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Talk:Two Knights Defense

Question
Is there anybody who could create the beginning of the articles on Estrin and the Max Lange Attack ?

--Eric Guez 14:38, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

Question n°2
... and the same for Sveshnikov ?

--Eric Guez 14:45, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

The Table of Variations looks fishy
Every single line of the Two Knights ends in equality?! Says who? The idea that 4.Ng5 Bc5!? equalizes is particularly surprising. I thought Anand pretty much refuted it in a game against Beliavsky some years ago that began 5.Bxf7+! Ke7 6.Bd5! -- although Anand managed to lose. I also doubt the Fritz and Ulvestad lines equalize, and 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 Nxd5 is pretty fishy, although I'm not sure if it's been refuted outright. I doubt whether there's even a consensus among theoreticians that Black equalizes in the main line after 4.Ng5. Krakatoa 20:35, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Certainly not. The positional judgements need to be edited.  They weren't there before, they are not there now.  Feel free to edit appropriately... I have removed the "="s.  Just stick your evaluation between the    tags on the appropriate variation.  I also think something is wrong with variation 6 -- not sure what was intended here.  It also would be nice if the theory table had the complete main line at the top, with things like the Traxler as variations on it rather than vice versa.  ThreeE 20:56, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

 * My opinion is that we must be careful in assessing opening variations since the theory changes constantly. I have tried to tend to fairly vague assessments, but it's hard, since I have read that even the Lolli Attack, generally considered very good for White, is uncertain after a correspondence game a few years ago. I think for current evaluation of opening lines people will always want to go to ECO or other sources, and that wikipedia can better explain the possibilities rather than offer precise evaluations that are likely to be overturned in the future.  Certainly we can continually update the articles as the theory changes, but I also think it would be interesting to do a historical look at opening theory.  "In 1851 Bilguer's Handbuch said xxxxx, in yyyy the first version of Modern Chess Openings said zzzzz, and in 1999 Nunn's Chess Openings suggested wwwwww." Quale 01:31, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

Chess Opening Theory Table
I have a couple of concerns with the tabular presentation of the opening moves. As to issue 2, it is possible in the text to specify which moves characterize the variation, but I think it shows that the theory tables at once give too little information and too much. In Ulvestadt's V. it is well known that 6.Bf1 is the correct reply, but people still do play 6.Bxb5? and that's still part of the variation.
 * 1) The tables are an absolute bear to edit.
 * 2) The tables make it unclear which move is actually characteristic of the variation.

I do like the clean look of the table, but I'm not sure it's the best presentation of the information for the wikipedia audience. If the Ruy Lopez article goes this direction it will need a major overhaul. The current presentation of the Ruy is far from perfect and I expect that it will improve as people have good ideas, but I don't know if a theory table will be the best way to go. Quale 01:45, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I tend to like the tables versus the listings we see elsewhere. Having said that, I do believe that most of the wikipedia entries for openings are tending towards to much analysis -- some of it original.  I actually like this analysis, and the back and forth debate that you see on wikipedia.  Since it does tend to be original research, I have created a Chess Opening Theory Wikibook, but I don't think most of the chess wikipedians are too warm for it yet.  It is hard to imagine the effort of moving all of the analysis there though -- I'm not sure I would support that.  Where appropriate, I have copied it (as time allows) and have tried to move the more detailed analysis there.  I'd personally like to see a WCO in the spirit of NCO, ECO, and MCO.  Suggestions are welcome...  ThreeE 01:55, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I also agree that the table format takes more effort, but I think once you do it a few times, it's pretty easy. I guess I think the benefits outweigh the costs -- but probably more for intermediate and advanced chess players. ThreeE 01:58, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Quale has a point. Right now this table just gives main lines (e.g. Bf1! in the Ulvestad and Fritz, 5.Bxf7+! in the Wilkes-Barre). I don't know how, or if, the tables can really give useful guidance to readers. As we all know, NCO/ECO/MCO/BCO would spend several pages of small print on the Two Knights, with 200 or so footnotes. We can't very well do that here. On a more minor point, where do we put equals signs and such, and is there a way to make the symbols for "small advantage White," "large advantage Black," and so forth? Krakatoa 16:29, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah -- put the evaluations between the td tags -- I took out the ='s that were there earlier. ThreeE 16:35, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

(Untitled comment)
(12-01-06) Nigel Short recently played 8.Qf3 and obtained a good position (1-0); at first sight, black played strong moves but wasn't able to get enough play for the pawn. I think this line deserves more explanations. See the page for more details : http://www.chesspublishing.com/yabb2/YaBB.pl?num=1158953544. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 139.124.6.159 (talk • contribs) 1 December 2006 (UTC)

Ulvestad
Two different spellings, "Ulvestad" and "Ulvestadt", appeared in the article. I've changed it to the first throughout, which is the one I've seen elsewhere. If this is not correct please amend 213.249.135.36 17:01, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Why 5.Bxf7+
Can someone tell me (or point me to a source that tells me) why white plays 5.Bxf7+ and not 5.Nxf7  it seems to me that Nxf7 wins black's rookAndrew zot 11:41, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

 * The problem is that after 5.Nxf7 Bxf2+! white is in some danger of getting mated. Not that 5.Nxf7 isn't played, but if theory hasn't changed since I last looked at this (quite possible), black gets enough of an attack to ensure at least a draw by repetition, despite the loss of material.--OinkOink 07:31, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I’m sure this is what attracted me to the Italian Game in the first place; in one line (I can’t remember where; Traxler? Jerome?) it had Nxf7, forking Queen and Rook, and the comment said “ White is now doomed, and faces checkmate in x moves” ; it was so counter-intuitive, I was hooked! Moonraker12 09:13, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * 5.Bxf7+ is indeed a very strong move and most likely better then the chaotic Nxf7 ChessCreator 12:34, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't understand how white would get mated, 5.Nxf7! forking Queen and Rook then 5...Bxf2+ 6.Kxf2 Ng4+? 7.Qxg4 Qe7 8.Nxh8! with white in a clear lead. AS Artimour (talk) 20:07, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

 * One example. 5....Bxf2+ 6. Kxf2 Nxe4+ 7. Kg1 Qh4 8. Nxh8? (8. g3 Nxg3 9. Nxh8 Nd4 10. hxg3 Qxg3+ 10. Kf1 Qf4+ 11. Kg1 Qg3+ 12. Kf1 Qf4+ draw by repetition) Qf2# ChessCreator (talk) 22:23, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

Polerio
The article used to say that the Two Knights was "analyzed by Polero in 1580". Now it says it was "first recorded by Polerio in 1580". This may be true, but it should be checked against sources to make sure it's accurate, as the new claim is stronger than the old one. I think I added the original sentence to this article a couple of years ago taking care to base it on one of the sources listed at the bottom of the page. (Unfortunately I didn't use inline cites.) It might require a different source to justify the new claim. I'll look at the sources I have. Quale 15:12, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I got this from the Oxford Encyclopaedia of Chess Games ; I’ve added it as a source. Moonraker12 08:40, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * You don't need to apologize—I do. Sorry, you're right. (Actually I mean I'm glad you're right, I'm sorry I questioned it.)  I didn't have any reference materials handy, but looking it up in H. J. R. Murray's A History of Chess, page 824 says Polerio was the first to put many openings in print: QGD (Slav Defense), fianchetto defenses, Caro-Kann, Sicilian, Nimzowitch's D., Pirc, many variations of the King's Gambit, Center Game, several variations of the Bishop's O. including the Boden-Kieseritzky G., Latvian G., Two Knight's D., and Four Knights Game. Quale 03:37, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I've changed the source for this, as I've found a better one. Estrin's Two Knights Defence states Polerio first analyzed this in 1560 (!); though again, most of the work on it was done after the 1850's. Moonraker12 15:36, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

 * (Actually, now it looks as if he wrote it when he was 12 years old! Still, thats the date Estrin gives, both in the forward, and in the chapter on the Morphy variation (that's the line Polerio followed). I'm getting a bit lost, now! Moonraker12 16:25, 15 October 2007 (UTC))

 * I think Estrin is mistaken, or it's a typo. (If the book is a translation, that could also be the cause). Our article on Giulio Polerio says he is ascribed some manuscripts from 1580 to 1600. Murray lists a manuscript from around 1574 that may be due to Polerio, but that's the earliest date for any of his writings I've seen. The manuscript that introduced a large number of openings is reported to be from 1594.  Quale 05:40, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * You’re probably right about the Estrin reference, but… it’s a source, what can you do? And I re-checked the OECG reference; my mistake (again!) it was a game by Greco in 1620, not Polerio (and it followed a different line to the one given by Estrin).(This is starting to feel like trying to nail a jelly to the wall!) How about “the late 1500’s”, or “the latter part of the 16th century”, with the same source? Moonraker12 08:35, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * OK, I've gone with that. Moonraker12 10:04, 24 October 2007 (UTC)

Two Knights Defence
Wouldn't this article more accurately named defence. Having checked a little the word 'defense' is an Americanism and is given as an 'U.S. spelling' in English dictionaries - have a Collins dictionary in my hand. Also http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?js=off&dictionary=Choose+your+dictionary&text=defence

