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User:Peter Kirby/Gospel of the Hebrews

''Work in progress. All these full quotes are so that other editors can see what I'm working with. I will be processing this into an actual article. Comments invited.

Allusions
Many patristic citations are thought to refer to the Gospel of the Hebrews, in various degrees of definitiveness. Some quite clearly refer to a "Gospel of the Hebrews" by name, whether accurately or not, while other attributions are by inference from a connection to a Hebrew version of Matthew, and still others entirely conjectural. It is a matter of debate whether references to the "Gospel of the Hebrews" were to the Gospel of the Nazoreans, whether references to the "Gospel of the Nazoreans" were to the Gospel of the Hebrews, or whether these were indeed just one Gospel named variously. A more definite consensus distinguishes both the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Nazoreans from the Gospel of the Ebionites.

Papias

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Ron Cameron writes: "Although Eusebius (early in the 4th century) reports that Papias of Hierapolis (ca. 100-150 c.e.) expounded a story contained in Gos. Heb. (Hist. Eccl. 3.39.17), the absence of any citations of Gos. Heb. in the extant writings of Papias does not permit this reference to be used as a witness to the existence of the text." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Philip Vielhauer writes: "The statement of the place where this story was found clearly comes not from Papias but from Eusebius (Schmidtke, Fragmente, pp. 149ff.; Waitz, 'Evangelien', p. 11; id. 'Untersuchungen', p. 68). What story is meant is uncertain.  As it cannot be identical with Lk. 7:36-50—otherwise Eusebius would not have assigned it to the apocryphal GH—it has since Rufinus ben readily equated with the pericope adulterae (Jn. 7:53-8:11), which originally did not belong to Jn. and is found there for the first time in codex D; but it is already attested earlier by the Syriac Didascalia (Achelis-Flemming, TU 25, 2, 1904, 38f.), and here the woman is not called an adulteress but a sinner, as in Jn. 8:3 D (cf. W. Bauer, Das Johannesevangelium, 1933, pp. 115ff.; U. becker, Jesus und die Ehebrecherin. Untersuchungen zur Text- und Überlieferungsgeschichte von Joh 7, 53 - 8, 11'', BZNW 28, 1963). But this evidence does not suffice either for the identification of the story adduced by Papias with the pseudo-Johannine pericope in the version of cod. D or for conclusions as to the literary character of the apocryphal gospel. That the story adduced by Papias lies before us in Jn. 7:53ff. is merely a possible hypothesis; if Eusebius localises it in the GH, he must have found it there; and nothing justifies our assigning it to the GN and fixing its original position between Mt. 22:22 and 23 (against Waitz, 'Evangelien', pp. 11f., 18)." (New Testament Apocrypha, 138)

Irenaeus

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Philip Vielhauer writes: "Irenaeus gives the earliest testimony—it is admittedly indirect—to the existince of a JG [Jewish Gospel]. He reports that the Jewish-Christian sect of the Ebionites used only one gospel, that of Matthew (Adv. Haer. I 26.2; III 11.7).  But when in other places he says that they had eliminated the virgin birth (III 21.1; V 1.3), it is clear that the gospel used by them cannot have been the canonical Mt., and that Irenaeus had not himself seen this book; otherwise he would not have been able to identify it with Mt.  This JG had apparently no special title." (New Testament Apocrypha, 1.136)

Clement of Alexandria

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Philip Vielhauer writes: "Clement of Alexandria on the other hand mentions a 'Gospel according to the Hebrews' and quotes from it an apocryphal saying of Jesus (Strom. II 9.45). He adduces this saying once again in Strom. V 14.96 in a longer version, but without stating where he found it.  That this version gives the full text is clear from POx. 654, in which the logion in question in its longer version occurs as the second of six sayings of the Lord.  Waitz ('Evangelien', pp. 49-52) has assigned the complete text of the papyrus to the GH.  But he has done so wrongly, for this text is found in its entirety in the same sequence in the Coptic Gospel of Thomas discovered at Nag Hammadi.  This discovery makes it doubtful if the saying quoted by Clement should be assigned to the GH.  It is, however, quite possible that it stood in both gospels.  If in this state of affairs conclusions as to the character of the GH in respect of its form and content must be reserved, Clement testifies nevertheless to the existence of a 'Gospel according to the Hebrews' that was well known in Egypt." (New Testament Apocrypha, 1.136)

Ron Cameron writes: "The accounts of Jesus' preexistence and coming (Cyr. H. Discourse on Mary Theotokos 12a), baptism (Jerome Comm. in Isa. 4), and temptation (Origen Jo. 2.12.87) are abbreviated mythological narratives. They presuppose a myth of the descent of divine Wisdom, embodying herself definitively in a representative of the human race for the revelation and redemption of humankind (Sir 24:7; Wis 7:27). If it is proper to correlate those narratives with the most prominent saying in Gos. Heb. (Clem. str. 2.9.45.5; 5.14.96.3), then this gospel announces that Wisdom?s ?rest? can be found in Jesus and attained by those who seek her (Sir 6:28; 51:27; Wis 8:16). The fact that a variant of this saying is also preserved in the Gospel of Thomas (saying 2) indicates that it was a tradition at home in Egypt as well as in Syria. The other two sayings ascribed to Gos. Heb. (Jerome Comm. in Eph. 3; Comm. in Ezek. 6) permit the suggestion that a majority of the sayings in this gospel had the same parenetic character as those in the synoptic gospels." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Origen

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Philip Vielhauer writes: "he also quotes the 'Gospel according to the Hebrews' (in Joh. vol. II, 12) and indeed a saying of Jesus about his being carried away: his mother, the Holy Spirit, took him by one of his hairs and carried him to the high mountain Tabor. This account is adduced once again by Origen but without any statement as to where he found it (in Jer. vol XV, 4).  In this quotation we have to do with a variant of the story not of the transfiguration but of the temptation (Mt. 4:1-11 and pars.; cf. Walter Bauer, Das Leben Jesu, pp. 143ff.; Waitz, 'Evangelien' 13).  The deviations from the anonical account are very considerable; out of the report given by the Evangelist has come an account given by Jesus himself of his experience, the devil is replaced by the Holy Spirit, and the Holy Spirit is identified with the mother of Jesus.  This last trait presupposes the semitic conception of the Spirit, since in the semitic tongues the Spirit is femini generis, but it does not imply that the GH was originally written in Hebrew or in Aramaic (Waitz, p. 52; for further particulars see Bauer, ''loc. cit). The mytholgical conception of the Holy Spirit as the mother of Jesus separates the GH from the canonical nativity narratives and also from the conception of Joseph as the father of Jesus that obtained among the Ebionites of whose gospel Irenaeus speaks; the GH cannot have been identical with that gospel." (New Testament Apocryypha'', 1.136-137)

Of the reference to the spirit as the mother of Jesus, Ben C. Smith writes: "Origen goes on to explain that, since whoever does the will of God is the brother or sister or mother of the Lord (Matthew 12.50 = Mark 3.35 = Luke 8.21), it makes sense to call the holy spirit, who of course does the will of God, his mother. The next text from Origen is clearly of the same statement from the Hebrew gospel. Jerome cites this same statement from the Hebrew gospel."

Philip Vielhauer writes: "A further quotation from the GH occurs in the Latin reverision of Origen's commentary on Matthew (in Mt., vol. XV, p. 389 Benz-Klostermann), a fictional development of Mt. 19:16-24. Schmidtke (Fragmente, pp. 90-94) has with reason made itprobable that this quotation was inserted in the commentary not by Origen himself but by the later reviser and also that it does not come from the GH used by Origen (otherwise Bardy, 'Jérôme', p. 29).  Certain indications, such as the singling out of Simon (dixit Simoni discipulo suo) connect this pericope with the gospel fragment in Jerome, adv. Pelag. (dixit illi Simon discipulus elus), whilst the address Simon, fili Jonae (not: Simon, son of John; so Waitz, 'Evangelien', p. 13) points rather to Mt. 16:17 than to the scholium of the Judaikon, which in this place gives 'son of Jhn' (Cod. Ev. 566)." (New Testament Apocrypha, p. 137)

Ben C. Smith writes, "Aurelio de Santos Otero, while not numbering this text with either the Hebrew or the Ebionite gospel extracts, comments on pages 47-49 on the possibility that the gospel according to the twelve is along the same lines as the gospel according to the apostles that Jerome mentions in Against the Pelagians 3.2. He himself thinks that these are two different works, as Origen regards the Hebrew gospel as orthodox but this gospel of the twelve as heterodox. But the titles of all of the Jewish gospels were evidently confused throughout the patristic period, so I do think it likely that this gospel according to the twelve belongs in the category of the Jewish gospels, and may well be the heterodox Ebionite gospel."

