and career
Born in the South Australian town of Gawler, Lyons was a hard-hitting right-handed batsman whose "quick eye and strong forearms enabled him to hit all around the wicket with a minimum of footwork". He usually opened the innings. He toured England with the Australian teams of 1888, 1890 and 1893.

Lyons was an all-rounder early in his career, and took 5 for 30 in the Lord's Test of 1890 after scoring 55 in the first 45 minutes of the match. In 1893, when the Australians followed on 181 runs behind the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord's, he scored 149 in 95 minutes in an opening partnership of 181.

Lyons was the highest scorer on either side in the three-match Ashes series of 1891–92, when Australia won the series 2–1. He made 287 runs at an average of 47.83, and scored his only Test century, 134 in 185 minutes, in the second innings of the Second Test after Australia had trailed by 163 runs; Australia went on to win by 72 runs.

In December 1892, in the inaugural match of the Sheffield Shield, Lyons scored 124 in 117 minutes after South Australia had followed on 125 runs behind New South Wales; South Australia went on to win.

Lyons worked as a stockbroker in Adelaide before joining the South Australian public service where he worked in the Land and Titles Office and the Government Statist's Office. He was awarded a benefit match, the 1925–26 Sheffield Shield match between South Australia and New South Wales at the Adelaide Oval, which brought him £1,252.

Lyons married Annie Morris in April 1897. He died in July 1927 of an "internal complaint" after some months of illness and a final week in hospital. He left a widow and five children.

title: Jack Lyons (cricketer)


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Kidarites

The Kidarites, or Kidara Huns, were a dynasty that ruled Bactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to a complex of peoples known collectively in India as the Huna, and in Europe as the Chionites (from the Iranian names Xwn/Xyon), and may even be considered as identical to the Chionites. The 5th century Byzantine historian Priscus called them Kidarite Huns, or "Huns who are Kidarites". The Huna/Xionite tribes are often linked, albeit controversially, to the Huns who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period. They are entirely different from the Hephthalites, who replaced them about a century later.

The Kidarites were named after Kidara (Chinese: 寄多羅 Jiduoluo, ancient pronunciation: Kjie-ta-la) one of their main rulers. The Kidarites appear to have been a part of a Huna horde known in Latin sources as the "Kermichiones" (from the Iranian Karmir Xyon) or "Red Huna". The Kidarites established the first of four major Xionite/Huna states in Central Asia, followed by the Alchon, the Hephthalites and the Nezak.

In 360–370 CE, a Kidarite kingdom was established in Central Asian regions previously ruled by the Sasanian Empire, replacing the Kushano-Sasanians in Bactria. Thereafter, the Sasanian Empire roughly stopped at Merv. Next, circa 390-410 CE, the Kidarites invaded northwestern India, where they replaced the remnants of the Kushan Empire in the area of Punjab.

Origins

A nomadic people, the Kidarites appear to have originated in the Altai Mountains region. On Kidarite coins their rulers are depicted as beardless or clean-shaven – a feature of Altaic cultures at the time (as opposed, for example, to the Iranian cultures of South Central Asia). They may have been Oghuric speakers originally, as may have been the Chionites and the Hephthalites, before adopting the Bactrian language. The Kidarites were depicted as mounted archers on the reverse of coins. They were also known to practice artificial cranial deformation.

The Kidarites appear to have been synonymous with the Karmir Xyon ("Red Xionites" or, more controversially, "Red Huns"), – a major subdivision of the Chionites (Xionites), alongside the Spet Xyon ("White Xionites"). In a recently discovered seal with the image of a ruler similar to those of the Kidarite coins, the ruler named himself in Bactrian "King of the Huns and Great Kushan Shah" (uonano shao o(a)zarko (k)oshanoshao). The discovery was reportedly made in Swat.

The name of their eponymous ruler Kidara (fl. 350–385) may be cognate with the Turkic word Kidirti meaning "west", suggesting that the Kidarites were originally the westernmost of the Xionites, and the first to migrate from Inner Asia. Chinese sources suggest that when the Uar (滑 Huá) were driven westward by the Later Zhao state, circa 320, from the area around Pingyang (平陽; modern Linfen, Shanxi), it put pressure on Xionite-affiliated peoples, such as the Kidarites, to migrate. Another theory is that climate change in the Altai during the 4th century caused various tribes to migrate westward and southward.

Contemporary Chinese and Roman sources suggest that, during the 4th century, the Kidarites began to encroach on the territory of Greater Khorasan and the Kushan Empire – migrating through Transoxiana into Bactria, where they were initially vassals of the Kushans and adopted many elements of Kushano-Bactrian culture. The Kidarites also initially put pressure on the Sasanian Empire, but later served as mercenaries in the Sassanian army, under which they fought the Romans in Mesopotamia, led by a chief named Grumbates (fl. 353–358 CE). Some of the Kidarites apparently became a ruling dynasty of the Kushan Empire, leading to the epithet "Little Kushans".

First appearance in literary sources
The first evidence are gold coins discovered in Balkh dating from the mid-4th century. The Kushano-Sasanian ruler Varahran during the second phase of his reign, had to introduce the Kidarite tamga in his coinage minted at Balkh in Bactria, circa 340-345. The tamgha replaced the nandipada symbol which had been in use since Vasudeva I, suggesting that the Kidarites had now taken control, first under their ruler Kirada. Then ram horns were added to the effigy of Varahran on his coinage for a brief period under the Kidarite ruler Peroz, and raised ribbons were added around the crown ball under the Kidarite ruler Kidara. In effect, Varahran has been described as a "puppet" of the Kidarites. By 365, the Kidarite ruler Kidara I was placing his name on the coinage of the region, and assumed the title of Kushanshah. In Gandhara too, the Kidarites minted silver coins in the name of Varahran, until Kidara also introduced his own name there.

Archaeological, numismatic, and sigillographic evidence demonstrates the Kidarites ruled a realm just as refined as that of the Sasanians. They swiftly adopted Iranian imperial symbolism and titulature, as demonstrated by a seal; "Lord Ularg, the king of the Huns, the great Kushan-shah, the Samarkandian, of the Afrigan (?) family."

Most other data we currently have on the Kidarite kingdom are from Chinese and Byzantine sources from the middle of the 5th century. The Kidarites were the first Huna to bother India. Indian records note that the Hūna had established themselves in modern Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province by the first half of the 5th century, and the Gupta emperor Skandagupta had repelled a Hūna invasion in 455. The Kidarites are the last dynasty to regard themselves (on the legend of their coins) as the inheritors of the Kushan empire, which had disappeared as an independent entity two centuries earlier.

Migration into Bactria

Around 350, the Sasanian Emperor Shapur II (ruled 309 to 379) had to interrupt his conflict with the Romans, and abandon the siege of Nisibis, in order to face nomadic threats in the east: he was attacked in the east by Scythian Massagetae and other Central Asian tribes. Around this time, Xionite/Huna tribes, most likely the Kidarites, whose king was Grumbates, make an appearance as an encroaching threat upon Sasanian territory as well as a menace to the Gupta Empire (320–500).