I've only seen chess books use the term Defence. See cover picture here -> http://www.amazon.com/Knights-Defence-Batsford-Chess-Openings/dp/0713484411 Wikipedia uses the word defence for all countries except the US http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_minister ChessCreator (talk) 16:40, 4 February 2008 (UTC) Answering my own old question. Basically no, Wikipedia is in the English variation that the first major contributor choose, in this case American English. ChessCreator (talk) 01:17, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Prussian Game
Can anyone confirm Prussian Game occurs with position 4. Ng5 has being played? plus Preußische Partie and ECO codes from German wiki. ChessCreator (talk) 03:08, 22 March 2008 (UTC)
 * 'Unzicker, Wolfgang (1975). Knaurs Neues Schachbuch für Anfänger und Fortgeschrittene.' (in German) says Prussian is after 3. ...Nf6 this gives conflict with above links. Looking for a reliable source, but it seems Prussian is not given in English books, perhaps solution is not to include it at all. ChessCreator (talk) 08:18, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Hi! Wolfgang Unzicker wrote in his book Knaurs Neues Schachbuch für Anfänger und ::Fortgeschrittene. Droemer Knaur. München/Zürich 1975. ISBN 3-426-02242-7:

 * Das Zwei-Springer-Spiel im Nachzuge oder die preußische Partie

 * Diese Eröffnung wird durch folgende Züge bestimmt: 1. e2-e4 e7-e5; 2. Sg1-f3 Sb8-c6; 3. Lf1-c4 ::Sg8-f6. (page 57)

 * 1. Der Angriff auf f7

 * 4.Sf3-g5 (page 58)

 * 2. Der Vorstoß d2-d4

 * Nach den Zügen 1. e2-e4 e7-e5; 2. Sg1-f3 Sb8-c6; 3. Lf1-c4 Sg8-f6 kann Weiß auch 4. d2-d4 ziehen. (page 60)

 * Best wishes, Mibelz (talk), 17:49, 25 March 2008 (UTC).

 * The Two Knights Defense came to be designated the Prussian game, named after Bilguer's opening monography from 1839, see here - this was indeed the test run for the famous handbook's methodology (variation analysis, notation etc). However, the traditional naming "Two Knights Defense" prevailed in the end. With the ECO code, as the German wiki article explains, the "Prussian Game" got to be exclusively reserved for the Ng5 variation - which is, for history's sake, a good solution, because von Bilguer dealt only with Ng5, with a special focus on the Fried Liver Attack. --DaQuirin (talk) 23:17, 31 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, the Ng5 variation (C57) is called the Prussian Game / Prussian attack in many languages, e.g. "attacco Prussiano" (italian) and is a variation occuring in the Two Knights Defense. There are other variations in the Two-Knights Defense that do not transpose into the quiet Italian game (4. d3), most notably the Max Lange Attack (C55) (which can also be reached via other move orders, but this is the most common one, therefore it is ascribed to the Two Knights Defense). There is no reason not to mention the name in the article. Arminius4 (talk) 21:32, 2 September 2022 (UTC)

Wike or Chess World
This article as currently written seems more like an essay in a chess newsletter than one for Wikipedia. Especially egregious is the use of last names only, which would be like writing an article about the American Revolution and only using "Howe," "Marion" and "Bergone." 24.24.244.132 (talk) 15:37, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

(Untitled comment)
(10/08/12) The move 8.Qf3 in the main line is really more complicated and interesting than described. The current comment is strongly inaccurate and has to be modified. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.203.95.80 (talk) 09:21, 10 August 2012 (UTC)

Estrin and 4...Nxe4
I found Estrin's 1970 book in Russian in djvu format, so I suppose it can be cited. He is the ultimate source for most of the analysis presented, including the lines attributed to Gligoric/ECO. He names "V. Lopukhin" as the originator of 7.Nc3 but gives no other details. His bibliography at the end includes various Soviet chess magazines, so my guess is that Lopukhin was an amateur who wrote a letter to one of these magazines pointing out 7.Nc3. There is also an A. Lopukhin who was awarded the Soviet Master title in 1978 but that looks like a different guy. Alternatively, we could link to Harding's 1996 chesscafe article which presents more or less the same analysis. MaxBrowne (talk) 00:38, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
 * The Russian edition also cites the game Van Steenis-Vlagsma, Beverwijk 1942 which Harding also cites in chesscafe kibitzer #5 and #33 as an important theoretical game demonstrating the unsoundness of 4...Nxe4. Estrin considers both 8.d4 and 8.dxe5 to be good.MaxBrowne (talk) 04:18, 19 April 2016 (UTC)

 * I've added from Estrin The Two Knights' Defence 1971 English edition, replacing Gligoric/ECO (which clearly just replicated). Even the Harding/Botterill refs now are for the most part redundant to Estrin's 1971 analyses. I didn't re-include 8.d5 line because of Chesscafe 9...Kg8!! (Maric's move). Lastly, Estrin gives 4...Nxe4? (while Harding gave 4...Nxe4?!). IHTS (talk) 04:37, 19 April 2016 (UTC)

Traxler variant
> Other sixth moves have scored very badly for White. This doesn't seem true. Stockfish recommends 5. Nxf7 with more than +2 advantage for white. The defense from black attack is not even that hard and after dust settles white have at least extra exchange and a pawn (or even a full rook if black doesn't play correctly themselves). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.213.13.93 (talk) 07:43, 16 December 2021 (UTC)

The Knight Attack doesn't win a pawn by force, if they play nxd5.
It's risky but not unplayable. Jishiboka1 (talk) 05:18, 12 December 2022 (UTC)
 * The text was "Black is practically forced to give up a pawn for the initiative". Nothing wrong with that since word "practically" doesn't mean absolutely or necessarily. The text after your edit, "usually forced" doesn't make sense, perhaps you meant "Black usually gives up a pawn [...]", which is ok. But am reverting. --IHTS (talk) 07:43, 12 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Sorry, thanks for your reply. Jishiboka1 (talk) 10:29, 12 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm surprised by warring to change "this attack on f7 practically wins a pawn by force" to claims that are incorrect or nonsensical. My real surprise is that the dispute doesn't seem to be over the chess which I think everyone agrees on.  The problem is English language comprehension, and "practically forced" and "usually forced" are not the same.  As Ihardlythinkso points out, "usually forced" makes no sense in chess, but "practically forced" can be true if there's a theoretical possibility that is almost never chosen.
 * The sentence was added to the page in an IP edit in 2005 and has remained undisturbed until recently. I'm pretty sure I was the IP editor who put it in as at that time I was a few months away from creating an account and the edit also shows my characteristic inability to correctly spell "Guicco" [sic].  Although unfortunately I rarely cited sources back then, almost every one of my edits was taken very closely from some chess book.  I can't be sure 17 years later, but this is what a couple sources say about 4.Ng5.  Horrowitz (1964) "Chess Openings Theory and Practice", p. 203, "The attack on Black's KB2 by 4 N-N5 wins a Pawn almost by force".  Korn (1982) "MCO 12", p. 84, "The crucial lines spring from 4 N-N5 .... Black is hard pressed to justify the virtually forced loss of a pawn." And a source not available in 2005: Van der Sterren (2011) "FCO", p. 306, "In fact 3 Nf6 is a pawn sacrifice and 4 Ng5 is the way to accept it".  Quale (talk) 17:52, 14 January 2023 (UTC)
 * , please stop with the edit warring over this point. We've been very tolerant, but if you persist I will ask an admin for sanctions pursuant to WP:3RR. Quale (talk) 02:50, 1 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Black will generally avoid Nxd5?! but it regains the pawn, but it is very risky (allows Nxf7!? Jishiboka1 (talk) 01:23, 2 February 2023 (UTC), also then remove the usually gives up and change back to practically...

Nxf7!?
I think for e4 e5 nf3 nc6 bc4 nf6 ng5 d5 exd5 nxd5?!, Nxf7 should have a !?, as it is a sacrifice of a knight, and several sources state that (lichess.org's opening explorer or the book chess openings for kids) Jishiboka1 (talk) 01:53, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

Nxf7!! and d4?
After Ng5 d5 exd5 Nxd5? The computer deems d4! as a mistake and says that if you play d4? you missed a brilliant move, it says that Nxf7!! is brilliant. Sources:

https://www.chess.com/analysis/game/pgn/5cxgQaqPrN?tab=review (d4?)

https://www.chess.com/analysis/game/live/81262329958?tab=review (Nxf7!!) Edit of edit (talk) 17:25, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * This is already mentioned in the article. I'm not sure why you are bringing it up here. Perhaps you mistakenly think article talk pages are forums for general discussion? --Yamla (talk) 18:18, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * my suggestion for annotations is associated with the 2 knights defense with Ng5 and the engine is in agreement. Edit of edit (talk) 20:17, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Article talk pages are to be used to improve the article. You haven't said anything intended to improve the article, just reiterated material that's already covered therein. --Yamla (talk) 20:37, 23 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Two Knights Defense


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/4yourparty

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The result of the debate was Delete. HappyCamper 13:20, 28 August 2005 (UTC)

4yourparty
Non-notable web site Rx StrangeLove 14:38, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete --Cheese Sandwich 14:40, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
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 * Delete, per submitter. --GraemeL (talk) 19:09, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
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SS Tiger (1917)

Tiger was an American Socony-Vacuum Oil Company tanker completed in 1917 at San Francisco, California. Tiger was carrying 64321 barrels of Navy fuel oil when the German submarine GS U-754 torpedoed her on 1 April 1942. The torpedo hit Tiger on her starboard side aft of amidships tank #5 and one crewman lost his life. She was taken in tow and sank on 2 April in 55 ft of water in the Atlantic Ocean, 8.2 mi east of Sandbridge Beach, Virginia. She lies on her starboard side, quite broken up, at a depth of 58 ft.

title: SS Tiger (1917)


text:
Mysore silk

Mysore Silk is variety of mulberry silk produced in the Indian district of Mysore, Karnataka.