Eusebius

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Philip Vielhauer writes: "The readers of the GH were above all Jewish Christians; the designation 'Hebrews' indicates where they belonged as a people, but not their tongue; according to the context these Jewish Christians in the time of Eusebius used the GH side by side with the four canonical Gospels. It was otherwise with a special school of thought among the Ebionites: the members of this school, in contrast to the ordinary Ebionites, recognized the virgin birth of Jesus although they called his pre-existence in question (H.E. III 27. 1-3).  Since two fragments of the GH assume the pre-existence of Jesus, this Ebionite group either did not dispute it or did not read the GH.  But apart from this question, this note shows that for Eusebius the GH was not identical with the gospel which according to Irenaeus was used by the ordinary Ebionites." (New Testament Apocrypha, 1.137-138)

Philip Vielhauer writes of the reference to Hegesippus: "The attempts frequently undertaken to equate the GH and the 'Syriac Ospel' with one another are abortive; because of the Greek syntax Eusebius' sentence can only be understood as meaning that Hegesippus quoted two different gospels, the GH and a Syriac one, i.e. one written in Aramaic, and that Eusebius distinguishes these. The 'Hebrew tongue' is, as elsewhere in Eusebius, the Aramaic, the 'mother-tongue of the 'Hebrews'; the quotations 'in the Hebrew tongue' come therefore not from the GH but from the 'Syriac Gospel'.  That Eusebius designated this as 'Syriac', contrary to his usage elsewhere, may be put down to Hegesippus' account (Schmidtke, Fragmente, pp. 51 ff.).  Although Eusebius speaks frequently elsewhere of the 'Hebrew' proto-Matthew (III 24.6; 39.16; V 8.2; VI 25.4), he nowhere identifies it with the 'Syriac' Gospel known to Hegesippus; this identification therefore ought not to be ascribed to him (against Schmidtke, ''loc. cit.); the early Church historian was more sparing of such hypotheses than the moderns. From the fact that in the H.E. he gives no quotations from either of the two JG it ought not to be concluded that at the time he wrote the H.E. he did not know them (against Schmidtke and Waitz): he at least knew the GH if he identified the Papias story of the woman that was a sinner, and of the Syriac Gospel he knew at any rate the quotations in the Memoirs of Hegesippus." (New Testament Apocrypha'', 1.138-139)

Cyril of Jerusalem

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Philip Vielhauer writes, "in the Coptic transtion of a discourse of Cyril of Jerusalem he (Cyril) puts a citation from the GH into the mouth of a heretical monk from 'the neighbourhood of Maioma near Gaza' (ed. by Budge, Texts,Coptic, p. 60, English, p. 637). We are concerned here with a fragment of the story of the birth of Jesus: When Jesus wished to come into the world, God the Father entreusted Him to a mighty power which was called Michael; this came into the world and was named Mary.  In the Greek writings of Cyril this discourse is not preserved; V. Burch ('The Gospel according to the Hebrews: Some new matter chiefly from Coptic sources', JTS 21, 1920, 310-315) regards it as a sort of excursus on the twelfth Catechesis.  But it is questionable whether it actually goes back to Cyril, and above all whether the citation really comes from the GH.  This question forces itself upon us in view of the different conceptions of the mother of Jesus in the GH fragment on the carrying away of Jesus (Origen and Jerome) and in the present passage. Whilst there the mother is designated the Holy Spirit, here she passes as the incarnation of a 'mighty power' which in its pre-existence is called Michael; our hesitations are strengthened if Burch's thesis is correct, that the 'mighty power' denotes a star and that Michael is to be understood as a star angel. But we know the GH too little to be able to deny this fragment to it; we are possibly concerned here with a corrupted fragment of the GH or with a fragment of a corrupted GH." (New Testament Apocrypha, 150)

Epiphanius

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Ron Cameron writes: "Although it is extremely difficult to identify with confidence which patristic quotations may belong to which gospel, it is not possible to assign all of the extant quotations to only one text. In fact there can be no doubt that another, completely different Jewish-Christian gospel was in circulation in the early Church, for Epiphanius (late in the 4th century) has preserved a few quotations of the so-called Gospel of the Ebionites, a harmony, composed in Greek, of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (and, probably, the Gospel of Mark as well). Therefore, the testimony of Jerome notwithstanding, there were at least two and most likely three Jewish-Christian narrative gospels in antiquity, one of which was composed in Greek and entitled Gos. Heb." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Ben C. Smith writes, "Note that this Nazoraean gospel Epiphanius calls very complete, with the possible exception of the genealogies. When it comes to the Ebionite gospel in 30.13, however, he calls it not all very complete, which must indicate that the Nazoraean and the Ebionite gospels were two different texts, despite their both being called according to the Hebrews, and despite the fact that Jerome appears to confuse the two. A. de Santos Otero accordingly lists this present passage from chapter 29 with the gospel according to the Hebrews, but all passages from chapter 30 with the gospel of the Ebionites."

Ben C. Smith writes, "Compare and contrast this baptismal scene with that in the commentary On Isaiah 11.2 by Jerome, and also with the scene leading up to the baptism in Jerome, Against the Pelagians 3.2. The great light illuminating the place would seem to parallel the fire in Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 88.3: '...when Jesus went down into the water even a fire was lit in the Jordan...'  A similar detail also appears to have figured into the Diatessaron that Tatian composed, and is even a textual variant from the Latin tradition." Bruce Metzger writes of the same, "This phenomenon, mentioned by Tatian's teacher, Justin Martyr, and included, according to Epiphanius, in the Gospel according to the Hebrews, is referred to by Ephraem in his Commentary and is preserved in the Pepysian Harmony, as it is also in two Old Latin manuscripts at Matt. iii. 15, Vercellensis (MS. a: 'lumen ingens') and Sangermanensis (MS. g1: 'lumen magnum')." (The Early Versions of the New Testament, 35-36)

Ben C. Smith writes, "While the title Diatessaron means through four, the title Diapente of course means through five. Some scholars, therefore, are tempted to suppose that the fifth was the gospel according to the Hebrews. We have already noted that Ephraem mentioned the fire at the Jordan in his commentary on the Diatessaron. On pages 28-29 Metzger lists Grotius, Mill, Baumstark, Peters, and Quispel as scholars who think that Tatian used the gospel according to the Hebrews as a fifth source for his gospel harmony. Metzger himself does not appear to agree."

Philip Vielhauer writes, "Since he can impute to it nothing heretical or non-Matthaean, the Gospel of the Nazoraeans must have been an Aramaic version of Mt. (and was possibly identical with the Syriac Ospel known to Hegisippus). It is to be underlined that Epiphanius as little as Eusebius designates this 'Hebrew', i.e. Aramaic JG as GH [Gospel of the Hebrews]." (New Testament Apocrypha, 1.140)

Philip Vielhauer writes, "The statement of Epiphanius regarding the Gospel of the Ebionites agree with those of Irenaeus in this, that the Ebionites use only a single gospel and that this is a Gospel of Matthew; further in this, that this sect denies the virgin birth. That the gospel in question cannot then have been the canonical Mt., Irenaeus does not indeed say, but Epiphanius does so all the more cleary.  New in Epiphanius as compared with Irenaeus is the communication of the title, the Gospel of the Hebrews or the Hebrew Gospel, and the aetiology of the Church Father for this title.  That the Ebionites themselves gave it that name is, however, more than doubtful.  For on the one hand the earlier ecclesiastical writers never associate the GH with Mt.  On the other hand Epiphanius bestows this title (GH) even on Tatian's Gospel Harmony which was rejected by the great Church.  On the motive of this identification see Schmidtke, Fragmente, pp. 172f. This assuredly false statement casts suspicion on the entitling also of the Gospel of the Ebionites; itcertailny does not rest on trustworthy tradition, but is a combination madeby Epiphanius. He may have been inspired to associate the two documents by the comment of Eusebius (H.E. III 27. 4) that a special school of thought among the Ebionites used only the GH; a further link in the equation is his own aetiological explanation of the title." (New Testament Apocrypha, 141)