After a prolonged struggle (353–358) they were forced to conclude an alliance, and their king Grumbates accompanied Shapur II in the war against the Romans, agreeing to enlist his light cavalrymen into the Persian army and accompanying Shapur II. The presence of "Grumbates, king of the Chionitae" and his Xionites with Shapur II during campaigns in the Western Caspian lands, in the area of Corduene, is described by the contemporary eyewitness Ammianus Marcellinus:

"Grumbates Chionitarum rex novus aetate quidem media rugosisque membris sed mente quadam grandifica multisque victoriarum insignibus nobilis. 'Grumbates, the new king of the Xionites, while he was middle aged, and his limbs were wrinkled, he was endowed with a mind that acted grandly, and was famous for his many, significant victories.'"

The presence of Grumbates alongside Shapur II is also recorded at the successful Siege of Amida in 359, in which Grumbates lost his son:

"'Grumbates, king of the Chionitae, went boldly up to the walls to effect that mission, with a brave body of guards; and when a skilful reconnoitrer had noticed him coming within shot, he let fly his balista, and struck down his son in the flower of his youth, who was at his father's side, piercing through his breastplate, breast and all; and he was a prince who in stature and beauty was superior to all his comrades. '"

Later the alliance fell apart, and by the time of Bahram IV (388–399) the Sasanians had lost numerous battles against the Kidarites. The migrating Kidarites then settled in Bactria, where they replaced the Kushano-Sasanids, a branch of the Sasanids that had displaced the weakening Kushans in the area two centuries before. It is thought that they were in firm possession of the region of Bactria by 360. Since this area corresponds roughly to Kushanshahr, the former western territories of the Kushans, Kidarite ruler Kidara called himself "Kidara King of the Kushans" on his coins.

According to Priscus, the Sasanian Empire was forced to pay tribute to the Kidarites, until the rule of Yazdgird II (ruled 438–457), who refused payment.

The Kidarites based their capital in Samarkand, where they were at the center of Central Asian trade networks, in close relation with the Sogdians. The Kidarites had a powerful administration and raised taxes, rather efficiently managing their territories, in contrast to the image of barbarians bent on destruction given by Persian accounts.

Fortresses
Kafir-kala is an ancient fortress 12 kilometers south of the city center of Samarkand in Uzbekistan, protecting the southern border of the Samarkand oasis. It consists in a central citadel built in mud-bricks and measuring 75 × 75 meters at its base has six towers and is surrounded by a moat, still visible today. Living quarters were located outside the citadel. The citadel was first occupied by the Kidarites in the 4th-5th century, whose coinage and bullae have been found.

Expansion to northwest India
The Kidarites consolidated their power in Northern Afghanistan before conquering Peshawar and parts of northwest India including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410, around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I. It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed the Kidarites into northern India.

Economy
The Kidarites issued gold coins on the model of Kushan coinage, inscribing their own names but still claiming the Kushan heritage by using the title "Kushan". The volume of Kidarite gold coinage was nevertheless much smaller than that of the Great Kushans, probably owing to a decline of commerce and the loss of major international trade routes.

Coins with the title or name Gadahara seem to be the first coins issued by the invading Kidarites in the Kushan realm in India. The additional presence of the names of foreign rulers such as the Kushano-Sassanian Piroz or the Gupta Empire Samudragupta on the coins may suggest some kind of suzerainty at a time when the remnants of Kushan power were torn between these two powers. The "Gadahara" issues seem to come chronologically just before the issues of the famous Kidarite ruler Kidara.

Religion
It seems Buddhism was rather unaffected by Kidarite rule, as the religion continued to prosper. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien visited the region c. 400 CE, and described a wealthy Buddhist culture. Some aspects of the Buddhist art of Gandhara seem to have incorporated Zoroastrian elements conveyed by the Kidarites at that time, such as the depiction of fire altars on the bases of numerous Buddhist sculptures.

It has been argued that the spread of Indian culture and religions as far as Sogdia corresponded to the rule of the Kidarites over the regions from Sogdia to Gandhara.

Some Buddhist works of art, in a style marking some evolution compared to the art of Gandhara, have been suggested as belonging to the Kidarite period, such as the sculptures of Paitava.

Conflicts with the Gupta Empire
The Kidarites may have confronted the Gupta Empire during the rule of Kumaragupta I (414–c. 455) as the latter recounts some conflicts, although very vaguely, in his Mandsaur inscription. The Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, inscribed by his son Skandagupta (c. 455), recalls much more dramatically the near-annihilation of the Gupta Empire, and recovery though military victories against the attacks of the Pushyamitras and the Hunas. The Kidarites are the only Hunas who could have attacked India at the time, as the Hephthalites were still trying to set foot in Bactria in the middle of the 5th century. In the Bhitari inscription, Skandagupta clearly mentions conflagrations with the Hunas, even though some portions of the inscription have disappeared:

"'(Skandagupta), by whose two arms the earth was shaken, when he, the creator (of a disturbance like that) of a terrible whirlpool, joined in close conflict with the Hûnas; . . . . . . among enemies . . . . . . arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . proclaimed . . . . . . . . . . . . just as if it were the roaring of (the river) Ganga, making itself noticed in (their) ears.'"

Even after these encounters, the Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire, particularly central and western Punjab, until they were displaced by the invasion of the Alchon Huns at the end of the 5th century. While they still ruled in Gandhara, the Kidarites are known to have sent an embassy to China in 477.

The Huna invasion are said to have seriously damaged Indo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl or pepper from centers such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra or Benares etc. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with it. These conflicts exhausted the Gupta Empire: the gold coinage of Skandagupta is much fewer and of a lesser quality than that of his predecessors.

The Kidarites were cut from their Bactrian nomadic roots by the rise of the Hephthalites in the 450s. The Kidarites also seem to have been defeated by the Sasanian emperor Peroz in 467 CE, with Peroz reconquering Balkh and issuing coinage there as "Peroz King of Kings".

Conflict with Sasanian emperor Peroz I and the Hephthalites
Since the foundation of the Sasanian Empire, its rulers had demonstrated the sovereignty and power of their realm through collection of tribute, particularly from the Romans. However, the Sasanian efforts were disrupted in the early 5th century by the Kidarites, who forced Yazdegerd I ((r. 399 – 420)), Bahram V ((r. 420 – 438)), and/or Yazdegerd II ((r. 438 – 457)) to pay them tribute. Although this did not trouble the Sasanian treasury, it was nevertheless humiliating. Yazdegerd II eventually refused to pay tribute, which would later be used as the casus belli of the Kidarites, who declared war against the ruling Sasanian king Peroz I in c. 464. Peroz lacked manpower to fight, and therefore asked for financial aid by the Byzantine Empire, who declined his request. He then offered peace to the king of the Kidarites, Kunkhas, and offered him his sister in marriage, but sent a woman of low status instead. After some time Kunkhas found about Peroz's false promise, and then in turn tried to trick him, by requesting him to send military experts to strengthen his army.