Karnataka produces 9,000 metric tons of mulberry silk, accounting for nearly 45% of the country's total mulberry silk production. In Karnataka, silk is mainly produced in the Mysore district and is a patent registered product under Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation Limited (KSIC), a government of Karnataka Public Sector Undertaking.

History
After the fall of Vijayanagara Empire the silk industry in Mysore region went into decline, the growth of the silk industry in the Kingdom of Mysore was reinitiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan nearly 1780-1790AC. Later, it was hit by a global depression and had to compete with imported silk and rayon. In the second half of the 20th century, it revived and the Mysore State became the top multivoltine silk producer in India. Mysore silk is also known as mulberry silk because the silk cultivators would generally use mulberry leaves for silkworms to feed over.

About
Mysore silk is produced by the Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation Limited (KSIC). The factory was founded in 1912 by Sri Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar, the Maharaja of Mysore. Initially, the silk fabrics were manufactured & supplied to meet the requirements of the royal family and ornamental fabrics to their armed forces. After India gained independence, the Mysore State Sericulture Dept. took control of the silk weaving factory. In 1980, the factory was handed over to KSIC, a government of Karnataka industry. Today, products include silk sarees, shirts, kurta's, silk dhoti, and neckties. Mysore silk has also received geographical identification.

Process
Mysore Silk factory located in the heart of Mysore is spread across acres of land and is mainly responsible for silk weaving and distribution of silk products. The main source of silk for this factory is from the Ramanagara district in Karnataka which is also the largest market for silk cocoons in Asia. Farmers from various parts of this district market the silk cocoons in this place every day. Silk cocoons are hand picked at this market from KSIC officials, who have expertise in Mysore silk, every day as part of government bidding process and are sent to the raw silk production factory located in T.Narasipura. At this factory, the silk cocoons are boiled to extract threads and converted into thread rolls which are sent to the weaving factory located in Mysore. These threads are used to produce various silk products among which Mysore silk saree is the most popular.

Since the saree zari contains 65% pure silver and 0.65% of gold, it is also one of the most expensive silk saree in India. This has led to production of duplicate Mysore silk saree production and sales by cheating the public in the name of KSIC. To avoid these issues, KSIC has implemented unique id, hologram based design and unique identification barcode woven on each Mysore Silk saree produced in its factory.

title: Mysore silk


text:
Carolyn Seymour

Carolyn Seymour is an English actress, best known for portraying the role of Abby Grant in the BBC series Survivors (1975) and Queen Myrrah in the Gears of War franchise.

Career
She was born Carolyn von Benckendorf in Buckinghamshire to an Estonian father of Russian descent and an Irish mother. One of her early television roles was as Jenny in the BBC drama series Take Three Girls, and an early film appearance was as Zita in the film Steptoe and Son (1972) alongside Harry H. Corbett and Wilfrid Brambell. Her best-known movie role remains Grace Gurney in The Ruling Class (1972), opposite Peter O'Toole.

She left Survivors at the end of its first series due to disagreements with the producers over the direction the show and her character were taking. She appeared in the Space: 1999 episode "The Seance Spectre", and with Joan Collins in The Bitch (1979). She then moved to the United States and made numerous appearances on television shows, including Hart to Hart; Modesty Blaise; Family Ties; Cagney & Lacey; Remington Steele; Magnum, P.I.; The Twilight Zone; Murder, She Wrote; Matlock; Quantum Leap; Star Trek: The Next Generation; Civil Wars; L.A. Law; Red Shoe Diaries; Star Trek: Voyager; and ER.

She has contributed voice work for several Star Wars video games, portraying characters such as Shmi Skywalker and Mon Mothma. She provides the voice for the Locust Queen Myrrah in Gears of War, Dr. Karin Chakwas in the Mass Effect series and the Elder God of Water in Mortal Kombat Annihilation. She has played in audio plays by L.A. Theatre Works and Hollywood Theater of the Ear as well as narrated audiobooks.

In 2014, she reprised the role of Abby Grant in Big Finish Productions' Survivors series, based on the book by Terry Nation and the television series. She has played various roles for the company, and in April 2021, it released a career retrospective interview with her titled Carolyn Seymour in Conversation.

Since 2014, she has voiced Bierce in Dark Deception.

Personal life
Seymour married director Peter Medak in 1973. The couple had two children and divorced in 1984.

Since 2011, she has lived in Chalais, France.

title: Carolyn Seymour


text: User talk:82.20.4.32

title: User talk:82.20.4.32


text:
User:Robosmobos

my name is mobos

title: User:Robosmobos


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Economic history of Australia

The economic history of Australia traces the economic history of Australia since European settlement in 1788.

1788–1821
The European settlement of Australia began on 26 January 1788 at Port Jackson (modern Sydney, New South Wales), when the First Fleet arrived with more than 1,000 convicts, marines and a few free settlers, plus a vast quantity of stores to establish a penal colony in New South Wales. The United Kingdom claimed all of eastern Australia as its territory on the basis of terra nullius, though the actual landing and consequent settlement was initially confined to the Port Jackson area. According to the first census of 1788, as reported by Governor Phillip to Lord Sydney, the Home Secretary, the white population in the colony was 1,030, of which 753 were convicts and their children; the colony also had 7 horses, 2903 sheep, 749 swine, 6 rabbits, and 754 cattle. The Indigenous population was not counted or estimated, nor reported at that point. More settlers came with the arrival of the Second Fleet in 1789, and the Third Fleet in 1791, with other convict transports in the years that followed.

Governors of New South Wales had authority to make land grants to free settlers, emancipists (former convicts) and non-commissioned officers. Land grants were often subject to conditions, such as a quit rent (one shilling per 50 acres (200,000 m2) to be paid after five years) and a requirement for the grantee to reside on and cultivate the land. Whaling in Australia commenced in 1791, when Captain Thomas Melvill, commanding Britannia, one of 11 ships of the Third Fleet, and Captain Eber Bunker of William and Ann, after landing their passengers and cargo then went whaling and sealing in Australasian waters. Seal skins, Whale oil and baleen (whalebone) were valuable commodities and provided Australia with its first major export industries. Sealing and whaling contributed more to the colonial economy than land produce until the 1830s. When Governor Phillip left the colony in December 1792, the European population was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts.

Hobart in what was then called Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) was established in 1804 as a penal settlement. It was founded more to forestall a possible French claim to that part of Australia than for any immediate economic benefit to the Sydney settlement.

The colony of New South Wales barely survived its first years and was largely neglected for much of the following quarter-century while the British government was preoccupied until 1815 with the Napoleonic Wars. One very important British oversight was the provision of adequate coinage for the new colony and, because of the shortage of any sort of money, the real means of exchange during the first 25 years of settlement was rum. Though it did not solve the problem arising from the lack of coins, but in an attempt to put some order into the economy, in 1800, Governor Philip Gidley King set the value of a variety of foreign coins circulating in New South Wales. During this period the New South Wales Corps, whose officers had benefited most from access to land and imported goods (thus hopelessly entangling public and private interests), defied the authority of the governors. The New South Wales Corps was recalled in 1808.

Governor Macquarie was appointed in the following year. There was a change of policy under his administration towards the promotion of a private economy to support the penal regime, separate from the activities and interests of the colonial government. There was a significant increase in transportation after 1810, which provided cheap and skilled labour for the colony. As laborers, craftsmen, clerks and tradesmen, many convicts possessed the skills required in the new settlements. As their terms expired, they also added permanently to the free population.

The Blue Mountains were a barrier to the expansion of the colony. The crossing of the Blue Mountains in 1813 enabled the settlers to access and use the wealthy land west of the mountains for farming. Bathurst was established as Australia's first inland settlement. The first bank in Sydney, the Bank of New South Wales, was established in 1817. The Bank, and each private bank established afterwards, could issue its own paper money. During the 19th and early 20th century, the Bank of New South Wales opened branches, first throughout Australia and Oceania, including branches at Moreton Bay (Brisbane) in 1850, then in Victoria (1851), New Zealand (1861), South Australia (1877), Western Australia (1883), Fiji (1901), Papua (now part of Papua New Guinea) (1910) and Tasmania (1910).

In line with the British government's policy of concentrated land settlement for the colony, Governors of New South Wales tended to be conservative in making land grants. By the end of Macquarie's tenure in 1821, less than 1,000 square miles (3,000 km2) of land had been granted in the colony. Above all, agriculture was established on the basis of land grants to senior officials and emancipated convicts, and limited freedoms were allowed to convicts to supply a range of goods and services. Although economic life depended heavily on the government Commissariat as a supplier of goods, money and foreign exchange, individual rights in property and labour were recognised, and private markets for both started to function.

1821–1840s
According to a 2018 study in the Economic History Review, "Australian GDP per worker grew exceptionally quickly from the 1820s to the 1870s, at a rate about twice that of the US and three times that of Britain." This rapid growth in GDP per worker did not however lead to rising inequality (as has been the case in similar scenarios in other countries) but rather a "revolutionary levelling in incomes up to the 1870s".