Jerome

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Ron Cameron writes: "Jerome has preserved the most numerous references to and apparent quotations of Gos. Heb. In a series of writings that date from 386?415 c.e., he repeatedly maintained the view that there was only one Jewish-Christian gospel in existence, assigning all quotations known to him to this one document. When referring to this document Jerome regularly used variants of the title Gos. Heb., which he regarded as the original ?Hebrew? or Aramaic Gospel of Matthew. However, critical scholarship has determined that Jerome almost certainly never saw an actual copy of this document but most likely knew of its existence from citations he had taken from other early Christian writers. Moreover, it is quite certain that Jerome never translated such a gospel into Greek and Latin, as he avers, for he misquotes certain texts that he allegedly had translated and assigns to this gospel several pericopes whose wording and construction are manifestly impossible in a Semitic language. Thus, in spite of himself, Jerome attests to the existence both of a Greek Gos. Heb. and another Jewish-Christian gospel, one which appears to be closely related to or identical with an expanded version of Matthew?s Gospel that was translated from Greek into Aramaic or Syriac. This expanded version of Matthew is customarily referred to today as the Gospel of the Nazoreans, a document whose original title is unknown but which seems to have been used since the 2d century c.e. by the Nazoreans, a group of Jewish Christians in W Syria." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Ron Cameron writes: "The report of a resurrection appearance of Jesus to his brother, James the Just (Jerome De vir. inl. 2), indicates the position of authority assigned to James in Gos. Heb. James was regarded as a leading figure of the Jewish-Christian church in Jerusalem (Gal 1:19; 2:9, 12; Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18), one of those named in Paul?s list of persons accredited for having seen a vision of the risen Jesus (1 Cor 15:7). According to the account in Gos. Heb., James was the first witness of the resurrection and thus its principal guarantor. He is so distinguished that he is said even to have taken part in the Last Supper of Jesus. The esteem in which James is held in this gospel may be used to locate the authority and secure the identity of the tradition of those communities which appealed to him as their leader." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Compare Matthew 23.35; Zechariah 1.1; 2 Chronicles 24.20-22. Ben C. Smith writes, "The Hebrew gospel thus solves a longstanding difficulty (the confusion between Zechariah the classical prophet and the Zechariah who was stoned in the temple)."

Ben C. Smith writes, "Jerome is evidently quoting Ignatius from memory, however. First of all, it is not in the Ignatian epistle to Polycarp but rather in that to the Smyrnaeans (of which Polycarp was bishop) that this text is found. Second, Jerome misquotes Ignatius somewhat. In 3.1 Ignatius says that he knows that Jesus was in the flesh even after his resurrection, while Jerome quotes him as saying that he saw Jesus in the flesh after his resurrection, a very different concept indeed!"

Philip Vielhauer writes, "Origen cites this passage of GH twice without giving any hint that the GH was not composed originally in Greek, and it cannot be understood why Jerome should have translated a book that already for a long time had been available in Greek." (New Testament Apocrypha, 142)

Philip Vielhauer writes, "Jerome can hardly have seen the Hebrew original of Mt. in the library at Caesarea, for Eusebius never says anything about such a treasure in his library and never identifies an unknown JG with the Hebrew original of Matthew. What we are concerned with here must be an Aramaic gospel—the one from which come the citations in the Theophania—and this Jerome equates with the original Matthew.  Whether he knew the Caesarean exemplar from having himselfseen it, is open to question.  At all events he does not imply that he derives his information from it.  For he notes—in order of course to show his familiarty with this work—that this gospel was used by the Nazareans in Beroea and that he had copied it with their permission.  Since in his citations from JG he again and again refers to the Nazaraeans (or Nazarenes), he obviously implies that he obtained his information amongst them. The Coelesyrian Beroea near Aleppo was in fact a centre of the Nazoreans, i.e. of the Syrian Jewish-Christians (Epiphanius, Haer. 29.7.7; 30.2.7; Bardy, 'Jérôme', p. 11). Jerome can have had contact with them only during his stay ithe desert of Chalcis, i.e. between 373 and 376 (Bardy, p. 11); but then it is altogether inconceivable that he kept the Gospel of the NAzaraeans so long to himself and was silent about it, and cited it for the first time in 386. It is equally inconceivable that the differences betwen the Gospel of th Nazaraeans and the canonical Matthew can have struck him so little that he could consider the latter to be the translation of the former. The conclusion is inevitable that it was not the Nazaraeans who communicated to him his knowledge of this gospel." (New Testament Apocrypha, 143)

Philip Vielhauer writes: "The statement of the Church Father that the passage stood in the Gospel of the Nazaraeans which he had translated is wrecked on the fact that the decisive notion 'bodiless dmon' cannot be the translation of a semitic original. That eliminates an Aramaic gospel as source; a Greek text, perhaps the GH as such, is at most what can be considered.  Moreover it hslong been recognized and acknowledged that when writing the 'de viris inlustribus Jerome had before him neither the text of the apocryphal gspel nor that of the epistles of Ignatius, but the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius who (III 36.11) adduces Ign. Smyrn.'' 3.1f.; Jerome cites the text only as far as Eusebius gives it; his assigning of it to the epistle to Polycarp finds its explanation in cursory reading, and his misunderstanding the first sentence in the fact that he did not take in the context of the Ignatian expositions." (New Testament Apocrypha, 144)

Philip Vielhauer writes: "The following statements of Jerome are, however, open to question: first that he got to know the Gospel of the Nazaraeans among the Nazaraeans of the Syrian Beroea, secondly that he copied it there and thirdly that he translated i 'recently', i.e. between 386 and 390. As has already been said, the chronology tells against the first two of these assertions.  He must have got to know the book at another time and in another way; Bardy even thinks that he did not actually know the Nazaraeans, for he speaks of them almost in stereotyped phrases and what he records about them he could have read in Epiphanius (so Schmidtke also).  Several arguments tell against the third assertion.  No one has seen or mentioned the translation, and Jerome himself mentions it only between 390 and 397 and thereafter no more.  It is true that the different statements regarding the original tonge (Hebrew, Chaldaean, Syriac) do not prove that he was not quite certain about that; the fact, however, tht in 392-393 he speaks of a translation into Greek and Latin but in 397 only of a translation into Greek, is puzzling. The fact that in texts which he demonstrably came upon in Grek and assuredly did not translate out of Aramaic he speaks of a translation, must intensify to scepticism our doubt as to his statements. It is therefore widely recognized that Jerome did not translate the Gospel of the Nazaraeans. He had obviously only purposed to translate it; and although unable to carry out this purpose, he spoke of it as an accomplished fact (Bardy, Jérôme', pp. 32f.)." (New Testament Apocrypha, 146-147)

Theodoretus

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Ben C. Smith writes, "It is difficult to credit this last statement [that the Nazoreans used only the gospel of Peter]. No one else claims that the Nazoraeans used the gospel according to Peter, and in fact Theodoretus himself (in the first excerpt above) says that the Nazoraeans accepted only the gospel according to the Hebrews, or that of Matthew (in the second excerpt)."

Marginal glosses

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Ben C. Smith writes, "Aurelio de Santos Otero writes in a note on page 46 of Los evangélios apócrifos: These are found added on as variants in certain cursive Greek codices of Saint Matthew.... It is supposed that they are the work of an editor connected to the patriarchate of Antioch between 370 and 500."