When a group of 300 military experts arrived to the court of Kunkhas at Balaam (possibly Balkh), they were either killed or disfigured and sent back to Iran, with the information that Kunkhas did this due to Peroz's false promise. Around this time, Peroz allied himself with the Hephthalites or the Alchon Huns of Mehama, the ruler of Kadag in eastern Bactria. With their help, he finally vanquished Kidarites in 466, and brought Bactria briefly under Sasanian control, where he issued gold coins of himself at Balkh. The style of the gold coin was largely based on the Kidarite coins, and displayed Peroz wearing his second crown. The following year (467), a Sasanian embassy arrived to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, where the victory over the Kidarites was announced. The Sasanian embassy sent to the Northern Wei in 468 may have likewise done the same.

Although the Kidarites still controlled some places such as Gandhara and Punjab, they would never be an issue for the Sasanians again. But in India itself, the Kidarites may also have been losing territory to the Gupta Empire, following the 455 victories of Skandagupta. This created a power vacuum, which the Alchon Huns were able to fill, allowing them to reclaim the lost territories of the Kidarites.

Continental synchronism of Hunnic wars
There is an astounding synchronism between, on the one hand, the conflicts between the Kidarite Huns and the Sasanian Empire and the Gupta Empire, and, on the other hand, the campaigns of the Huns under Attila in Europe, leading to their defeat at the Catalaunian Plains in 451. It is almost as if the imperialist empire in the east and west had combined their response to a simultaneous Hunnic threat across Eurasia. In the end, Europe succeeded in repelling the Huns, and their power there quickly vanished, but in the east, both the Sasanian Empire and the Gupta Empire were left much weakened.

A few gold coins of the Kidarites were also found as far as Hungary and Poland in Europe, as a result of Asiatic migrations.

Kidarite successors
Many small Kidarite kingdoms seem to have survived in northwest India, and are known through their coinage. They were particularly present in Jammu and Kashmir, such as king Vinayaditya, but their coinage was much debased. They were then conquered by the Alchon Huns, sometimes considered as a branch of the Hephthalites, during the last quarter of the 5th century. The Alchon Huns followed the Kidarites into India circa 500, invading Indian territory as far as Eran and Kausambi.

The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from Gandhara, now in the British Museum, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters wearing their characteristic crowns, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of Khingila. By 520, Gandhara was definitely under Hephthalite (Alchon Huns) control, according to Chinese pilgrims.

Anania Shirakatsi states in his Ashkharatsuyts, written in 7th century, that one of the Bulgar tribes, known as the Kidar were part of the Kidarites. The Kidar took part in Bulgar migrations across the Volga into Europe.

Ushrushana

Remnants of the Kidarites in Eastern Sogdiana may have been associated with the Principality of Ushrusana. The Kidarites may have survived and possibly established a Kidarite kingdom in Usrushana. This connection may be apparent from the analysis of the coinage, and in the names of some Ushrusana rulers such as Khaydhar ibn Kawus al-Afshin, whose personal name is attested as "Khydhar", and was sometimes written wrongly as "Haydar" in Arabic. In effect, the name "Kydr" was quite popular in Usrushana, and is attested in many contemporary sources. The title Afshin used by the rulers of Usrushana is also attested in the Kidarite ruler of Samarkand of the 5th century named Ularg, who bore the similar title "Afshiyan" (Bactrian script: αφϸιιανο).

title: Kidarites


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Kalgali

Kalgali is a village Washuk District, in the northern part of Balochistan province of Pakistan.

title: Kalgali


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User:MattDP/fast bowling

Fast bowling, sometimes known as pace bowling, is one of the two approaches to bowling in the sport of cricket. The other is spin bowling. Practitioners are usually known as fast bowlers or pace bowlers although sometimes the label used refers to the specific fast bowling technique that bowler prefers, such as swing bowler or seam bowler.

The main aim of fast bowling is to bowl the hard cricket ball at high speed and to induce it to bounce off the pitch in an erratic fashion or move sideways through through the air, the combination of these factors making it difficult for the batsman to hit the ball cleanly. A typical fast delivery has a speed in the range 140-150 km/h (87-95 mph). The fastest delivery that has ever been officially recorded clocked in at 161.3 km/h (100.2 mph) and was bowled by Shoaib Akhtar of Pakistan during a match against England in the 2003 Cricket World Cup. The unfortunate Batsmen on the end of the delivery was Nick Knight but it didn't take his wicket.

In most cricketing countries, fast bowlers are usually considered to be the mainstay of a team's bowling attack, with slower bowlers in support roles. In the subcontinent, especially including India and Sri Lanka, the reverse is often true, with fast bowlers serving mainly to soften the ball up for the spinners. This is mainly due to the condition of the pitches used in those countries which gives more help to spinners than to fast bowlers, but at an international level it is also a reflection of the outstanding skills of their spinners compared to their often-mediocre pace bowlers.

Categorisation of Fast Bowling
It is possible for a bowler to concentrate solely on speed, especially when young, but as fast bowlers mature they pick up new skills and tend to rely more on swing bowling or seam bowling techniques. Most fast bowlers will specialise in one of these two areas and will sometimes be catergoried as either a swing bowler or a seam bowler. However, this classification is not satisifactory because the categories are not mutually exclusive and a skilled bowler will usually bowl a mixture of fast, swinging and seaming balls even if he prefers one style to the others.

Instead it is more common to subdivide fast bowlers according to the average speed of their delivery as follows.

For comparison, most spin bowlers in professional cricket bowl at average speeds of 40-55 mph (64 - 90 kph). Confusingly, spin bowlers are sometimes referred to as "slow" bowlers, even though they bowl slightly faster than the official "slow" category of fast bowlers!

The slower the fast bowler, the more they have to rely on the variation techniques listed below to get wickets while fast and to a lesser extent fast-medium bowlers can often get batsmen out through sheer speed and agression. In practice, very few bowlers fall into the medium-fast and medium categories and they are mostly batsmen who can bowl a few part-time overs on occasion. The medium-slow, slow-medium and slow categories are non-existant in professional cricket as they are simply too easy for a good batsman to play.

Technique in Fast Bowling
The first thing a fast bowler needs to do is to grip the ball correctly. The basic fast bowling grip to achieve maximum speed is to hold the ball with the seam upright and to place the index and middle fingers close together at the top of the seam with the thumb gripping the ball at the bottom of the seam. The image to the right shows the correct grip. The first two fingers and the thumb should hold the ball forward of the rest of the hand, and the other two fingers should be tucked into the palm. Other grips are possible, and result in different balls - see swing and seam bowling below. The bowler will usually hold his other hand over the hand gripping the ball until the latest possible moment so that the batsman cannot see what type of grip he is employing and prepare accordingly.

A fast bowler needs to take a long run-up toward the wicket in order to generate the momentum required to bowl a fast delivery. Fast bowlers will measure their preferred run up in strides and mark the distance from the wicket. It is important for the bowler to know exactly how long his run-up is because it needs to terminate at the popping crease. If the bowler steps over this, he will have bowled a no ball.