During Governor Brisbane's 4-year term (1821–1825) land grants were more readily made. In addition, regulations introduced during Brisbane's term enabled settlers to purchase (with his permission) up to 4,000 acres (16 km2) at 5s an acre (with superior quality land priced at 7s 6d). During his term, the total amount of land in private hands virtually doubled.

Those known as 'free settlers' were only permitted to take up land within the approved areas, which from 1826 was confined to the Nineteen Counties of the Sydney settlement. From 1831 the granting of free land ceased and the only land that was to be available for sale was to be within the Nineteen Counties. Despite the uncertainty of land tenure, squatters ran large numbers of sheep and cattle beyond the boundaries. From 1836 they could legally do so, paying ten pounds per year for the right.

From the 1820s economic growth was based increasingly upon the production of fine wool and other rural commodities for markets in Britain and the industrializing economies of Northwestern Europe. To finance this trade a number of banks set up in London in the 1830s, including the Bank of Australasia in 1835 and the Union Bank of Australia established in 1837. This growth was interrupted by two major depressions during the 1840s and 1890s and stimulated in complex ways by the rich gold discoveries in Victoria in 1851, but the underlying dynamics were essentially unchanged.

At different times, the extraction of natural resources, whether maritime before the 1840s or later gold and other minerals, was also important. Agriculture, local manufacturing and construction industries expanded to meet the immediate needs of growing populations, which concentrated increasingly in the main urban centres.

The opportunities for large profits in pastoralism and mining attracted considerable amounts of British capital, while expansion generally was supported by enormous government outlays for transport, communication and urban infrastructures, which also depended heavily on British finance. As the economy expanded, large-scale immigration became necessary to satisfy the growing demand for workers, especially after the end of convict transportation to the eastern mainland in 1840.

The costs of immigration were subsidized by colonial governments, with settlers coming predominantly from the United Kingdom and bringing skills that contributed enormously to the economy's growth. All this provided the foundation for the establishment of free colonial societies. In turn, the institutions associated with these – including the rule of law, secure property rights, and stable and democratic political systems – created conditions that, on balance, fostered growth.

In addition to New South Wales, four other British colonies were established on the mainland: Western Australia (1829), South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851) and Queensland (1859). Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania after 1856) became a separate colony in 1825. From the 1850s, these colonies acquired responsible government. In 1901, they federated, creating the Commonwealth of Australia.

The process of colonial growth began with two related developments. First, in 1820, Macquarie responded to land pressure in the districts immediately surrounding Sydney by relaxing restrictions on settlement. Soon the outward movement of herdsmen seeking new pastures became uncontrollable. From the 1820s, the British authorities also encouraged private enterprise by the wholesale assignment of convicts to private employers and easy access to land.

In 1831, the principles of systematic colonization popularized by Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796–1862) were put into practice in New South Wales with the substitution of land sales for grants in order to finance immigration. This, however, did not affect the continued outward movement of pastoralists who simply occupied land where they could find it beyond the official limits of settlement, usually in disregard for any rights of indigenous peoples.

By 1840, they had claimed a vast swathe of territory two hundred miles in depth running from Moreton Bay in the north (the site of modern Brisbane) to the Port Phillip District (the future colony of Victoria, whose capital Melbourne was marked out in 1837) to Adelaide in South Australia. The absence of any legal title meant that these intruders became known as 'squatters' and the terms of their tenure were not finally settled until 1846 after a prolonged political struggle with the Governor of New South Wales, Sir George Gipps.

The impact of the original penal settlements on the indigenous population had been enormous. The consequences of squatting after 1820 were equally devastating as the land and natural resources upon which indigenous hunter-gathering activities and environmental management depended were appropriated on a massive scale. Aboriginal populations collapsed in the face of disease, violence and forced removal until they survived only on the margins of the new pastoral economy, on government reserves, or in the arid parts of the continent least touched by white settlement. The process would be repeated in northern Australia during the second half of the century.

Colonial governments and settlers did not recognise any Aboriginal land rights or sovereignty (arguable under the doctrine of terra nullius) and therefore felt free to expand into their territory with impunity. The encouragement of private enterprise, the reception of Wakefieldian ideas, and the wholesale spread of white settlement were all part of a profound transformation in official and private perceptions of Australia's prospects and economic value as a British colony. Millennia of fire-stick management to assist hunter-gathering had created inland grasslands in the southeast that were ideally suited to the production of fine wool.

Both the physical environment and the official incentives just described raised expectations of considerable profits to be made in pastoral enterprise and attracted a growing stream of British capital in the form of organizations like the Australian Agricultural Company (1824), which was granted the right to select 1,000,000 acres (4,047 km2) in New South Wales for agricultural development; and new corporate settlements were established in Western Australia (1829) and South Australia (1836). By the 1830s, wool had overtaken whale oil as the colony's most important export, and by 1850 New South Wales had displaced Germany as the main overseas supplier to British industry.

Allowing for the colonial economy's growing complexity, the cycle of growth based upon land settlement, exports and British capital would be repeated twice. The first pastoral boom ended in a depression which was at its worst during 1842–43. Although output continued to grow during the 1840s, the best land had been occupied in the absence of substantial investment in fencing and water supplies. Without further geographical expansion, opportunities for high profits were reduced and the flow of British capital dried up, contributing to a wider downturn caused by drought and mercantile failure.

A number of London-based banks and mortgage companies were established during this period to operate in the colonies, including the Bank of Australasia (1835), the Union Bank of Australia (1837), and the English, Scottish and Australian Bank (1852).

1850–60
The discovery of gold in 1851 led to gold rushes in many parts of Australia and changed the direction of the Australian economy. The discovery led to many workers leaving their employment and heading for the goldfields. The gold rushes caused a huge influx of people from overseas, including from many non-British sources. In the 1850s Victoria was Australia's gold mining centre, its population increasing from 76,000 in 1851 to 540,000 in 1861. Australia's total population more than tripled from 430,000 in 1851 to 1.7 million in 1871. There was a resumption of wool as the principal provider of economic growth by 1860.

The colonial governments started a "development strategy" by issuing bonds to the London market, selling public land and using this to fund infrastructure.

As the easy gold ran out in Victoria many people flooded into Melbourne or became a pool of unemployed in cities around Ballarat and Bendigo. The accelerated population growth and the enormous wealth of the goldfields fuelled a boom which lasted for forty years. Melbourne spread eastwards and northwards over the surrounding flat grasslands, and southwards down the eastern shore of Port Phillip. Wealthy new suburbs grew up, while the working classes settled in the inner suburbs.

The influx of educated gold seekers from England led to rapid growth of schools, churches, learned societies, libraries and art galleries. On the back of the wealth derived from gold, there was a burst in building activity especially in Melbourne. Australia's first telegraph line was erected between Melbourne and Williamstown in 1853. The first railway in Australia was built in Melbourne in 1854. Following incorporation in 1853, the University of Melbourne was built in 1855, and the State Library of Victoria in 1856. There were many other building works.

1860–75
Due to the increases in income attributable to the gold rush, manufacturing and construction sectors of the economy fared very well. The boom fuelled by gold and wool lasted through the 1860s and the 1870s. Victoria suffered from an acute labour shortage despite its steady influx of migrants, and this pushed up wages until they were the highest in the world. Victoria was known as "the working man's paradise" in these years. The Stonemasons Union won the eight-hour day in 1856 and celebrated by building the enormous Melbourne Trades Hall in Carlton.

Australia's first stock exchange was opened in Melbourne in 1861.

In 1861, the Crown Lands Acts 1861 (NSW) reformed land holdings in New South Wales in an attempt to break the squatters' domination of land tenure. The Acts allowed unlimited selection of agricultural crown land in designated areas and made redundant the limits of location, which had limited sale of land to the Nineteen Counties which had applied since 1826.

1875–80
As fertile land became less available to settlers, pastoral industries continued to increase their land holdings for the use of wool production. This caused a retraction in returns on investment by pastoral companies. Even when poorer land was utilized for the purpose of wool production there was continued investment both from private backers, and governments (in the form of transportation infrastructure).

Melbourne Trades Hall was opened in 1859 with Trades and Labour Councils and Trades Halls opening in all cities and most regional towns in the following forty years. During the 1880s Trade unions developed among shearers, miners, and stevedores (wharf workers), but soon spread to cover almost all blue-collar jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an eight-hour day and other benefits unheard of in Europe.

Australia gained a reputation as "the working man's paradise." Some employers tried to undercut the unions by importing Chinese labour. This produced a reaction which led to all the colonies restricting Chinese and other Asian immigration. This was the foundation of the White Australia Policy. The "Australian compact", based around centralised industrial arbitration, a degree of government assistance particularly for primary industries, and White Australia, was to continue for many years before gradually dissolving in the second half of the 20th century.

1880–1890
An investment boom in Australia in the 1880s saw increased economic expansion although the investments were providing less of a return. That can be attributed to foreign funds' becoming more available to Australia. The influx of capital led to Australians' experiencing the highest per capita incomes in the world during the late 19th century.