Analysis
The Catholic Encyclopedia notes, "Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and St. Epiphanius speak of a 'Gospel according to the Hebrews' which was the sole one in use among the Palestinian Judeo-Christians, otherwise known as the Nazarenes. Jerome translated it from the Aramaic into Greek. It was evidently very ancient, and several of the above mentioned writers associate it with St. Matthew's Gospel, which it seems to have replaced in the Jewish-Christian community at an early date. The relation between the Gospel according to the Hebrews and our canonical Matthew Gospel is a matter of controversy. The surviving fragments prove that there were close literal resemblances. Harnack asserts that the Hebrew Gospel was entirely independent, the tradition it contained being parallel to that of Matthew. Zahn, while excluding any dependence on our Greek canonical Matthew, maintains one on the primitive Matthew, according to which its general contents were derived from the latter. This Gospel seems to have been read as canonical in some non-Palestinian churches; the Fathers who are acquainted with it refer to it with a certain amount of respect. Twenty-four fragments have been preserved by ecclesiastical writers. These indicate that it had a number of sections in common with the Synoptics, but also various narratives and sayings of Jesus, not found in the canonical Gospels. The surviving specimens lack the simplicity and dignity of the inspired writings; some even savour of the grotesque. We are warranted in saying that while this extra-canonical material probably has as its starting-point primitive tradition, it has been disfigured in the interests of a Judaizing Church."

Ron Comeron writes: "Although the existence of Gos. Heb. is not in question, identifying its fragments and appraising its character remains difficult. In quoting the sources of this gospel, early Church writers repeatedly cited those texts incorrectly, attributed quotations to the wrong gospels, and interpreted what they did record in a biased manner. Jerome, for example, only exacerbates the confusion when he introduces a quotation that he alone has preserved as follows: 'In the Gospel which the Nazoreans and Ebionites use, which we have recently translated from Hebrew into Greek, and which is called by most people the original (Gospel) of Matthew . . .' (Comm. in Matt. 2). Mistakes such as this have led to countless difficulties in our attempts to isolate and verify the gospel(s) in which these fragments belong. Nevertheless, if one distinguishes the fragments on the basis of their original language of composition, their form and content, their relationship to the gospels of the NT, and the groups said to have used a particular gospel, one can reconstruct a number of sayings and stories which may plausibly be ascribed to Gos. Heb. The discussion that follows is based on such a reconstruction, though it must remain tentative pending the discovery of new manuscripts." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Ron Cameron writes: "Gos. Heb. is a syncretistic, Jewish-Christian document, composed in Greek, which presents traditions of Jesus? preexistence and coming into the world, his baptism and temptation, some of his sayings, and a resurrection appearance to his brother, James the Just. This is the Jewish-Christian gospel most frequently mentioned by name in the early Church; it is also the only one whose original title has been transmitted from antiquity. The title seems to indicate the identity of the group who used this gospel, and suggests that this was the gospel of predominantly Greek-speaking Jewish Christians. Gos. Heb. appears to have no connection with the so-called Gospel of the Nazoreans or Gospel of the Ebionites, for it displays no kinship with the Gospel of Matthew. It is instructive to note that the earliest and most important witnesses to the text of Gos. Heb. come from quotations in the writings of persons who lived in Alexandria, Egypt." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

Ron Cameron writes: "The extant fragments of Gos. Heb. display no dependence on the NT or other early Christian literature. Unfortunately there is no way to determine the (in)dependent status of those portions of the text that are no longer preserved. The earliest possible date of the composition of Gos. Heb. would be in the middle of the 1st century, when sayings of and stories about Jesus began to be produced and collected in written form. The latest possible date would be the middle of the 2d century, shortly before the first recorded reference to this gospel by Hegesippus and attested quotations of it by Clement and Origen. Based on the parallels in the morphology of the tradition, an earlier date of composition seems more likely than a later one. Identifying the provenance of Gos. Heb. is difficult, though external attestations make Egypt an attractive option." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "Gospel of the Hebrews")

J. Quasten writes, "The Ebionite Gospel is most probably identical with the Gospel of the Twelve Apostles which Origen mentions (Hom. in Luc. 1). If that is the case, it most likely dates from the beginning of the third century.  Jerome, however, is evidently mistaken in identifying it with the Gospel According to the Hebrews'', although A. Schmidtke supports this opinion." (Patrology, 1.113-114)

J. Questen writes, "All our knowledge regarding the Gospel of the Ebionites is derived from Epiphanius (Adv. Haer. 30, 13-16, 22), who gives fragments of it. To judge from these fragments it was written in the interests of some sect of Christians opposed to sacrifices.  Thus, Jesus is represented as saying: 'I come to put an end to sacrifice, and unless you cease from sacrificing, anger will not cease from you' (30, 16)." (Patrology, 1.114)

Bart Ehrman writes, "Regrettably, the book as whole has been lost; but we are fortunate to have some quotations of it in the writings of an opponent of the Ebionites, the fourth-century heresy-hunter, Epiphanius of Salamis. These quotations give us a good idea of what the entire Gospel must have looked like.  It was written in Greek, and represented a kind of harmony of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.  This can be seen most clearly in the account of the voice at Jesus' baptis.  In the three canonical accounts, the voice says slightly different things.  These differences are harmonized, however, in the Gospel according to the Ebionites, where the voice comes from heaven three times, saying something slightly different on each occasion, corresponding to the words found in each of the three earlier Gospels." (Lost Scriptures, 12)

J. Quasten writes, "The Gospel According to the Hebrews, from which St. Jerome quotes this interesting passage [about an appearance of Jesus to James], was originally written in the Aramaic language, but in Hebrew letters. The original text was, in Jerome's time, in a library at Caesarea, in Palestine.  Both the Ebionites and the Nazarenes used this Gospel, and it was from them that Jerome obtained a copy for his Greek and Latin translations. The fact that it was in use by Palestinian Christians who spokeHebrew (Aramaic) explains the name 'According to the Hebrews'.  It explains also why James 'the brother of the Lord', the representative of strict Jewish Christianity, comes here into the center of the Easter narrative, contrary to the canonical records.  At Jerome's time, most people egarded this apocryphal gospel as the Hebrew original of the canonical Gospel of Matthew which Papias mentioned (Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 3, 39, 16; 6, 25, 4; Irenaeus 1, 1). In fact, the few fragmentswhich are preserved indicate a close relationship to Matthew. The safest conclusion is, probably, that this Gospel According to the Hebrews was some sort of reworking and extension of the Hebrew original of the canonical Gospel of Matthew. . . . The time of composition of this apocryphal gospel must be in the second century, because Clement of Alexandria used it in his Stromata (2, 9, 45) in the last quarter of this century." (Patrology, 1.111-112)

Bart Ehrman writes, "The Gospel according to the Hebrews is quoted by a umber of church fathers connected with the city of Alexandria, Egypt—Clement, Origen, Didymus the Blind, and Jerome (who studied with Didymus in Alexandria); for this reason, scholars assume that it was used, and possibly written, there, probably during the first half of the second century. Regrettably, the book no longer survives intact, but only in the scattered references to it in these other authors' writing.  Its name probably derives from the circumstance that it was used principally by Jewish-Christians in that large and thriving metropolis—i.e., it was called this by outsiders of that community, not to those who actually used it." (Lost Scriptures, 15)

Helmut Koester writes, "A number of fragments of the Jewish-Christian gospels should be assigned to a gospel which was used in Alexandria and known under the name of the Gospel of the Hebrews. While the Jewish-Christian gospels discussed above, namely, the Gospel of the Nazoreans and the Gospel of the Ebionites, were closely related to the Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel of the Hebrews, to judge from the few extant fragments, must have had a different character.  There are, to be sure, elements which can be called Jewish-Christian, but this gospel was composed in Greek.  Nevertheless, the Spirit is called 'the other of Jesus'; thisd fit a Semitic language, where the word spirit' is a feminine noune.   Mary is introduced as the earthly appearance of a  heavenly power (Michael).  In baptism the 'whole fount of the Holy Spirit' descends upon Jesus and rests pon him, saying: 'My Son, in all the prophets I was waiting for you, that you should come and I might rest in you. For you are my rest; you are my first-begotten Son who reigns forever.' This concept is derived from the Jewish wisdom myth; the Spirit in this gospel speaks like personified Wisdom, who comes into the world repeatedly, appearing in prophets and divine messengers, seeking its rest (Wis 7:27; Sir 24:7). The Gospel of the Hebrews therefore uses a motif from Jewish theology, but no special relationship to the Jewish-Christian theology of the Kerygmata Petrou is discernable." (Introduction to the New Testament, 2.223-224)

John S. Kloppenborg writes, "The Gospel of the Hebrews has a distinctive christology. Christ and his mother both existed before their appearance on earth in human form (GHeb 1).  At his baptism, Jesus is addressed as son, not by God, but by the spirit, which turns out to be his mother (GHeb 3, 4).  Jesus is not merely led by the spirit (as in Luke's gospel).  He is completely united with her: 'the whole fountain of the holy spirit came down and rested on him' (GHeb 3).