At the end of the run-up the bowler will bring his lead foot down on the pitch with the knee as straight as possible. This aids in generating speed but can be dangerous due to the pressure placed on the joint by this action. Knee injuries are not uncommon amongst fast bowlers: for example the English pace bowler Devon Malcolm was sidelined for many months after splitting his kneecap in two. The pressure on the leading foot is such that some fast bowlers cut the front off their shoes to stop their toes from being injured as they are repeatedly pressed against the inside of the shoe. The bowler will then bring his bowling arm up over his head and release the ball at the height appropriate to where he wants the ball to pitch. Again, the arm must be straight although this is a stipulation of the laws of cricket rather than an aid to speed. Bending the elbow and "chucking" the ball would make it too easy for the bowler to aim accurately at the batsmans wicket and get him out.

Fast bowlers tend to have an action which leaves them either side-on or chest-or at the end of the run up. While this does not affect the speed at which they bowl, it can limit the style of balls that they can bowl. Effective swing bowling usually requires an a side-on action.

After the ball has been released, the bowler follows through at the end of his action. This involves veering to the side so as not to tread on the pitch and taking a few more strides to slow down. Striding on to the pitch at the end of a delivery can damage the surface resulting in rough patches which spin bowlers can exploit to get extra turn on the ball and doing so is illegal according to the laws of the game. Bowlers who persistantly run onto the pitch can be warned, with three warning disqualifiying a bowler from bowling again during the innings.

Line and Length
An effective fast bowler needs to be able to hold a consistant line and length, or in common terms, to be accurate. In this context line refers to the path of the ball towards the batsman, in the horizontal dimension running from the off to the leg side while length describes the distance the ball travels toward the batsman before bouncing. Length is generally seen as being the more important of the two for a fast bowler. The faster the bowler, the harder it is to achieve consistant line and length but sheer speed can make up for the shortfall. Really quick bowlers who also manage to be accurate can be devestatingly effective.

Line
Bowling a good line means aiming for the corridor of uncertainty which is cricketing jargon for the area just outside the batsmans off stump. It is difficult for the batsman to tell whether or not such a ball in likely to strike his wicket, and thus to know whether to attack, defend or leave the ball. Precise mastery of the line of the ball is best utilised when a batsman is known to have a weakness hitting a particular shot because a bowler with an effective line can place the ball in the weak spot delivery after delivery. Failing to overcome a persistant inability to hit balls on a certain line has been enough to end the careers of innumerable batsmen once they'd been found out by skilled line bowlers.

Length
A good length ball is one that arrives at the batsman at around waist height. There is no fixed distance to a good length, or indeed any other length of ball in cricket since the distance required will vary with the speed of the ball, the state of the pitch and the height of the bowler and batsmen. The diagram to the right should help explain what the different lengths mean.

A ball which bounces a little way before the good length and rises to the batsmans abdomen is said to be short pitched or described as a long hop and is easier for a batsman to hit as he will have had more time to see if the height or line of the ball has deviated after bouncing. A short-pitched ball is also at a more suitable height for the batsman to play an attacking pull shot. A ball which bounces way before the good length and reaches shoulder or head height is a bouncer and can be an effective delivery. Any ball which is short enough to bounce over the batsmans head is usually called Wide by the Umpire. Bowling short pitched or wide balls is a bad idea as they are relatively easy for the batsman to defend or attack.

At the other end of the scale, balls which bounce slightly closer to the batsman than the good length are said to be full pitched or overpitched or described as a half volley. These are easier for the batsman to play than the good length because they don't have time to move much after bouncing off the seam. Closer still to the batsmans feet is the Yorker, a very effective length if bowled correctly. If the ball fails to bounce at all before reaching the batsman it is labelled as a full toss. It is very easy for a batsman to play such a delivery as it will not have deviated at all from bouncing off the pitch.

It is because the three effective lengths (good length, bouncer and yorker) are all interspersed by lengths which are easy for the batsman to hit that control of length is an important discipline for a fast bowler. Spin bowlers on the other hand are almost always aiming for the good length but need a much finer control of flight and line to be effective.

Aggressive Bowling
Aggressive bowling is the term usually applied to balls that attempt to get a batsman out through sheer speed, rather than trying to make the ball move through the air or off the pitch. Against top class batsman, these techniques are usually only successful when employed by genuinley quick bowlers in the fast and fast-medium categories. Slower bowlers occasionaly use them, especially against tail-end batsmen, but this can backfire resulting in easy runs for the batsman. However, aggressive bowling techniques can be combined with swing bowling and seam bowling techniques to create nigh-on unplayable balls in the hands of a bowler of any speed. The inswinging yorker is seen as particularly deadly.such bowlers will realy be sucsessful

Bouncer
see main article bouncer

A bouncer is a ball which is aimed to pitch in the first half of the crease, meaning it has had time to rise sharply to chest or head height by the time it reaches the batsman. This causes two problems for the batsman who recieves the ball. If he attempts to play it, his bat will be at eye-level making it difficult for him to watch the ball onto the bat and time his shot correctly. If he leaves or misses the ball it may strike him a painful blow on the head or chest and occasionally result in injury. For this reason, bowling spells containing many bouncers are said to be intimidatory bowling.

The usual response to a bouncer is for the batsman simply to duck underneath it, but this requires fast reflexes and a strong nerve and the batsman is sometimes hit in any case. The natural reflex is to attempt to defend one's head with a straight bat but this should be surpressed if possible as the likely result of this will be that the ball flies off the bat at an uncontrolled angle making for an easy catch. Most batsman have panicked and lost their wickets in this fashion several times in their career after prolonged spells of bouncers.

Physically powerful batsmen often attempt to strike the ball on the rise, even though this obstructs their vision of the ball since it's not uncommon that their sheer brute force combined with the speed of the ball will cause it to fly to the boundary. This possibility, combined with the difficulty that the wicketkeeper will have trying to stop a high ball means that bouncers can be expensive in terms of runs against skilled batsmen.

Slower Ball
see main article slower ball

A slower ball is a ball which is delivered exactly like a usual pace delivery in terms of action and run-up but where the grip is changed slightly in order to slow the ball down. This decieves the batsman, who is likely attempt to play the ball as though it were at full speed, causing him to mistime his shot. The result is usually that the ball strikes the edge of the bat instead of the middle, causing the ball to pop up into the air for an easy catch.

The different grip is illustrated to the right. Essentially the only difference is that the middle and and index fingers are split and come down on each side of the seam. This causes more drag on the ball as it leaves the hand, slowing down the delivery.

Yorker
see main article yorker

A yorker is a ball which bounces off the pitch right in front of the batsmans feet, an area known as the block hole. Because of the usual stance of the batsman and the regulation length of the cricket bat the bat is not usually held near the ground while the batsman prepares to strike the ball, so playing a yorker requires the batsman to alter the height of his bat very quickly after detecting a yorker has been bowled. This is difficult, and the yorker can often squeeze through the gap and break the wicket.

Bowling a yorker requires pinpoint accuracy since bowling it slightly too long will result in a full toss which is easy for the batsman to play because the ball has not deviated by bouncing off the pitch. It also has most of it's value as a surprise ball. For these two reasons, yorkers are not common deliveries.