However, by the end of the 1880s, overseas investors became more concerned with the difference between expected returns and actual returns on Australian investment. The Barings Crisis of 1890, although focused on Argentina, led to a reassessment of the exposure of investors to regions of declining return, and consequently British investors began to withdraw from providing further funding to the Australian market. This caused a banking crisis in Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and Tasmania. In 1891, The Bank of Van Diemen's Land was the first major bank to fail, with 13 more to follow. By the end of the year it is estimated that half of Australian bank customers had been debarred from their bank. Consequently, the eastern Australian colonies saw the start of a severe depression in 1890–91. Australian economic historian Noel Butlin would later argue that the history of Australian settlement has been one of growth financed by foreign capital, punctuated by depression caused by balance of payment crises after a collapse in property prices and exacerbated by the imprudent use of capital.

The impact of the end of the long boom and the collapse of the property market in Melbourne did not impact as greatly the economy of the colony of Western Australia, where substantial reserves of gold were discovered at Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in a region of Western Australia that subsequently became known as the 'Goldfields'. This prompted a 'Gold Rush' in Western Australia characterized by a sustained, rapid expansion of the colony that would continue up to the First World War. This expansion allowed the development of the port of Fremantle, the opening up of the south-west corner of the colony for agricultural development and the rapid expansion of the colonial rail network.

In the 1880s, the long boom culminated in a frenzy of speculation and rapid inflation of land prices known as the Land Boom and centred on the city of Melbourne. Governments shared in the wealth and ploughed money into urban infrastructure, particularly railways. Huge fortunes were built on speculation, and Victorian business and politics became notorious for corruption. English banks lent freely to colonial speculators, adding to the mountain of debt on which the boom was built. Following the collapse of the Land Boom, property values in central Melbourne would not return to the level of the 1880s until the late 1950s (in real terms).

1890–1900

 * 1890: the Great maritime strike
 * 1891: the Australian shearers' strike
 * 1891: 16 small banks and building societies collapsed in Melbourne
 * 1892: the Broken Hill miners' strike
 * 1892: 133 limited companies went into liquidation in Victoria alone
 * 1893: a major international depression and the speculative property boom of the 1880s, led to the Australian banking crisis of 1893 and a serious economic depression. 11 commercial banks failed or temporarily closed to avoid a run, including the National Bank of Australasia and the Commercial Bank of Australia. On 1 May, the Victoria government implemented a five-day bank holiday to ameliorate the panic.
 * 1894: recovery from the crisis began. Some reforms to regulations and laws were made to try to prevent future financial abuses.

1900–1939
In 1901, the first federal government formed by the Protectionist Party. In 1904, the Australian Labor Party forms the Commonwealth government, the first labour movement in the world to attain government.
 * In 1907, the Harvester case ruling that established the right to a basic wage, a 'fair and reasonable' minimum wage for unskilled workers of 7 shillings.

In 1910, the federal government introduced a national currency, the Australian pound. Monetary policy ensured that the Australian pound was fixed in value to the pound sterling, and as long as Britain was on the gold standard, so was Australia. In 1914, the pound sterling was removed from the gold standard, but when it was returned to the gold standard in 1925, the sudden increase in its value, imposed by the nominal gold price, unleashed crushing deflation. Both the initial 1914 inflation and the subsequent 1926 deflation had far-reaching economic effects throughout the British Empire, including Australia, and the rest of the world. In 1929, as an emergency measure during the Great Depression, Australia left the gold standard, resulting in a devaluation relative to sterling. A variety of pegs to sterling applied until December 1931, when the government set a rate of £1 Australian = 16 shillings sterling (£1·5s Australian = £1 sterling; A£1.25 = £1 sterling).

While wool-growing remained at the centre of economic activity, a variety of new goods, such as wheat, dairy and other agriculturally-based produce, became part of Australian exports. It was in then that the latter started contributing more to economic growth than wool production. Part of that emergence of other sources of economic expansion came from technological progress, such as disease-resistant wheat and refrigerated shipping. The development of these technologies also renewed large-scale foreign investment.

That injection of foreign investment led to increases in construction, particularly in the private residential sector. That injection of foreign cash was the main contributor to economic expansion, which was again troublesome for Australia's economy. Returns on investments, as before, were immensely different from the expected returns.

By the 1920s, agricultural producers were experiencing profit troubles and governments, which invested heavily on transportation infrastructure, were not getting the returns that they had expected. Cutbacks in borrowing, government and private expenditure in the late 1920s led to a recession. The recession itself became worse as other nations fell into depressions. They not only cut back on foreign investments to Australia but also led to a lower demand for Australian exports. That culminated into the biggest recession in Australia's history, which peaked in 1931–1932.

The worldwide depression of the 1930s was not felt as badly in Australia than in to international counterparts because of increases in productivity from the manufacturing sector. (In William Sinclair 's terms, that is when Australia moved from the old model to the new model.) Trade protection, particularly from tariffs implemented by governments at the time, were instrumental to the prosperity of the manufacturing sector.

A major labour strike took place at the State Coalfields in Wonthaggi, Victoria in 1934. Conditions were hard on the strikers over a five-month episode. Their resilience, cohesion, and significant community support accounted for their persistence. Winning the strike revitalized the Victorian labour movement and enhanced its political power.

1939–1945
World War II had a profound impact on the Australian economy and permanently changed how the economy was run. Prior to 1939, the Commonwealth Government had little role in the management of the Australian economy. The state governments levied most of the income tax, and Australia's international trade was dictated by its relationship with the British Empire. The Japanese attack on Australia in 1942 led the Australian Government to adopt an "All In" war policy, which dictated the full mobilisation of the Australian economy and workforce. To that end, a range of economic and industrial controls were adopted: rationing, production controls, military and industrial conscription. The new powers were generally administered by the Commonwealth Government assisted by government appointed boards of control. The best and the most successful example was the Commonwealth Munitions Board (CMB) which directed the expansion of the Australian munitions industry. Chaired by Essington Lewis, the General Manager of BHP, the CMB was by the end of the war indirectly managing some of the largest manufacturing concerns in the country.

The economic policies of the Labor government of John Curtin greatly stimulated the economy by increasing production and ending unemployment. Labor relations were good and strikes were avoided. A wide range of industries, including motor vehicles, metal processing, TCF (textiles, clothing and footwear) and chemicals, all benefitted from government contracts and regulations, but by 1943, a severe manpower shortage limited further industrial expansion. High profits, and the strict rationing of consumables led to a rapid increase in national savings and profits, which generated a surplus of domestic capital. To fund the war effort, in 1942, the Australian Government instituted the Uniform Taxation Act and removed the ability of the state governments to levy income tax. Higher taxation and successive bond drives meant that by 1945, the Australian Government had largely funded the war effort from domestic sources. In the immediate postwar period, Australia was able even to extend economic assistance to Britain, and the Curtin government could start planning for a comprehensive plan of postwar reconstruction.

1945-1972
Wartime measures and the expanded wartime economy provided the basis for rapid economic growth in the period after 1945. Postwar economic reconstruction was also aided by a policy of national development pursued by the Australian Labor Party (ALP), which formed the government from 1941 to 1949. That policy was in line with the general socialist ideals that the ALP held and were then widely supported within the broader labour movement.

International conditions also favoured the policy as after the war Australia enjoyed favourable terms of trade and an increase in the amount of foreign (largely US) investment into the economy. However, it was assumed that the agricultural and mining sectors would be geared towards international markets, and manufacturing would serve the domestic "consumer" market. This continued into the 1950s and 1960s, and led government policy makers to implement import replacement strategies.

During the war, Australia's international trade and investment position began to change. In 1944, Australia became a part of the Bretton Woods system, with major world currencies maintaining fixed exchange rates relative to each other and with the US dollar being pegged to gold. Australia maintained a fixed exchange rate which was effectively pegged to sterling until 1967. The exchange rate between the Australian and British pounds was set at 0.8 GBP (16 shillings sterling; A£1 5s = £1 sterling). However, those new developments did not entirely supplant the traditional relationship with Britain, and Australia remained a part of the "Sterling Zone" until 1967. That reflected Australia's historical ties as well as a view about the stability in value of the British pound. After a brief period of disruption caused by the Second World War, the United Kingdom returned to its position as Australia's main trading partner.

In 1949, the United Kingdom devalued the pound sterling against the US dollar by 30%, and Australia followed suit so that the Australian pound would not become overvalued in sterling zone countries with which Australia did most of its external trade. As the pound sterling went from US$4.03 to US$2.80, the Australian pound went from US$3.224 to US$2.24. Relative to the pound sterling, the Australian pound remained the same at A£1 5s = £1 sterling.

With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, Australia converted the traditional peg to a fluctuating rate against the US dollar. In September 1974, Australia valued the dollar against a basket of currencies called the trade weighted index (TWI) in an effort to reduce the fluctuations associated with its tie to the US dollar. The daily TWI valuation was changed in November 1976 to a periodically adjusted valuation. On 12 December 1983, Australia floated the Australian dollar, with the exchange rate reflecting the balance of payments and other market drivers.

Immediately after 1945 Australia continued to be governed by the ALP, which adopted a policy of reconstruction based on the principles of "nationalisation and rationalisation". This dictated that the government maintain control over the "commanding heights" of the economy in order to continue economic growth, restrain inflation and institute full employment. A number of Australian companies such as QANTAS were nationalised in this period, while a range of government run enterprises such as TAA and the ANL were set up to expand the government sector. In 1948 the Snowy Mountain River Project was commenced. This policy achieved high economic growth, but led to growing political opposition, especially after the failure of the government to nationalise the banking sector in 1948. Political opponents also capitalized on the retention of rationing of food and petrol. As a result, in 1949 the government was replaced at national elections with a more conservative government committed to supporting a "mixed economy."