"The gospel's depiction of the holy spirit as female is striking. GHeb 4c, 4d, and 4e explain that the Semitic word for 'spirit' is feminine in gener, but this way of portraying the spirit is due to more than a peculiarity of Hebrew grammar.  This distinctive depiction of the spirit is rooted in Jewish speculation about divine Wisdom, a female personification of one of God's attributes who was believed to dwell with 'holy souls' (see the note to GHeb 3).

The 'seek-find' and 'rule-rest' language of GHeb 6 also comes from the wisdom tradition. This saying describes the stages on the way to salvation ('rest') and encourages the believer to imitate heavenly Wisdom and thus to share in her qualities.

"The Gospel of the Hebrews gives prominence to James the Just by making him the first believer to see the risen Lord (GHeb 9). This James was not an apostle, but was known as the brother of the Lord in GHeb 9 and in the New Testament (Mark 6:3, Gal 1:19).  Christian tradition remembered him as the leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem and a formidable advocate of Law-observant Christianity.  However, the remains of the Gospel of the Hebrews give no indication that it advocated strict Torah observance." (The Complete Gospels, 428)

John S. Kloppenborg writes, "The surviving fragments of the Gospel of the Hebrews do not give a clear indication of its genre, except that it contained narrative. We cannot tell whether GHeb 1 is a quotation or a summary, but if it is a quotation, it shows that its author worked extensive theological commentary into the narratives, which would make the Gospel of the Hebrews more like the Gospel of John than they synoptics.  GHeb 4 takes the form of a first person report by Jesus himself, giving the reader a privileged insight into Jesus in much the same way as John does in presenting Jesus' final discourse (John 17)." (The Complete Gospels, 427)

title: User:Peter Kirby/Gospel of the Hebrews


text:
User talk:Bsadowski1

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, add a question to the Help Desk or ask me on my Talk page. If you have any suggestions about how to improve this welcome, message, let me know. Again, welcome! JesseW 19:46, 24 August 2005 (UTC)
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auto-confirm talk page as well
The talk page is now being vandalized. Please auto-confirm it. It's the same sockpuppet, account was just created.

Thanks.

Talk Page Protection
Hey. And thanks for what you did. I warned DragonKing22 about his last threat he made toward me last month about his persistent vandalism on the Adelaide Productions page. This is the second time this year that I've got attacked by another user here. Is it okay that you protect my user page for a certain period of time? King Shadeed 00:11, July 17, 2015 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Bsadowski1


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User talk:TG1980

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I have nominated Ray Chew, an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Ray Chew&. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Alan -  talk  01:06, 17 March 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:TG1980


text:
Talk:Transporter 2

Water in the syringe?
It was to my knowledge that the syringe contained saline solution. I believe the bottle from which the fluid was drawn backs this assertation. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.78.115.3 (talk) 03:56, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

actual title
The actual title of this is "Transporter 2" right? The official site and the trailer lack "The". Can anybody dispute this beyond pointing to what IMDB has? Otherwise I'll move this the the proper title. K1Bond007 19:48, August 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * Yeah, its just called "Transporter 2". I'll go and move it. Thunderbrand 12:57, September 3, 2005 (UTC)

Mr. Fernandez thinks there's a connection to romanticism and chivalry in this movie... LIEZ!!!! ALL LIEZ!!!!

Where can I find the shoes Lola/Kate was wearing in the film and the French DVD cover? fuck offf.....

Shiny orb thing
What the heck was that weird shimmering orb thing that was in that room in the hospital? That ruined the rest of the movie for me.

60.228.173.211 06:13, 10 March 2007 (UTC) That was meant to be a graphic and highly stylised representation of sound waves passing through the air. The sound of the elevator beeping travels through the rooms and ventilation shafts until it reaches Lola, who then knows where they are.

Dedication to Michael Stone?
Just witnessed the ending credits of this movie and there is a dedication to Michael Stone. Who is this person? Don the Dev 04:25, 13 December 2006 (UTC) Michael Stone was the director of photography for Transporter 2. He died in a car crash just a few days before the film was released. — Preceding unsigned comment added by JMARTIN444 (talk • contribs) 16:08, 25 September 2016 (UTC)

NPOV
"This was seen as a very poor sequel" that part is fine I believe, but when it goes on to say "...the stunts and basic going ons on the film very fake and un-real." seems to be more of a POV statement. Maybe it should be changed? - Tim

 * The second part should be removed and the first part should be cited directly or be considered another POV statement. --Don the Dev 04:58, 14 January 2007 (UTC)

Content
Does everyone understand the plot, or should I expand it a little so its not as sudden?
 * You'd be better off re-writing it, especially since it reads like someone relating to their buddy at a water cooler what happens in the film. No offense, it's just too lax. --75.35.82.128 19:54, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Worry not. I've made it more encyclopedia-like with formal writing. I might, as well, remove the "informal" tag, too. KajiTetsushi 14:43, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I have problems with the plot section. It's really confusing.  The son breathes on the father, then terrorists want to use the father to infect the world?  First off, I thought the virus killed anyone it came into contact with within 24 hours, so how could the father be any use to terrorists?  Secondly, what happened in the end with the dad.  Did he get cured, or did the terrorists use him as an infecting agent?  These are just a few things, I think the plot section could probably do with another rewrite.--DarshaAssant 03:48, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I am currently re-writing the plot in my sandbox, any suggestions would be welcome. Blackngold29 (talk) 17:07, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

Lola's guns
Anyone know the guns she is using? Chris 07:21, 2 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Got it, Glock 18 Chris 08:36, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 14:34, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Damaged landing gear?
"The Lamborghini collides with a sign at the end of the runway, damaging the aircraft's landing gear." The landing gear was in no way damaged by the Lamborghini or the explosion. The landing gear would not come up because Frank Martin was hanging from it. - Tarun. (talk) 22:08, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Too detailed plot summary.
I think the plot summary's a little too-detailed for Wikipedia's standards. We don't need a play-by-play of the whole movie, just a synopsis.

Jmodum90 (talk) 23:34, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed, I started revising it, but I've gotten sidetracked. It's in my sandbox if you want to help. Blackngold29 (talk) 06:12, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

 * The plot summary is kinda bad right now. It just reads funny, like a conversation between 13-year-olds.  It has a :"And then this happens!  Oh, and then that happens!" kinda vibe.  Plus, it says the family died at the end (I went ahead and changed that), but they don't.  It goes against the whole ending of Frank saving the day.  They are sick, not dying.--MaximumMadnessStixon (talk) 02:18, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Lola and Frank in the Audi
"forces her way into his car when he is held at a standoff by an unseen sniper capable of penetrating the car's bulletproof glass"

It was actually the bomb under the car that the guy in the hummer planted under Frank's car in the doctor's parking garage. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.247.95.127 (talk) 05:17, 2 November 2009 (UTC)

Gay?
 Obviously not gay. Yes it says Frank Martin "was originally envisaged as being gay" (i.e. before the first film was made, and a change in the decision was made). A "gay subtext" is not the same as a character being gay either. Xena and Gabrielle have a gay subtext, but are not gay. "If you watch the movie and you know he's gay, it becomes so much more fun" and "That's him coming out!" - clearly are jokes! It would be best if this silly fanciful idea of Frank Martin being "gay" wasn't readded. Oh yes, in Transporter 3, he clearly says he's not gay, and ends up with that lovely redheaded woman. 82.152.202.149 (talk) 21:33, 9 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes but it's what the director said at the time. Since the third film has a different director, he obviously had a different interpretation.  That in no way means that the other guy was "joking".  The fact of his idea and the source used to reference it is not a hoax.  Millahnna (talk) 01:47, 10 April 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Transporter 2


text:
Talk:Frank Inn

There's more to do, but...
...i'm done for now. Someone else can add more about Inn's early work with the Weatherwaxes and their many "Lassie" dogs, and delve into Inn's religious writings, and get a few more credits for his appareances as an actor (see imdb). The best site for obscure Frank Inn information is the massive Hooterville Petticoat Junction site. It is a fan site, but the creator befriended and got memorabilia scrapbooks scanned and online from many of the principle actors in the series, as well as from Inn, and so it is the best resource on the 1960s era of Inn'a life (as well as on that period of Higgins's life). Okay, enough. I'm outta here for now. 64.142.90.32 08:46, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Frank Inn


text:
Tori Amos: Complete Videos 1991–1998

Tori Amos: The Complete Videos 1991–1998 is a VHS cassette of all of Tori Amos's videos from Little Earthquakes through From the Choirgirl Hotel, with the exception of Professional Widow. The video collection was released in a standard-size hard plastic VHS case and a large soft plastic VHS case (with the same catalogue number). The video collection runs approximately 75 minutes and was released by Atlantic Records .