Seam Bowling
see main article seam bowling

Seam bowling is the act of using the seam of the ball to cause the ball to bounce in an unpredictable fashion when it hits the pitch. A good batsman will be able to predict where a ball is going to bounce and from that work out what height the ball will be when it reaches him. By generating variations in bounce, the bowler can make it more likely the batsman will make a mistake in his assessment of the ball and give away his wicket.

The basic technique of seam bowling is to employ the normal fast bowling or slower ball grip and to try and ensure that the seam remains upright until the ball hits the pitch. If the seam is upright and the ball is spinning around its horizontal axis, there is no appreciable Magnus effect and the ball will not move in the air. The seam of the ball is raised and will cause variations in bounce and movement if it is the first part of the ball to hit the pitch.

Seam bowlers can get a lot of help from certain types of pitches. Hard pitches that have a cracked or ridged surface are best for seam bowling since the hardness makes it easier to bounce the ball without loosing speed while the uneven surface adds to the unpredicatbility of the bounce when the ball hits the pitch. This is known as variable bounce. On rare occasions a pitch with is extremely hard and uneven will be declared as too dangerous to play on since the batsman cannot predict the ball at all and is likely to be hit on the body repeatedly as a result. Green pitches can also assist the seam bowler since the tiny tufts of grass represent an uneven surface although this is a mixed blessing since the green surface also slows the ball slightly. It is difficult for a seam bowler to be effective on a very flat and even-surfaced pitch (known as a flat track in cricket vernacular) and seamers usually resort to agressive bowling tactics and/or bowling cutters on such surfaces.

Cutters
see main articles off cutter, leg cutter

A cutter is the term used to describe a fast ball which is spinning, that is rotating around the opposite axis to the seam instead of keeping the seam straight. While this rotation is nowhere near as much as that achieved by a spin bowler the small variations it can produce are still enough to discomfort a batsman due to the speed of the ball. Cutters can be an effective way for a seam bowler to get the ball to move if he's not recieving much assistance from the pitch.

A ball rotating around the seam will move either left or right when it hits the pitch, depending on which way the ball is spinning. A ball bouncing to the left is said to be a leg cutter as it is travelling from leg stump to off stump for a right-handed batsman. Conversly a ball which bounces to the right is an off cutter, travelling from off to leg stump for a right-handed batsman. Cutters are usually aimed so that they hit the pitch just outside the batsmans off stump and move away from the wicket. This will cause the ball to catch the outside edge of the bat instead of the middle and fly up to be caught in the slips.

The bowl a cutter, the bowler employs a different grip. The two grips are shown to the right, with the uppermost one producing an off cutter while the lower one shows the grip required for a leg cutter. As well as changing the grip, the bowler must pull his fingers down the appropriate side of the ball as it leaves his hand in order to impart the required spin. The action of bowling a cutter also increases drag on the ball as it leaves the hand, causing the ball to slow in the same way as a slower ball and this can also help to confuse the batsman.

Swing Bowling
see main article swing bowling

Swing bowlers attempt to cause the ball to move while it's in the air instead of off the pitch like a seam bowler. Although the action of the bowler plays a big part in their success at getting the ball to swing, it is essential prerequisite that one side of the ball is shiny while the other is rough. New cricket balls are shiny on both sides, so swing bowlers rarely open the bowling. The reason you often see cricketers licking and polishing the ball is to attempt to keep the shine on one side while natural wear makes the other side rough. The swing is caused by air moving at different speeds across the different sides of the ball - it moves faster over the smooth side than it does the rough side.

A swinging ball is classed as either an outswinger, which moves away from the batsman or and inswinger which moves in toward the batsman. In most cases the outswinger is seen as the more dangerous ball because, if the batsman fails to recognise it, it will catch the outside edge of the bat instead of the middle and fly up to be caught in the slips. Inswingers have their place too, especially combined with the Yorker as the inswinger can catch the inside edge and break the wicket.

Swing balls are bowled with the same grip and technique as fast balls although the seam is usually angled slightly rather than straight, and the slower ball grip may be used. For an outswinger the shiny side of the ball is nearest the batsman and the seam is angled away from him while for an inswinger, the rough side needs to be nearest the batsman and the seam angled toward him. A bowler cannot achieve swing with a cutter grip since the ball will spin in flight, varying the orientation of the shiny and rough surfaces as it moves through the air. Many bowlers swear that swing is easier to achieve in humid or overcast conditions, and also that the red ball used in test cricket swings more than the white ball used in the one-day game. There is no scientific evidence to back up either claim.

Reverse Swing
Reverse swing is a phenomenon which causes the ball to swing in the opposite direction to that usually produced by the orientation of the shiny and rough sides of the ball. When the ball is reverse swinging, the shiny side of the ball nearest the batsman will produce an inswinger and vice-versa. Balls which reverse swing move much later and much more than is usual in swing bowling, both factors increasing the difficulty the batsman will have in trying to hit the ball.

Reverse swing is much more dependant on conditions than normal swing, and so it is nearly impossible to achieve consistantly. Reverse swing doesn't usually happen until the ball is around 45 overs old and requires the weather to be hot and dry. The techinque of getting reverse swing was first perfected by Pakistani bowlers in the 1980s but has since spread through all the cricketing nations, and in particular features greatly in England's bowling attack in the 2005 Ashes series.

Dippers
see main articles indipper, outdipper

A dipper is a swinging ball which is deliberately bowled as a yorker or a full toss, the latter not normally being a ball that a fast bowler would choose to bowl. The indipper moves in to the right-handed batsman while the outdipper moves away.

In order to be effective, a dipper has to generate a lot of swing to make up for the variation in movement lost because the ball is not bouncing on the pitch. However, because the batsman usually expects a full toss to be an easy ball to score off, dippers have huge surprise value and can be extremely difficult to play especially if the bowler is very accurate and managers the yorker rather than a genuine full toss.

Tactics
Because nearly all cricket teams will contain several fast bowlers of differing speeds and styles, the tactics of fast bowling depends not only on changing the field placements but on changing the bowler and the types and sequences of deliveries bowled as well. The precise tactics will be determined by many factors including the state of the game, the state of the pitch, the weather and the relative energy and skill levels of the various players available to bowl.

Fast bowling requires a great deal of energy and most fast bowlers can be expected to bowl a spell of 4-6 overs in a row before requiring a rest. Depending on conditions, they may be required by the team to bowl a longer spell although this usually results in drop in effectiveness toward the end of the spell as the bowler tires. Choosing which balls to bowl as part of a spell and what order to bowl them in is a tactical discipline all of its own.

Deployment of Bowlers
Most sides contain a mixture of fast bowlers who specialise in aggressive and/or seam techniques and those who specialise in swing. When the ball is new it usually swings very little but it will generate a lot of speed, bounce and variation off the seam (because the seam on a new ball stands out more than that on an old ball). So seam bowlers are usually chosen to bowl with the new ball either at the start of an innings or when a new ball has been taken, an option the fielding side has once a ball is 80 overs old. In contrast, swing bowlers are more effective once the ball has started to wear and reverse swing requires a well worn ball. Reverse swing bowlers can continue to extract large amounts of movement from balls well over 80 overs old.