The new Australian Government, led by Liberal leader Robert Menzies, continued to regulate economic activity, but preferred to manage the economy "indirectly" where possible. More encouragement was given to private industry, but where public enterprise was deemed "necessary" it was retained, and in some cases expanded. The pragmatic approach of the conservative Menzies Government was underlined with the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia, the continuance of the mass immigration policy began in 1946, and the signing of a range of new trade agreements with nations outside the British Empire, including West Germany (1955), Japan (1957) and the USSR (1965). In 1955 Australia began exporting coal to Japan, and by 1967 Japan had surpassed Britain as Australia's main market. In 1966 Australia abandoned the pound and adopted the Australian Dollar.

Economic growth, high employment levels, growing foreign investment and the development of new markets led Australia to enjoy a high level of economic prosperity in the post-war period. Rationing was abolished in 1950. High population growth, high government spending, the introduction of television (1956) and the gradual relaxation of government controls over "hire purchase" helped Australia to develop into an affluent society in the 1950s and 1960s. Rising income from taxation receipts eventually allowing the Australian Government to fund a large expansion in higher education, the development of Canberra, the national capital, and the host the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. By the time of Sir Robert Menzies's retirement in 1966, the Australian economy seemed stronger and wealthier than ever before. The Australian governments of this period, dominated by the conservative Liberal Party of Australia, were broadly successful in maintaining economic growth and unemployment, but were criticised by opponents for failing to effectively control inflation, instituting periodic "credit squeezes" (1952 and 1961), and rejecting national economic planning. During the 1960s an increase in tariff protection for new industries protected jobs and profits, but lowered the need for productivity and innovation, and by 1966 foreign investment was shifting to the less heavily regulated mining and pastoral sectors.

After 1967 the favourable conditions that Australia had enjoyed in the international economy began to change. From 1962 Britain progressively abandoned the system of Imperial Preference adopted in 1932 and moved towards membership of the European Economic Community. Australia's privileged access to the British market was drawing to a close. In the era of the Vietnam War the U.S. Economy began to enter into a difficult period, and the rate of U.S. investment into Australia began to decline. Even more ominously, Australia began to face greater economic competition and a steady decline in her terms of trade. In this context the governments that followed the Menzies government in the period 1966–1972 increasingly found it hard to manage the rising expectations of consumers and industry. In the period 1972–1973 Australia began to experience the beginnings of "stagflation" as unemployment and inflation began to rise simultaneously for the first time.

1972–1982
The post-war economic boom ended with "stagflation" in the early 1970s. This was primarily caused by developments in the international economy; the Oil Crisis, Britain's entry into the E.E.C., and growing economic competition in Australia's traditional export markets. However, the economic policies of the ALP Whitlam government did not prove effective at dealing with stagflation. Gough Whitlam had been elected on a platform that included the rapid expansion of government funded health and education programs. At the same time the labour movement, of which the Labor Party was a part, were opposed to both wage restraint and economic restructuring. Higher government spending coupled with higher wages, but not linked to higher productivity, created strong inflationary pressure. Whitlam's lack of a majority in the Australian Senate, and the hostility of the conservative state governments made it difficult to effectively manage the economy.

In 1973, with Australia experiencing sharply rising inflation, Fred Gruen, special consultant to the Whitlam government, proposed a 25% across the board tariff cut, which was adopted by the government. The 1973 oil crisis had caused prices to spike and, according to government figures, inflation topped 13% for the year 1973–1974. By mid-1974, Australia was in an economic recession. The rapid change in economic conditions was not countered by a change in government policy. In particular Whitlam's desire to increase the wages and conditions of the federal public service was not checked. This fed into a 30% increase in imports and a $1.5 billion increase in the trade deficit by the end of 1974. Primary producers of commodities such as beef were caught in a credit squeeze as short-term interest rates rose to extremely high levels. Unemployment also rose significantly despite continuing government spending.

The failure of the Whitlam government to effectively manage the Australian economy was a factor in the crisis that ended that government's term in office at the end of 1975. The government of Malcolm Fraser that succeeded Whitlam promised greater control of government spending, and an end to inflationary pay increases in the public sector. However, its close links with industry and commerce made it reluctant to institute economic reform. While a growing number of economists and business leaders began to call for economic deregulation the Fraser government preferred to promote policies similar to those adopted in the earlier post-war period; chiefly wage and credit restraint, and tighter government economic regulation of the economy. This was symbolised in 1982 when Fraser dismissed the findings of the Campbell Commission into Banking (which his government had put in place) that had recommended deregulation of the banking industry.

1983–2020; 2020–present
[[File:Australia bonds.webp|thumb|Australia bonds

]] Despite similarities in history, law and culture, Australia and Canada followed quite different macroeconomic histories. Australia's GDP per capita was well above those of Britain and the United States in 1870, and more than twice the Canadian level. By the 1980s, however, Canada's GDP per capita almost matched the United States, and was well above that of Australia and Britain. Economic liberalisation and deregulation of the Australian economy began in the early 1980s under the Hawke Labor government, which commenced the process of economic reform by concluding a wages accord with the trade union movement. In exchange for wage restraint and an increase in the "social wage" the trade union movement agreed to support economic reform and oppose industrial conflict (i.e. strikes). The success of the "Accord" allowed a Labor government to implement economic reforms that in other nations had been implemented by conservative political parties; tariffs were progressively cut, the Australian dollar was floated (1983), and the financial system deregulated. Hawke was also able to privatise several large government enterprises. Sector wide 'Industry Plans' for economic reform were introduced in telecommunications and manufacturing. The Commonwealth Bank was sold in three parcels between 1991 and 1996. Qantas was sold in two parcels, one in 1993 and the other in 1995, and the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories was floated in 1994. Telstra was sold off in three parcels in 1997, 1999 and 2006. One result of these reforms was a marked increase labour productivity, and a reduction in government spending as a proportion of GDP. The Australian Stock Exchange Limited (ASX) was formed in 1987 through the amalgamation of six independent stock exchanges that formerly operated in the state capitals. Each of those exchanges had a history of share trading dating back to the 19th century.

The global early 1990s recession came swiftly after the Black Monday of October 1987, resulting from a stock collapse of unprecedented size which saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average fall by 22.6%. This collapse, larger than the stock market crash of 1929, was handled effectively by the global economy, and the stock market began to quickly recover. However, in North America, the lumbering savings and loans industry was facing decline which eventually led to a savings and loan crisis which compromised the wellbeing of millions of Americans. The following recession thus impacted the many countries closely linked to the United States, including Australia. Paul Keating, who was Treasurer at the time, famously referred to it as "the recession that Australia had to have." During the recession, GDP fell by 1.7%, employment by 3.4% and the unemployment rate rose to 10.8%. However, as is typical during recessions, there was a beneficial reduction in inflation.

This process of economic reform and restructuring continued under the Coalition government led by John Howard which took power in 1996. The Howard government established a goods and services tax from 2000, established a national Productivity Commission and further deregulated labour markets under WorkChoices in 2006.

WorkChoices, in effect, took away an employee's right to sue for unfair dismissal if their former employer employed less than 100 people, making its implementation extremely unpopular, greatly contributing to the Howard government's loss at the 2007 election. The newly elected Labor government, under Kevin Rudd, completely repealed WorkChoices in 2008, passing the Fair Work Act 2009.

These economic reforms have resulted in Australia now being considered one of the most open economies in the world, notwithstanding polarising opinions regarding the long-term success of free and open trade, and its inevitable effect on domestic workers. Australia has enjoyed over two decades of economic growth, coupled with low inflation and relatively low unemployment - until 2020 when the country entered into a brief recession where unemployment skyrocketed amid the global COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the outbreak of COVID-19, trade disputes with China, and the war in Ukraine, there has been a significant political shift in focus toward National Security and renewed interest in Australia's manufacturing industry. Although free trade continues to take place, the importance of a thriving local industry has regained traction as an important consensus. The economic reforms implemented since the 1980s have led to a large contraction of the Australian manufacturing sector, along with trade union membership; with the percentage of workforce unionisation dropping from over 50% in the 1970s, to only 14% presently.

The 1980s economic reforms, intended to diversify the national economy and make it more resilient, were introduced after the mid-1980s decline in the terms of trade. The trend of Australia's gross domestic product at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund is as follows:

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US$ is exchanged at A$0.98. In recent times Australia has received financial growth in the mining industry. This has been a major contributing factor of a high Australian dollar. The reform of the Australian economy in this period was not without cost. Improvements in the efficiency of the services sector, agriculture and mining were achieved while manufacturing industries struggled, especially those industries that had been established behind a wall of high tariffs created in the post-war period.

Automobiles
On 2008, four companies mass-produced cars in Australia. Mitsubishi ceased production in March 2008, followed by Ford in 2016, and Holden and Toyota in 2017.

Holden announced on 11 December 2013 that Holden cars would no longer be manufactured in Australia from the end of 2017.

Ford had two main factories, both in Victoria: located in the Geelong suburb of Norlane and the northern Melbourne suburb of Broadmeadows. Both plants were closed down in October 2016.