Tori Amos: The Complete Videos 1991–1998 was RIAA certified Gold in March 1999 .

title: Tori Amos: Complete Videos 1991–1998


text:
Languages of Hong Kong

During the British colonial era, English was the sole official language until 1978. Today, the Basic Law of Hong Kong states that English and Chinese are the two official languages of Hong Kong. All roads and government signs are bilingual, and both languages are used in academia, business and the courts, as well as in most government materials today.

Cantonese Chinese
As the majority of the population in Hong Kong are descendants of migrants from China's Canton Province, the vast majority speak standard Cantonese or other Yue Chinese varieties as a first language, with smaller numbers of speakers of Hakka Language or the Teochew dialect of Southern Min. In addition, immigrants and expatriates from the West and other Asian countries have contributed much to Hong Kong's linguistic and demographic diversity. The geographical element of this diversity can be seen in the Hong Kong Language Maps, which shows oral languages from the 2011 Census, and oral and written languages from the 2016 Census. Statistics for the 27 self-reported spoken languages/dialects reported in the 2011 Census, can be found in the report: Language Use, Proficiency and Attitudes in Hong Kong.

Official languages
English was the sole official language of Hong Kong from 1883 to 1974. Only after demonstrations and petitions from Hong Kong people demanding equal status for Chinese did the language become official in Hong Kong from 1974 onward. Annex I of the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration provided that English may be used in addition to Chinese for official purposes in the future Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. In March 1987, the Official Languages Ordinance was amended to require all new legislation to be enacted bilingually in both English and Chinese. In 1990, the Hong Kong Basic Law affirmed English's co-official language status with Chinese after the 1997 handover. No variety of Chinese has been specified to be official in Hong Kong while it is usually understood that by Chinese Modern Standard Chinese is meant, although Cantonese is the vernacular variety spoken by most of the population.

Chinese languages
As a result of immigration into Hong Kong from Canton Province, Cantonese is the dominant Chinese variant spoken in the territory with smaller numbers of speakers of other dialects. There are also numerous Chinese languages spoken by the native peoples of the New Territories, many of which are mutually unintelligible.

The written language used in official and formal settings is a less standardized form of Modern Standard Chinese that is read with Cantonese phonology. There is also a written language based on the vocabulary and grammar of spoken Cantonese known as written Cantonese. Although the "biliterate and trilingual" policy implies an absence of support for written Cantonese, it has gained popularity in news media where entertainment and local news are related. Written Cantonese is unintelligible to non-Cantonese speakers and is considered nonstandard by some educators despite its widespread usage in Hong Kong. Some have also credited written Cantonese for solving the challenges that standard written Chinese had faced in popular culture.

Traditional Chinese characters are widely used, and are the de facto writing standard in Hong Kong. Simplified Chinese is seen in some posters, leaflets, flyers and signs in the tourist areas.

Modern written Chinese
In Hong Kong, Modern Standard Chinese has traditionally been an exclusively written language, used for official and formal purposes, just as Classical Chinese had been in China prior to the 20th century. With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, educational materials were imported into the then British colony and schools teaching Modern Standard Chinese, the official language of the Republic, were established there as well. Yet, due to the British colonial government favouring English over Chinese for most of its rule, there was not much official effort to further regulate the language.

The local name for written Chinese is 書面語 in contrast to 口語, i.e. Cantonese. This form of written Chinese must be distinguished from written Cantonese on the one hand and from Putonghua, the standard language/national variety of Mainland China, on the other. Thus it has also been called Hong Kong-style Chinese to distinguish it from Putonghua. Although texts in Hong Kong-style Chinese are read in Cantonese phonology, its grammar and lexicon are largely derived from the Mandarin-based Modern Standard Chinese. Consequently, people proficient in other varieties of Standard Chinese, like Beijing Mandarin or Taiwanese Mandarin, are able to understand it at least in writing.

Standard Cantonese
The principal vernacular language of Hong Kong is standard Cantonese, spoken by 88.9% of the population. It is used as a colloquial language in all areas of daily life, government, and administration. As a written language, Cantonese became more popular with the boom of the Cantonese-language Hong Kong entertainment industry in the 1980’s. Movie subtitles, magazines, popular literature, and comics have been published in written Cantonese. The publication of the Government Common Character Set (GCCS) in 1995 and the Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set (HKSCS) in 1999 by the Information Technology Services Department further helped with standardizing the Chinese character set used for writing Cantonese. Yet it still has the status of spoken language, 口語 hau2 jyu5, and students are corrected by their teachers for using it as a literary language.

Native Yue dialects
A few closely related dialects to standard Cantonese continue to be spoken in Hong Kong. Most notable is the Weitou dialect (圍頭話), which is mostly spoken by the older generation living in walled villages in New Territories. Additionally, the Tanka people from the fishing villages on outlying islands speak their own variant of Cantonese. However, this dialect is now largely limited to those middle aged and above.

Hakka
Hakka is indigenous to many villages in the New Territories and within Hakka communities in Hong Kong. Nowadays, outside these rural villages and older populations, younger Hakka Chinese populations communicate primarily in Cantonese.

Southern Min
Teochew, Hokkien, and Taiwanese are the Minnan (Southern Min) Chinese dialects commonly found in Hong Kong. However, their usage is largely limited to recent migrants from Taiwan or Fujian and middle aged descendants of immigrants from native Chinese regions of these variants.

Taishanese
Taishanese originates from migrants from Taishan County in Mainland China. The variant can still be found in some areas in Hong Kong where migrants concentrated, such as Sai Wan.

Shanghainese
Shanghainese, or Wu Chinese in general, was commonly spoken by migrants who escaped Shanghai after the communist takeover of China in 1949. Their descendants assimilated into mainstream Cantonese-speaking society. However there is still a sizeable immigrant community after China's economic reform in 1978, and about 1.1% of the population speaks Shanghainese according to a 2016 census.

Mandarin
When Hong Kong was a colony of the United Kingdom, Mandarin Chinese was not widely used in Hong Kong. Since the 1997 handover, the huge increase in inbound tourism from the mainland has led to much more widespread use of Mandarin, particularly in tourism-related commerce, though little impact has been seen in locally based commerce or public services.

In addition, the large number of soeng1 fei1 (雙非) children (children born in Hong Kong whose parents are both from the Mainland) has increased the number of Mandarin-speaking people, particularly in districts close to the border, such that Mandarin-speaking children make up large proportions or even the majority of primary-school students in those districts, causing the beginnings of a language shift in those areas.

English

English is a major working language in Hong Kong, and is widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Although the sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC by the United Kingdom in 1997, English remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong as enshrined in the Basic Law.

Code-switching between Cantonese and English
Many Hong Kong people use both Cantonese and English, or "code-switch", in the same sentence when speaking. For example, "唓，都唔 make sense!" ("Wow, it does not make sense!"). The code-switching can freely mix English words and Chinese grammar, for instance "你 un 唔 understand?" ("Do you understand?") which follows the Chinese grammar syntax 'verb - not - verb' to ask "Do you (verb)?".