Two seam bowlers are usually expected to bowl in tandem for the first 10 or so overs, after which time the ball may begin to swing and one or both of them is substituted for a swing bowler or a spin bowler. This is why most sides opt to include at least two seam bowlers who are known as opening bowlers. Seam bowling usually becomes very ineffective with older balls and is virtually useless after 60 overs or so and as a result the bowling places in the side are filled with swing or spin bowlers.

Deployment of Fielders
Fielding for a fast bowler is usually agressive, that is to say that it is set up for the purpose of getting a wicket rather than preventing the flow of runs. On occasion, particularly when the fielding team is batting last and is chasing a total, a defensive field is required. As a general rule it is difficult to bowl defensive fast bowling - that task is better suited to spin bowlers.

The various techniques of fast bowling lend themselves to three ways of getting the batsman out. He may be bowled or caught LBW either by speed, the yorker or by seam or swing causing the ball to move in toward him, in which case placement of fielders is irrelevant. Swing or seam may be employed to move the ball away from the batsman in which case the ball will strike the outside edge of the bat and may be caught in the slips. A badly-played bouncer will either fly off the outside edge as above or maybe result in a mistimed shot that can be caught near the boundary.

It follows that the most effective field placements for agressive fast bowling are to pack the outfield and the slip cordon and gully since these are the positions in which the batsman is most likely to be caught. Placing fielders in the outfield has the additional benefit of limiting the number of places where a batsman can score a boundary. Other close fielding positions such as silly mid on/off and the various midwicket positions are generally redundant.

In contrast, a defensive field for fast bowling will pack the mid-wicket positions such as gully, point and cover in a full circle round the batsman. One or two slips and one or two outfielders will remain in case of a catch. Because batsmen usually try and play shots down on to the ground rather than risking being caught this field can stop most boundaries while remaining close enough to the pitch to attempt to run out the batsmen if they attempt a single. Defensive fast bowling is difficult because a skilled batsman set this type of field will simply trust his technique and score from boundaries that he has hit over the midwicket ring and away from any outfielders present.

Bowling an Over
The primary goal of any bowler is to take the wicket of the batsman. The secondary goal is to prevent the batsman scoring runs. The latter is often a route to the former as a batsman deprived of runs will often become frustrated and is more likely to attempt risky shots in order to score. In addition, stopping the batsman from scoring will usually mean that the bowler gets to bowl several consecutive balls at the same batsman, giving him the opportunity to set up some kind of tactical sequence.

Counterintuitivley, the best approach for a fast bowler is not to aim consistant balls at the wicket as this prompts an obvious and easy response. The batsman can simply defend his wicket and pick off the occasional bad ball. A far more effective approach is to create uncertainty by bowling a line and length at which the batsman is unsure as to whether he should attack, defend or leave and by mixing up the types of delivery so the batsman is never sure what type of ball is coming next. The majority of balls in a well-bowled spell will usually be swinging or seaming balls that pass at waist hight, just outside the off stump and move away from the batsman because this is the area where it is most difficult for the batsman to choose the most appropriate response. Common variations and their tactical appliaction are discussed below.

The precise balls chosen by the bowler during an over will depend on the situation of the match, the skill of the batsman and how settled the batsman is at the crease. It is common to attack batsmen who've recently come to the wicket with successive short-pitched balls or bouncers with the dual aim of getting them out and stopping them from settling into an attacking mode of play for as long as possible. Short balls are more risky against batsmen who have settled at the crease since they make easy boundaries, but most bowlers will still mix a few in during a spell, just to keep the batsman guessing.

Most batsmen prefer to play shots off either the front or back foot and this will influence the bowlers' choice of balls. It is difficult to play short balls off the front foot so bowlers will bowl more short balls at batsmen who prefer the front foot. Likewise, it's hard to play yorkers and full pitched balls off the back foot so those are the deliveries of choice against back foot players. If a bowler can successfuly get a batsman playing off his less-favoured foot with a sequence of appropriately pitched balls he can then gain an element of surprise by suddenly throwing down the opposite kind of ball - a yorker after a succession of short balls or a bouncer after a succession of full balls. An unobservant or complacent batsman can easily be caught unawares and loose his wicket.

Another variation, especially against batsmen who have settled at the wicket and are starting to score more freely, is to switch the line of attack from the area just outside the off stump to bowling directly at leg stump. The batsman has to react to these balls as he otherwise runs a high risk of being bowled or trapped LBW but as he does so his bat moves over to the leg side, leaving the off side vulnerable. If the bowler can induce enough movement to the off side with swing or seam techniques it will often catch the outside edge of the bat offering a catch or knock off stump out of the ground.

It must be remembered that surprise is a big element in bowling, and bowlers will often shun these common tactical approaches in the hope of simply confusing the batsman into playing the wrong shot. For example, bowling a yorker at a new batsman who will likely be expecting bouncers or at least standard line and length balls has been the cause of many batsmen loosing their wicket first ball.

Currently Playing
These are the top rated fast bowlers in the world according to the LG ICC cricket ratings as of 25 August 2005.

Historical

 * Richard Hadlee
 * Sydney Barnes
 * Malcolm Marshall
 * Curtly Ambrose
 * Courtney Walsh
 * Imran Khan
 * Dennis Lillee
 * Wasim Akram
 * Waqar Younis
 * Allan Donald
 * Fred Trueman
 * Alan Davidson
 * Joel Garner
 * George Lohmann
 * Alec Bedser
 * Ian Botham
 * Fazal Mahmood
 * Kapil Dev
 * Michael Holding
 * Bob Willis

title: User:MattDP/fast bowling


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Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 1860)

John Dunlop Edwards (12 June 1860 – 31 July 1911) was an Australian cricketer who played in three Tests in England in 1888.

A short and slight man, Edwards attended Wesley College and played for Melbourne Cricket Club before making his first-class debut for Victoria in 1880–81. He hit his highest score the following summer (65 against the touring English team) before he was transferred to Bendigo in his job as a bank clerk.

Edwards had a strong defence and was a fine fieldsman. His selection for the tour of England in 1888 was prompted by his heavy scoring in club matches. In the three Test matches on the tour he made three ducks in six innings, achieving an average of 9.60, batting in the middle order in all three matches. Edwards did only a little better in first-class cricket overall, playing in 51 matches and scoring 961 runs at an average of 13.72.

He died after illness compounded by a nervous breakdown.

title: Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 1860)


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The Arts House

The Arts House (formerly the Old Parliament House) is a multi-disciplinary arts venue in Singapore. The venue plays host to art exhibitions and concerts. Built in 1827, the Old Parliament House is the oldest government building and perhaps the oldest surviving building in Singapore. The building was home to the Parliament of Singapore from 1965 to 1999, when it moved to an adjacent new building.

History
The building occupies one of the most historic sites of Singapore. During the refurbishment of the building in 1989, archaeological evidence of older habitation in the area was uncovered with stoneware and earthenware dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries found. The building's river frontage was also where Sir Stamford Raffles was presumed to have landed on 29 January 1819. The area was occupied by Temenggong Abdul Rahman and his family and followers. Raffles would later persuade the Temenggong to move to Telok Blangah in 1823 as he planned for the land to be used for public and administrative purposes.