Until 2006, Toyota had factories in Port Melbourne and Altona, Victoria. Since then, all manufacturing has been at Altona. In 2008, Toyota exported 101,668 vehicles worth $1,900 million. In 2011 the figures were "59,949 units worth $1,004 million". On 10 February 2014 it was announced that by the end of 2017 Toyota would cease manufacturing vehicles and engines in Australia. Whilst we've seen the closure of Holden, Ford and Toyota there has been an increase in Australia's Electric Vehicle potential with the introduction of ACE EV and Australian electric vehicle company.

Textiles

Until trade liberalisation in the mid-1980s, Australia had a large textile industry. This decline continued through the first decade of the 21st century. Since the 1980s, tariffs have steadily been reduced; in early 2010, the tariffs were reduced from 17.5 to 10 percent on clothing, and 7.5–10% to 5% for footwear and other textiles. As of 2010, most textile manufacturing, even by Australian companies, is performed in Asia.

Mining
The economic rise of China has produced a major demand for mining products, especially iron ore and coal.

Iron
Geoscience Australia calculates that the country's "economic demonstrated resources" of iron currently amount to 24 gigatonnes, or 24 billion tonnes. The current production rate from the Pilbara region of Western Australia is approximately 430 million tonnes a year and rising. Gavin Mudd (Monash University) and Jonathon Law (CSIRO) expect it to be gone within 30–50 years and 56 years, respectively. These 2010 estimates require on-going review to take into account shifting demand for lower-grade iron ore and improving mining and recovery techniques (allowing deeper mining below the groundwater table).

Tensions remain high between management and labour unions.

Coal
In 1984 Australia surpassed the US as the world's largest coal exporter. One-third of Australia's coal exports were shipped from the Hunter Valley region of New South Wales, where coal mining and transport had begun nearly two centuries earlier. Coal River was the first name given by British settlers to the Hunter River after coal was found there in 1795. In 1804 the Sydney-based administration established a permanent convict settlement near the mouth of the Hunter River to mine and load the coal, predetermining the town's future as a coal port by naming it Newcastle. Today, Newcastle, NSW, is the largest coal port in the world. Now the state of Queensland is Australia's top coal producer, with its Bowen Basin the main source of black coal, and plans by miners such as Gina Rinehart to open up the Galilee and Surat Basins to coal mining. China became the main customer.

2020 recession
The COVID-19 pandemic reached Australia in January 2020. On 20 March, Australian borders were closed to all non-residents, impacting especially tourism and the entry of overseas students. Social distancing rules were imposed on 21 March, and “non-essential” services were closed, which included social gathering venues such as pubs and clubs but, unlike many other countries, did not include most business operations such as construction, manufacturing and many retail categories. A second wave of infections in Victoria emerged during May to June, and Victoria imposed a strict lockdown, which continued into September. State governments also imposed bans on cross state border movements.

On 2 September 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia officially went into recession (defined as two quarters of negative growth) with GDP falling 7% in the June 2020 quarter, the largest drop on record. GDP fell 0.3% in the March quarter.

Trade unions
The Australian labour movement generally sought to end child labour practices, improve worker safety, increase wages for both union workers and non-union workers, raise the entire society's standard of living, reduce the hours in a work week, provide public education for children, and bring other benefits to working class families.

Melbourne Trades Hall was opened in 1859 with Trades and Labour Councils and Trades Halls opening in all cities and most regional towns in the next forty years. During the 1880s Trade unions developed among shearers, miners, and stevedores (wharf workers), but soon spread to cover almost all blue-collar jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an eight-hour day and other benefits unheard of in Europe.

Australia gained a reputation as "the working man's paradise". Some employers tried to undercut the unions by importing Chinese labour. This produced a reaction which led to all the colonies restricting Chinese and other Asian immigration. This was the foundation of the White Australia Policy. The "Australian compact", based around centralised industrial arbitration, a degree of government assistance particularly for primary industries, and White Australia, was to continue for many years before gradually dissolving in the second half of the 20th century.

In the 1870s and 1880s, the growing trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions and refused unionisation.

Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas. It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned. Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation which excluded all further Chinese immigration. Asian immigrants already residing in the Australian colonies were not expelled and retained the same rights as their Anglo and Southern compatriots.

The Barton government which came to power after the first elections to the Commonwealth parliament in 1901 was formed by the Protectionist Party with the support of the Australian Labor Party. The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the Australian Workers Union and other labour organisations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded.

Sources and further reading

 * Butlin, N.G. Forming a Colonial Economy: Australia 1810-1850 (1995)
 * Butlin, N.G. War Economy 1939-1942 (1961)
 * Coghlan, T A (1918). Labour and Industry in Australia, Cambridge Books, Cambridge.
 * Fitzpatrick, B (1939). British Imperialism and Australia: 1783–1833, Sydney University Press, Sydney.
 * Fitzpatrick, B (1941). The British Empire in Australia: An Economic History 1834–1939, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
 * Greasley, David, and Les Oxley. "A tale of two dominions: comparing the macroeconomic records of Australia and Canada since 1870." Economic History Review 51.2 (1998): 294–318. online
 * Gregory, R.G., and N. G. Butlin. Recovery from the Depression: Australia and the World Economy in the 1930s (1989)
 * McLean, Ian W (2016). Why Australia Prospered: The Shifting Sources of Economic Growth, Princeton U.P.
 * McLean, Ian W. "Australian economic growth in historical perspective." Economic Record 80.250 (2004): 330–345. online
 * Millmow, Alex. A History of Australasian Economic Thought (Routledge, 2017), 250 pp. online review
 * Oxley, Les. "Australasia." in An Economist’s Guide to Economic History in Matthias Blum and Christopher L. Colvin, eds. (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 309–317. online
 * Shann, Edward [1930] (2016). An Economic History of Australia. Cambridge University Press.
 * Unstead, R. J. "From Bullock Dray to Tin Lizzie." History Today (June 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 6, pp 406–414 online. Covers transportation 1788 to 1920, regarding ships, bullock drays, concord coaches, camels, railways, buggies, horse bucks, trams, and automobiles.
 * Ville, Simon and Glenn Withers, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Australia (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
 * Unstead, R. J. "From Bullock Dray to Tin Lizzie." History Today (June 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 6, pp 406–414 online. Covers transportation 1788 to 1920, regarding ships, bullock drays, concord coaches, camels, railways, buggies, horse bucks, trams, and automobiles.
 * Ville, Simon and Glenn Withers, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Australia (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
 * Unstead, R. J. "From Bullock Dray to Tin Lizzie." History Today (June 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 6, pp 406–414 online. Covers transportation 1788 to 1920, regarding ships, bullock drays, concord coaches, camels, railways, buggies, horse bucks, trams, and automobiles.
 * Ville, Simon and Glenn Withers, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Australia (Cambridge University Press, 2015).

title: Economic history of Australia


text:
Fernão Lopes

Fernão Lopes (c. 1385 – after 1459) was a Portuguese chronicler appointed by King Edward of Portugal. Fernão Lopes wrote the history of Portugal, but only a part of his work remained.

His way of writing was based on oral discourse, and, on every page, it revealed his roots among the common people. He is one of the fathers of the European historiography, or a precursor of the scientific historiography, basing his works always on the documental proof, and, as he said, on his pages "one cannot find the beauty of words but the nudity of the truth." He was an autodidact. By the time of his death, a new kind of knowledge was arising, a Latinized scholasticism that involved imitations of the classics.

Life
It is assumed that he was born between the years 1380 and 1390, with a probable villainous family background. There is a chance that he was born and later buried in Alandroal, in Alentejo, based on the inscription of a tombstone, which may have belonged to him, and on the historical links between the village and the Order of Avis.

He belonged to the generation that came of age after the war with Castile and the Battle of Aljubarrota. During his life, he knew many of the protagonists of the Castilian crisis, including John I of Portugal, Edward of Portugal, Nuno Álvares Pereira, and Dr. João das Regras. He saw the reign of three monarchs: John I, Edward I, and Afonso V, and he also lived during the regency of Peter, Duke of Coimbra.

Portugal saw many social and political changes in his time, such as: the growth of the new nobility of the 'Illustrious Generation' (Ínclita Geração) (the children of John I and Philippa of Lancaster); the conquest of Ceuta; the insurrection of Lisbon against the Queen Mother, Leonor of Aragon; the election of Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, to the regency; a civil war between Pedro and Afonso V; and the subsequent Battle of Alfarrobeira, where Pedro died. At the end of his life, Lopes witnessed the beginning of Portugal's maritime empire.

In 1418, Fernão Lopes was appointed by John I as the head (guardião-mor) of the royal archives ('Torre do Tombo'). In 1434, King Edward appointed Fernão Lopes as the first royal chronicler (cronista-mor) of the realm, and commissioned him to write historical accounts of the reigns of the Kings of Portugal. Lopes threw himself into the task. Fernão Lopes is acknowledged as the author of at least three chronicles: of the reign of king Peter I (r.1357-1367), of the reign of Ferdinand I (r.1367-1385) and the first two parts of the reign of John I (1385 up to year 1412, his successor Gomes Eanes de Zurara would produce the third and final part). Fernão Lopes is believed by some modern historians to also be the author of an anonymous history of the constable Nuno Álvares Pereira and, more contentiously, of a summary chronicle of the first several kings of Portugal (of which two drafts exist — one of the first five kings (Porto MS), another of the first seven (Cadaval or '1419' MS).