Some code-switched words are used so often that they have become loanwords in Cantonese, for example,
 * "like", pronounced "lai-kee" /laːi55kʰi35/.
 * "Partner", pronounced "pat-la" /pʰaːt̚55laː21/.
 * "File", pronounced "fai-lo" /faːi55lou35/.
 * "Number", pronounced "lum-ba" /lɐm55pa35/.
 * "Case", pronounced "kei-see" /kʰei55si35/.

French
In Hong Kong, French is the second most studied foreign language after Japanese. Many institutions in Hong Kong, like Alliance française, provide French courses. Local universities, such as the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and Hong Kong Baptist University, offer programmes which aim at developing proficiency in French language and culture. The language was included as a subject in the HKCEE, but not in HKALE, the two former public exams that Hong Kong high school students take, with accordance to British International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) standards. The IGCSE French syllabus used by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) is adopted in the examination. The only French book store, Librairie Parentheses, in Hong Kong is located on Wellington Street, Central.

Real estate developers in Hong Kong sometimes name their buildings in French, such as Bel-Air, Les Saisons and Belle Mer. This kind of foreign branding is also used in boutiques and restaurants. An example is Yucca de Lac in Ma Liu Shui. Sometimes only French elements such as articles and prepositions are added to the name, as in the case of the restaurant chain Café de Coral. Similar mixing of English and French can be seen on the menu of Délifrance, a French-style restaurant chain in Hong Kong.

German
The number of German speakers in Hong Kong is about 5 thousand, significant enough for the establishment of the German Swiss International School (Deutsch-Schweizerische Internationale Schule), which claims to number more than 1,000 students, at The Peak of Hong Kong Island. Many institutions in Hong Kong provide German courses. The most well-known one is the Goethe-Institut, which is located in Wan Chai. After spending a certain period in learning German, students can take the German Test as a Foreign Language (Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache; TestDaF for short) and Start German A1-C2. There are currently two test centres for TestDaF in Hong Kong: the Goethe-Institut and the Hong Kong Baptist University(HKBU). The latter one also offers a European Studies degree course of German Stream, Bachelor of Social Science in European Studies (German Stream), in parallel with the French stream. A minor programme of German is offered at the Language Centre of HKBU. The Hong Kong University offers a Major in German. The Chinese University of Hong Kong offers a Minor in German and popular summer courses. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology offers German for science and technology.

Japanese
There are over 25,000 Japanese people in Hong Kong, so it is not uncommon to hear Japanese conversations. More than 10,000 people in Hong Kong had taken the JLPT in 2005. Hong Kong-based R by R Production produces a television travel show set in Japan, which, as of April 2016, is broadcast on ViuTV. However, the language is often misused.

Japanese culture, especially the popular culture, has been popular in Hong Kong for decades. Hong Kong people occasionally replace Chinese characters with Japanese kanji. In addition, the Companies Registry also permits the hiragana の ‘no’ in Chinese business names that are registered in Hong Kong. The hiragana の is usually used in place of the Chinese character 之 (zi1) and is read as such in Hong Kong. In fact, Aji Ichiban has adopted の in their company name (優の良品). There are also borrowings from Japanese shinjitai kanji 駅 ‘eki’ to substitute 站 (both 站 and 駅 mean "station" in their respective languages), as in Nu Front (東角駅), a shopping mall for Hong Kong youngsters in Causeway Bay. There are also some private estates named with the kanji 駅. These loanwords are pronounced by Hong Kong people as if they were their Chinese counterparts (i.e. の as 之, and 駅 as 站). The Japanese 駅 is the shinjitai of the hanzi 驛 (Jyutping: jik6;). However, 驛 has fallen out of usage to 站 in modern Cantonese and become obsolete. Therefore, it is not uncommon to mispronounce 駅 as its phonetic compound 尺.

Korean
Koreans in Hong Kong only make up a small minority while Korean culture has gained popularity since the early 2000s. Korean pop music was the first Korean media to enter Hong Kong's market. Since then, several Korean TV series such as Dae Jang Geum have been broadcast to numerous audiences. There are roughly 1,000 students that took Korean courses at the Chinese University of Hong Kong each year, including undergraduates as well as professionals who enrolled in continuing education programs. Roughly 3,000 people have taken the Test of Proficiency in Korean since its introduction to Hong Kong in 2003. Surveys and statistics from course enrolments have shown that nine-tenths of the students studying Korean in Hong Kong are female.

Filipino
Filipino and other Philippine languages are used by Filipinos in Hong Kong, most of whom are employed as foreign domestic workers.

Newspapers and magazines in Filipino can also be easily found in Central, Hong Kong. There are also a small number of churches in Hong Kong that have masses or services in Filipino, for example the afternoon masses provided by the St. John's Cathedral in Central.

Indonesian
Indonesian is the common language for the significant number of Indonesians working in Hong Kong, though Javanese is also widely spoken. Most are domestic workers; On their days off, they often gather at Victoria Park in Causeway Bay where Indonesian languages can be heard.

Thai
Thai prevails among the Thai population in Hong Kong, who mostly work as domestic workers. The Thai language is found in many shops and restaurants owned by Thais in Kowloon City. A number of Thai movies have been imported since the early 2000s, such as The Wheel in the medley Three, Jan Dara, the Iron Ladies, My Little Girl, and Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom-Yum-Goong starring Tony Jaa.

Vietnamese
Vietnamese is used in Hong Kong among the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam who had initially settled in Vietnam and returned to Hong Kong. The language is also used by Vietnamese refugees who left their home during the Vietnam War.

South Asian languages
In 2006, there were at least 44,744 persons of South Asian descent living in Hong Kong. Signboards written in Hindi or Urdu can be seen, and conversation in South Asian languages including Nepali, Sindhi and Punjabi, as well as Urdu, Hindi and Tamil can be heard.

Hong Kong has two Nepalese newspapers, The Everest and the Sunrise Weekly Hong Kong. In 2004, the Home Affairs Bureau and Metro Plus AM 1044 jointly launched radio shows Hong Kong-Pak Tonight in Urdu and Hamro Sagarmatha in Nepalese.

Hindi
The history of Indians in Hong Kong can be traced back to the early days of British Hong Kong. When the Union flag of the United Kingdom was hoisted on 26 January 1841, there were around 2,700 Indian troops that participated, and they played an important role in the development of Hong Kong in the early days. The most prominent contributions were the founding of the University of Hong Kong (HKU), the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and the Star Ferry.

Although nearly all of the Indian people who live in Hong Kong speak and write Indian English, some have maintained the usage of Hindi as a second language.

Arabic
Arabic is used frequently among members of Muslim communities in Hong Kong. Some Islamic organisations do teach the language as well, but the current status can best be described as developing.

Sign language
Hong Kong Sign Language is used by the Deaf community of Hong Kong; it is derived from the southern dialect of Chinese Sign Language, but is now an independent, mutually unintelligible language.

title: Languages of Hong Kong


text: User talk:70.114.21.119

title: User talk:70.114.21.119


text:
Solomon Birnbaum

Solomon Asher Birnbaum, also Salomo Birnbaum (שלמה בירנבוים Shloyme Birnboym, December 24, 1891 in Vienna – December 28, 1989 in Toronto) was a Yiddish linguist and Hebrew palaeographer.

Biography
Birnbaum (1891-1989), born in Vienna, was the oldest son of Nathan Birnbaum and Rosa Korngut. He was an Austrian Jew of West Galician descent.

Solomon Birnbaum served in World War I in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and then studied and attained a doctorate from the University of Würzburg, specializing in languages of Asia. From 1922 to 1933, he was an external lecturer of Yiddish at the University of Hamburg. After the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, in 1933 Birnbaum emigrated to Great Britain with his wife, Irene Grünwald, and his children, in 1933.

From 1936 to 1957, Birnbaum was a lecturer on Hebrew paleography and epigraphy at the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London. He taught Yiddish at the same time at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies of the University of London, from 1939 to 1958. During World War II, Birnbaum worked in the postal censorship for the British authorities. In 1970, he immigrated to Toronto, Canada.

Solomon Birnbaum is the father of Jacob Birnbaum, who, after his emigration to New York in 1963, helped to found the Soviet Jewry Movement.