Design and construction
The building was designed as a Neo-Palladian mansion by architect George Drumgoole Coleman for a Scottish merchant, John Argyle Maxwell. It was intended to be his private residence, however, Maxwell never occupied the house due in part to a dispute over the ownership of the land on which the house was built. Raffles had originally allocated the land for government use in his Town Plan, however, Raffles' successor John Crawfurd issued a permit allowing Maxwell to build a house on the site.

The construction of the Old Parliament House began in 1826 and it was completed in 1827. Maxwell applied for a statutory grant to the site in 1827, and the Resident Councillor of Singapore, John Prince objected as the land was intended for government use. A compromise was then struck whereby Maxwell was granted a 999-year lease in June 1827, but the house would be leased back to the government for a 500 rupees monthly rent. Later Maxwell's residence went up for auction which the colonial government won with a bid of $15,600 Spanish dollars, and the ownership of the courthouse finally transferred to Governor George Bonham and the East India Company on 10 October 1842.

Extension and uses
The building was initially used as a court house, and other government offices including the Land Office also moved into the building. The first court session was held in the central room on the first floor at the front of the building.

In 1839, a new single-storey annex was built on an adjacent plot of land, forming what is now the Former Attorney-General's Chambers building later incorporated into the Parliament House. The Courts then moved into this new building (later on to Empress Place Building), and the vacated space was then used for government offices. The government offices were sited at the building until 1875 when the Supreme Court moved back in after the building was renovated.

The building went through several major extension works. The first was carried out between 1873 and 1875 by John Frederick Adolphus McNair. In 1901, the building was extended towards the Singapore River. Coleman's original design was lost as a result of the extension works. In 1909, two courtrooms were reconstructed and a residence for the Attorney General was built.

The Arts House served as one of the two venues held for the opening of the 14th Parliament of Singapore on 24 August 2020, the other being Parliament House; the multiple venues were used for the first time in Singapore's history as a precaution measure for social distancing as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

As Parliament House
The arches at the porch of the building and Palladian windows of the front façade were part of the original design, although the building currently appeared more Neoclassical in style.

The building was gazetted a national monument on 14 February 1992. On 6 September 1999, the Parliament of Singapore moved into an adjacent new building which faces North Bridge Road.

The Arts House at The Old Parliament
The Arts House at The Old Parliament opened on 26 March 2004 as an arts and heritage centre. The Chambers were converted into a function room where music performances could be held.

title: The Arts House


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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Australian law/Case law

Hi. Just though I'd let someone more senior than me know of the information I have. Legislation now requires that "The State of Western Australia" be used in place of "R" or The Queen. The Act that changed this is the "Acts Amendment and Repeal (Courts and Legal Practice) Act 2003 (No. 65 of 2003) which became operational on 1 Jan 2004. This is in the Gazette for 30 Dec 2003 p. 5722. Actions started before 1 Jan 2004  will still be cited in the old way.

This is to help with any confusion about whether to put 'R' or 'The State of Western Australia' in Western Australian criminal cases. 09:50, 25 August 2005 (UTC)


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Polyhalite

Polyhalite is an evaporite mineral, a hydrated sulfate of potassium, calcium and magnesium with formula: K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4*2H2O. Polyhalite crystallizes in the triclinic system, although crystals are very rare. The normal habit is massive to fibrous. It is typically colorless, white to gray, although it may be brick red due to iron oxide inclusions. It has a Mohs hardness of 3.5 and a specific gravity of 2.8. It is used as a fertilizer.

Polyhalite was first described in 1818 for specimens from its type locality in Salzburg, Austria. It occurs in sedimentary marine evaporites and is a major potassium ore mineral in the Carlsbad deposits of New Mexico. It is also present as a 2–3% contaminant of Himalayan salt. The only deposit currently being mined lies under North Yorkshire, UK, extending under the adjacent North Sea.

Name
The name comes from the German Polyhalit, which comes from the Ancient Greek words (polys) and  (hals), which mean "many" and "salt", and the German ending -it (which comes from the Latin ending -ites, which originally also came from Greek), which is used like the English ending -ite to form the names of certain chemical compounds.

Despite the similarity in names between polyhalite and halite (the naturally occurring form of table salt), their only connection is that both are evaporite minerals. The use of the Greek words for many and salt in polyhalite is due to polyhalite consisting of several metals that can form salts in the more general sense of the word salt used in chemistry.

Extraction
The only polyhalite mined in the world comes from a layer of rock over 1000 m below North Yorkshire and extending off the North Sea coast in the UK, deposited 260 million years ago.

In 2010, the first mining operations of this polyhalite mineral layer commenced at Boulby Mine, and the mine is in 2023 the only producer of polyhalite, marketed by Israel Chemicals as Polysulphate. In 2016, Sirius Minerals announced plans for the Woodsmith Mine in the area. In March 2020, the Woodsmith project was taken over by Anglo American plc and construction of two 1,500 m (4,900 ft) shafts to reach the 230 feet (70 m) mineral seam is underway. These will reach a mineable area of around 25,200 hectares (62,000 acres) and Woodsmith Mine will be the deepest in Europe. Polyhalite extraction is expected to begin in 2027.

Composition and use
Polyhalite is used as a fertilizer since it contains four important nutrients and is low in chloride:
 * 48% SO3 as sulfate
 * 14% K2O as from sulfate of potash
 * 6% MgO as from magnesium sulfate
 * 17% CaO as from calcium sulfate

Polyhalite has a variety of other uses, including:

Soil amendment: Polyhalite can help to improve the drainage and fertility of soil. It can also help to reduce the acidity of soil.

Water treatment additive: Polyhalite can help to remove impurities from water, such as sulfates and chlorides. It can also help to soften water and make it less corrosive.

Animal feed additive: Polyhalite can be added to animal feed to improve the nutritional value of the feed.

Industrial applications: Polyhale can be used in a variety of industrial applications, such as making glass, soap, and paper.

title: Polyhalite


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Oliver Sheldon

Oliver Sheldon (1894–1951) was a director of the Rowntree's in York, England. He wrote on principles of public and business administration in the 1920s.

Life
Oliver Sheldon was born on 13 July 1894. He was educated at King's College School and Merton College, Oxford. In World War I he served as an officer in the Royal Engineers, and was mentioned in despatches. He joined Rowntree's in 1919 as Personal Assistant to Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree, and in 1931 was appointed to the general Board of Directors at Rowntree. At Rowntree's, Sheldon was a colleague of Lyndall Urwick and, like Urwick, was an active member of the Taylor Society. He founded York Georgian Society in 1939 and was one of the four men who founded York Civic Trust in 1946. The University of York's Borthwick Institute for Archives cites Sheldon as its inspiration and creator in 1949 and 1950; and the Borthwick Institute was one of the founding elements of the University in 1963. The Civic Trust named Oliver Sheldon House after him.