Fernão Lopes held his official positions until around 1454, when he was forced to retire on account of his advanced age, and was succeeded by Gomes Eanes de Zurara. Lopes died sometime after 1459.

The last known information about Fernão Lopes states that he was still living in 1459, when he challenged the rights of an illegitimate grandson to his inheritance. The date of his death is uncertain. According to information in the preface of the Chronica de El-Rei D. Pedro I, written by Luciano Cordeiro, after leaving the role of chief guard, Fernão Lopes would still have lived for another five years, dying close to the age of 80.

Fernão Lopes was married to an aunt of the shoemaker Diogo Afonso's wife, leaving a son, Master Martinho, who was "physical" (doctor) of the infant D. Fernando. Martinho had a bastard son, Nuno Martins.

It has been controversially alleged by some historians (starting with Damião de Góis ) that later 16th-century chroniclers Duarte Galvão and Ruy de Pina composed their chronicles of the remaining reigns from draft manuscripts left behind by Fernão Lopes — not merely drawing upon them, but plagiarizing them in whole or in part, to the point that Fernão Lopes is sometimes credited as their joint author. While there is some evidence that Galvão's chronicle of Afonso I might have copied parts from Lopes's manuscripts, historians generally agree that the accusation against Ruy de Pina is largely unmerited and unjust.

Works
Uncontested (written by Fernão Lopes in 1430s & 1440s; original manuscripts lost; first published in 17th and 18th centuries on the basis of draft copies produced in the early 16th century.)

 * ("Chronicle of king Peter I") Crónica de el-rei D. Pedro (Chronicle of the King D. Pedro I), first published 1816 in J.F. Correia da Serra, editor, Collecção de livros ineditos de historia portugueza, Vol.IV Lisbon: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa.
 * ("Chronicle of king Fernando I") Crónica de el-rei D. Fernando, first published 1816 in J.F. Correia da Serra, editor, Collecção de livros ineditos de historia portugueza, Vol.IV Lisbon: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa.
 * ("Chronicle of king John I, Part I & Part II" ) Chronica del Rey D. Ioam I de Boa Memoria, e dos Reys de Portugal o Decimo, Primeira Parte, em Que se contem A Defensam do Reyno até ser eleito Rey & Segunda Parte, em que se continuam as guerras com Castella, desde o Principio de seu reinado ate as pazes , first published 1644, Lisbon: A. Alvarez.

Contested:

 * ("General Chronicle of the Kingdom") Crónica de Portugal ou Crónica Geral do Reino (reported existing in late 15th century, since lost; alleged by some to be the missing source text of Duarte Galvão and Ruy de Pina)
 * Chronicle of 1419:
 * ("Chronicle of the first Five kings of Portugal", Porto MS) Crónica dos Cinco Reis de Portugal (1945 title for manuscript cod.886 discovered 1942 in Biblioteca Municipal do Porto)
 * ("Chronicle of the first Seven Kings or 1419, Cadaval MS.) Crónica dos Sete Primeiros Reis de Portugal (1952 title) or Crónica de Portugal de 1419 (1998 title) (manuscript cod. 965, dated as begun in 1419, discovered in archives of Casa Cadaval)
 * ("Chronicle of Nuno Álvares Pereira") Coronica do condestabre de purtugall Nuno aluarez Pereyra, first published 1526, Lisbon: Germão Galharde (anonymous; probably used by Lopes rather than written by him.)

title: Fernão Lopes


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Igreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique

Igreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique is one of the largest Protestant denominations of Mozambique.

History
The Presbyterian Church in Mozambique was started by Mozambicans, who heard the gospel in South Africa. Yosefa Mhalamhala converted to the Reformed faith, and went back to Mozambique in 1880. In 1882 an African church was born. In 1887 the Swiss missionaries joined the African Church and founded the Swiss Mission. Since then it was known as simply the Swiss mission. It has established schools, hospitals and agricultural settings. In 1948 it became independent. It is a Presbyterian church.

The denomination was founded by Swiss missionaries especially Paul Bertaud. In the early years the church operated in the provinces of Maputo and Gaza but today it spread across the country. By 1948 the church become autonomous and self-supporting. In 1972 the first Synod president and several other members was arrested by the Portuguese authorities. In 1998 the denomination celebrated its 50th anniversary. In July, 2012 the denomination celebrated the 125th anniversary.

Statistics
In 2004 it had 350 congregations, 400 house missions and 100,000 members. The church is stronger in the southern regions. Mozambique is among the countries which has a history of persecution of Christians.

Doctrine
The denomination adheres to the Apostle Creed, Nicene Creed and the Heidelberg Catechism. It has Presbyterian church government with Presbyteries, Synods and the General Assembly.

Interchurch organisations
The Presbyterian Church in Mozambique is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches.

title: Igreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique


text: User talk:82.146.96.25

title: User talk:82.146.96.25


text:
St. Joseph's Miners' Hospital

St. Joseph's Miners' Hospital opened on August 27, 1887, in Ouray, Colorado. The architectural style of the building is Italianate and it is constructed of native stone. The hospital closed in 1964. This structure has been placed on the United States National Register of Historic Places.

Ouray County Historical Museum
Today, this building houses the Ouray County Historical Society and operates as the Ouray County Historical Museum. Exhibits include mining, ranching and railroad artifacts, minerals, Native American artifacts, period room displays, medical equipment, household items and cultural displays. The museum also features a library and research center.

title: St. Joseph's Miners' Hospital


text:
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Summary
Example of game play from the 1991 Nintendo Famicom game, Utsurun desu kawauso Hawaii e iku.

title: File:Utsurun-gameplay-example.gif


text:
J. W. Flanagan

James Winright Flanagan (September 5, 1805 – September 28, 1887) was an American merchant, lawyer, and farmer from Henderson, Texas. Although never officially inaugurated, he briefly served as the Lieutenant Governor of Texas in 1870, before leaving the position to represent Texas in the United States Senate from 1870 to 1875.

Early life
Flanagan was born to Charles and Elizabeth (Saunders) Flanagan in Albemarle County near Gordonsville, Virginia. Before his tenth birthday, the family moved to Boonesboro, Kentucky. As a young man he moved to Cloverport, Kentucky, on the Ohio River and became a prosperous merchant. He also read law and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1825. He married Polly Moorman in 1826 and the couple had several children before moving to Henderson, Texas, in 1844.

Career
Flanagan established himself in Henderson by opening a store. He bought a farm, speculated in land, and practiced law. Politically, he was a Whig and an active supporter of Sam Houston. He later became a moderate Republican. Flanagan served in the Texas House of Representatives (1851–1852) and the Texas State Senate (1855–1858).

When the Civil War came to Texas, Flanagan was a Unionist. He withdrew to his farm and lived quietly. He would return to active politics during the Reconstruction. Flanagan served as a delegate to both Constitutional Conventions. The first, in 1866, produced a state constitution that was rejected by the Radical Republicans in the U.S. Congress. The second, in 1868–1869, was successful.

Under the new Constitution, Flanagan was elected as Lieutenant Governor in 1869. He only held the position for a month, from January to February 1870. When Texas was readmitted to the Union, the legislature named him, along with Morgan Hamilton, to the U.S. Senate. He served one term as a Senator, until 1875 when he was replaced by the Democrat Samuel Maxey. In the Senate he was a supporter of the Grant Administration.

Later life
After his Senate term, Flanagan took up residence on one of his farms near Longview, Texas. He married again (he was widowed twice and married three times), this time to Elizabeth Lane. The three marriages produced a total of eleven children. One of Flanagan's children was David Webster Flanagan who also served as Lieutenant Governor in Texas.

Flanagan died on his farm in Longview in 1887 and was buried next to his first wife, Polly, in their family graveyard in Henderson, Texas.

title: J. W. Flanagan


text:
User:KCR3

Knight Castle Ruels 3 is a Yu-Gi-Oh MSN Community that h

title: User:KCR3


text: User talk:209.37.61.3

title: User talk:209.37.61.3


text:
Mousata

Mousata (Μουσάτα) is a village in the municipal unit of Leivatho on the island of Cephalonia, Greece. It is situated between Mount Ainos and the Ionian Sea, at about 200 m elevation. It is 2 km northwest of Vlachata, 4 km east of Peratata and 12 km southeast of Argostoli. The road from Poros to Argostoli passes through the village. Mousata suffered great damage from the 1953 Ionian earthquake.

title: Mousata


text:
Fisher Bank

The Fisher Bank is a sand bank in the North Sea, off the west coast of Denmark. It consists of Great Fisher Bank, and Little Fisher Bank (the latter closer to Danish coast). Some older charts refer to them as the "Great Fishing Bank" and the "Little Fishing Bank". As Fisher it gives its name to one of the sea areas in the British Shipping Forecast.

Location
Sea area Fisher is defined by the co-ordinates:
 * 56°00'N 08°10'E
 * 56°00'N 04°00'E
 * 57°45'N 04°00'E
 * 57°45'N 07°30'E
 * 57°05'N 08°35'E

and the Danish coast.

Character
As its name suggests, these large sandbanks provide rich fishing grounds, but overfishing has left them less productive than they were, and many Danish fishing vessels have moved elsewhere, into the North Sea or the Baltic.

title: Fisher Bank