Management philosophy
Sheldon was closely involved in restructuring the management and organization of the growing confectionery company at a stage where its growth meant by necessity it had to move away from the personal, family-centred management of its founder, Joseph Rowntree, towards a more professional culture. Under the chairmanship of Joseph's son, Seebohm, the company adopted Sheldon's proposals for a more functional style of organisation, but he tempered this with a belief, shared by the Rowntree firm's senior managers, that industry existed for more than the profit of shareholders. Sheldon held that good management was about more than technique - it should be concerned with human understanding. "The leadership of men calls for patience, courage, and, above all, sympathy." Service to the community was the primary motive and fundamental basis of industry.

Human relations approach
Consequently, Sheldon advocated a human relations style of management which placed the individual in a human context involving a range of emotional and psychological needs. In this, he disagreed fundamentally with contemporaries such as Frederick Taylor, who saw economic need as being the primary motivator of workers. Anticipating later writers such as Elton Mayo and Frederick Herzberg by some years, Sheldon argued that, while basic economic needs must be met, wider personal and community needs were equally important.

Industry was key to shaping society and the leaders and managers of industry consequently had to work to ethical considerations which were greater than purely financial. While stressing the need for efficiency, he saw service and democracy as complementary to this - reflecting long established Rowntree practices, introduced by Joseph and extended by Seebohm Rowntree and Oliver Sheldon, such as ensuring their workers were paid a "living wage", had decent working conditions and were consulted on and involved in decision making in the workplace. Both the firm and individual directors were closely involved in a range of community work, often motivated by their Quaker religious beliefs and/or their Liberal politics.

Influence on Rowntree's
In 1904, Joseph Rowntree had given away half his personal fortune and almost two-thirds of the shares in the company to three Trusts to pursue a range of charitable, social and political work. All three continue today in the forms of the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (which includes the Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust) and the Joseph Rowntree Reform Trust. All are still based in York.

Although with the passage of time, the Rowntree company was to change and develop in new ways (particularly with new brands and marketing from the 1930s on), and in 1988 was controversially bought by Nestlé, it retained a tradition of good management throughout, in keeping with the philosophy of its founder and those around him. Sheldon explored this in his 1923 book, The Philosophy of Management, which demonstrated his twin concerns for sound business and ethical practice when he stated: "The cost of building the Kingdom of Heaven will not be found in the profit and loss accounts of industry, but in the record of every man's conscientious service."

Writings

 * The Philosophy of Management, London: Pitman, 1923. Reprinted ed., 1930.
 * 'The art of management: from a British point of view', Bulletin of the Taylor Society, Vol. 8, No. 6 (December 1923)
 * 'Taylor the creative leader', Bulletin of the Taylor Society, Vol. 9, No. 1, (February 1924)
 * 'Policy and policy-making', Harvard Business Review, Vol. 4, No. 1 (October 1925)
 * (with C. H. Northcott, J. W. Wardropper and L. Urwick) Factory Organization, London: Pitman, 1928
 * 'The significance of rationalization', Harvard Business Review, Vol. 6, No. 3 (April 1928)

title: Oliver Sheldon


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Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Juan R. Perales

It's a notable page about a personality of Spain. That's is a supposed encyclopedia worldwide or only for the Anbglo-American World?


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Hudishi

Hudishi is a Union council in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Geographically, it is situated in the central-most region of the state.

title: Hudishi


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Clarence Williams III

Clarence Williams III (August 21, 1939 – June 4, 2021) was an American actor. He played the character of Linc Hayes in the police television series The Mod Squad from 1968 to 1973. He also appeared in films such as Purple Rain, 52 Pick-Up, Tales from the Hood, Hoodlum, Half Baked, Life, American Gangster and Reindeer Games.

Early life
Born in New York City, Williams was the son of a professional musician, Clarence "Clay" Williams Jr., and grandson of jazz and blues composer/pianist Clarence Williams and his singer-actress wife, Eva Taylor. Raised by his paternal grandmother, he became interested in acting after accidentally walking onto a stage at a theater below a Harlem YMCA.

Career
Williams began pursuing an acting career after spending two years as a U.S. Army paratrooper in C Company, 506th Infantry, of the 101st Airborne Division. He first appeared on Broadway in The Long Dream (1960). Continuing his work on stage, he appeared in Walk in Darkness (1963), Sarah and the Sax (1964), Doubletalk (1964), and King John. His breakout theatrical role was in William Hanley's Slow Dance on the Killing Ground, for which he received a Tony Award nomination. The New York Times drama critic Howard Taubman wrote of his performance, "Mr. Williams glides like a dancer, giving his long, fraudulently airy speeches the inner rhythms of fear and showing the nakedness of terror when he ceases to pretend." He also served as artist-in-residence at Brandeis University in 1966.

Williams' breakout television role was as undercover cop Linc Hayes on the popular ABC counterculture police television series The Mod Squad (1968), along with fellow relative unknowns Michael Cole and Peggy Lipton. After the series ended in 1973, he worked in a variety of genres on stage and screen, from comedy (I'm Gonna Git You Sucka, Half-Baked) to sci-fi (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), and drama (Purple Rain).

Spanning over forty years, his career included the role of Prince's tormented father, who was also a musician, in Purple Rain (1984), A guest appearance in Miami Vice (1985), a recurring role in the surreal TV series Twin Peaks (1990), a good cop in Deep Cover (1992), a rioter in the mini-series Against the Wall (1994), and Wesley Snipes' chemically dependent father in Sugar Hill (1993). His other roles on television include Hill Street Blues, the Canadian cult classic The Littlest Hobo, Miami Vice, The Highwayman, Burn Notice, Everybody Hates Chris, Justified, Cold Case, and Law & Order. He can be seen in films such as 52 Pick-Up, Life, The Cool World, Deep Cover, Tales from the Hood, Half-Baked, King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis, Hoodlum, Frogs for Snakes, Starstruck, The General's Daughter, Reindeer Games, Impostor, and as the early jazz musician Jelly Roll Morton in The Legend of 1900. He also played a supporting role as George Wallace's fictional African-American butler and caretaker in the 1997 TNT film George Wallace.

From 2003 to 2007, Williams had a recurring role as Philby Cross in the Mystery Woman film series on the Hallmark Channel. He appeared in all but the first of the eleven films alongside Kellie Martin (J.E. Freeman played Philby in the Mystery Woman first film). In the seventh (Mystery Woman: At First Sight) film, he reunited with his Mod Squad co-star Michael Cole. He played Bumpy Johnson in the film American Gangster. From 2005 to 2007 Williams had another recurring role as the voice of Councilor Andam on the Disney animated series American Dragon: Jake Long.

Death
Williams died in Los Angeles, on June 4, 2021, at the age of 81, from colon cancer. He is buried in St Charles Cemetery in East Farmingdale, New York.

Personal life
Williams married the actress Gloria Foster in 1967. They worked together on The Mod Squad; Foster made two guest appearances. The two also acted in a 1964 film The Cool World. In 1984 they filed for divorce, but remained friends. They had no children. Williams announced Foster's death in 2001.

title: Clarence Williams III