Publications

 * Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache, Vienna and Leipzig, 1918; Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache, Hamburg: editions 1966, 1979, 1984, 1988
 * Leben und Worte des Balschemm, 1920
 * Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, 1921 (dissertation)
 * "Die jiddische Sprache," in: Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift (1923)
 * "Die Umschrift des Jiddischen," in: Teuthonista (1933)
 * "The Age of the Yiddish Language," in: Transactions of the Philological Society, London (1939)
 * "Jewish Languages," in: Essays in Honour of the Very Rev. Dr. J.H. Hertz, London, 1942
 * Yiddish Phrase Book, published by The Linguaphone Institute for The Jewish Committee for Relief Abroad, London, 1945
 * "The Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry," in: The Slavonic and East European Review, London (1946)
 * "The Verb in the Bukharic Language of Samarkand," in: Archivum Linguisticum, 2 (1950/51)
 * "How Old are the Cave Manuscripts?" in: Vetus Testamentum (1951)
 * The Hebrew Scripts, 2 vols., Leiden, 1954–57, 1971
 * Die jiddische Sprache, Hamburg 1974, 1986, 1997
 * Yiddish – A Survey and a Grammar, Toronto, 1979
 * "Zur Geschichte der u-Laute im Jiddischen," in: Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie (1981)
 * Yiddish, A Survey and a Grammar, 2nd edition, with additional essays etc by David Birnbaum, Eleazar Birnbaum, Kalman Weiser, Jean Baumgarten. Toronto, 2016

title: Solomon Birnbaum


text:
Joseph C. Wilson (entrepreneur)

Joseph Chamberlain Wilson (December 13, 1909 – November 22, 1971) was the founder of the Xerox Corporation, a graduate of the University of Rochester and Harvard Business School and a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Beta Phi chapter). He helped to develop xerography pioneered by Chester Carlson.

As president of Xerox, he made an effort to integrate Xerox during the late 1960s. After the race riots that began in Detroit had reached Xerox headquarters in Rochester, New York, Wilson wrote in a letter to all Xerox managers that "he wanted a very aggressive program to recruit and hire blacks in this company."

The former West High School in Rochester, New York was renamed Joseph C. Wilson Magnet High School in his honor. One of its magnet programs is for science and technology, and has a long-running partnership with Xerox, which funds and supplies mentors for an extracurricular computer science club. Wilson Magnet has long had a very strong program of Advanced Placement (AP) courses, and later also began offering International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. It is often honored for excellence; in the late 1980s it was ranked the ninth best high school in New York State, the Washington Post in 2004 said it is "regarded as one of the nation's most intellectually demanding" schools.

The Wilson Commons as well as Wilson Boulevard at the University of Rochester river campus are also named after Joe Wilson.

The Wilson family continues Joseph Wilson's tradition of philanthropy in the Rochester area mainly through the Marie C. and Joseph C. Wilson Foundation.

Wilson was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1980.

The Joseph C. Wilson papers were made available in May 2019 through the University of Rochester Rare Books, Special Collections, and Preservation library; they were given to the University by Marie C. Wilson. This collection consists of correspondence, minutes, reports, speeches, and clippings from Wilson's participation in numerous business and community organizations. The bulk of the collection is dated 1959-1971, a period of growth for Xerox as well as the city and University of Rochester.

title: Joseph C. Wilson (entrepreneur)


text:
Scott Reynolds (singer)

Scott Reynolds is an American punk rock vocalist from Fredonia, New York, known mainly for his work with the band ALL from 1989 to 1993. He has also performed with such bands as The Pavers and Goodbye Harry.

Time with ALL
Reynolds was pop-punk band ALL's second lead singer, replacing Dave Smalley in 1989. He recorded and toured with the group extensively from 1989 - 1993. His songwriting contributions with All were notable; his Dot off 1993's Percolater was the group's first single not written by drummer Bill Stevenson. Reynolds left ALL in 1993 reportedly due to differences in the band regarding touring schedules.

All formed in suburban Los Angeles in 1987 when Milo Aukerman, the lead singer of The Descendents, left to pursue a graduate degree in biochemistry, forcing the band into a hiatus. The remaining members, guitarist Stephen Egerton, bassist Karl Alvarez, and drummer Bill Stevenson decided to carry on as a band, adopting the title of the Descendents’ last studio album, All, as their official moniker.

Enlisting former Dag Nasty and DYS singer Dave Smalley on vocals, All released their first two albums in 1988: Allroy Sez and the EP Allroy for Prez (both distributed by Cruz Records) to critical acclaim. In 1989, Smalley left the band, and new vocalist Scott Reynolds joined. With Reynolds, All released four more albums: 1989 Allroy's Revenge (which included the single She's My Ex), 1990 Allroy Saves, 1992 Percolater, and the 1990 live album Trailblazer.

Post ALL
After ALL, he moved to Washington State and started the band Goodbye Harry. Goodbye Harry put out two albums, Food Stamp BBQ and I Can Smoke. In the mid-1990s Reynolds moved to the Buffalo, NY area, where he formed the punk band The Pavers. The Pavers released two albums, two EPs, a live radio cd, and a variety of split EPs. He also fronted the metal punk band, Bonesaw Romance. In the early 2000s, frustrated with major label non-response to music that was lauded by fans and critics, he moved from Buffalo, NY to Austin, TX.

In Austin, Scott recorded an album of more acoustic, lounge-type songs under the moniker Scott Reynolds and the Steaming Beast, and worked with former All band-mate, guitarist Stephen Egerton on another project, 40Engine.

Between October 2009 and February 2010, Scott produced and sang back up vocals on the album "Second to All" for local Austin punk band The Butts. The album was mastered by former All band-mate, guitarist Stephen Egerton and was released in early 2011.

In 2017, Reynolds moved back to the Buffalo area, and in 2021 he released his first solo acoustic record, Chihuahua in Buffalo. Today he plays solo shows with his nylon-stringed guitar and his trusty pet chihuahua JB (short for Justin Bieber) in tow.

Reunion
On January 26, 2008, Egerton, Stevenson, and Alvarez reunited with Scott Reynolds to play a set of All songs as an opening act for Drag the River at the Aggie in Fort Collins. In mid-April of that year, the band announced that they would be reuniting once again with Reynolds for Chicago, Illinois's 'Riot Fest' on October 12. They performed at the Congress Theater in Chicago, playing for over an hour before Chicago police shut down the show.

Additionally, ALL performed two warm up shows; one in Japan in July 2008 and the other at the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado on August 29, 2008. The DNC show was cut short and the band completed an additional set that evening at the Three Kings Bar in downtown Denver, CO.

In an interview with RiotFest.org, Scott Reynolds does not rule out the possibility of writing new material but sets three conditions that need to be present: People want to hear new music, he feels the need to create, and the "bro" factor between the bandmates needs to be there.

Discography

 * All - Allroy's Revenge - 1989
 * All - She's My Ex - 1989
 * All - Allroy Saves - 1990
 * All - Trailblazer:Live - 1990
 * TonyAll - New Girl, Old Story - 1991
 * All - Dot EP - 1992
 * All - Percolater - 1992
 * Goodbye Harry - Food Stamp B-B-Q - 1995
 * Goodbye Harry - I Can Smoke - 1996
 * ALL - S/T - 1999
 * The Pavers - Local 1500 - 1999
 * The Pavers - Beautiful (EP) - 2002
 * The Pavers - Wrecking Ball (EP) - 2002
 * The Pavers - Taco or Tambourine (EP) - 2002
 * The Pavers - Return to the Island of No Return - 2002
 * The Pavers - No Show, Prefab Unison (Split EP)- 2003
 * Fastgato - Feral - 2003
 * Bonesaw Romance - S/T - 2006
 * Scott Reynolds - Adventure Boy - 2007
 * Scott Reynolds and the Steaming Beast - Adventure Boy - 2008
 * 40 Engine - TBA 2008
 * Scott Reynolds - Stupid World - 2014
 * Scott Reynolds - Chihuahua in Buffalo - 2021

title: Scott Reynolds (singer)


text: User:Eum Nang

title: User:Eum Nang


text:
Kenneth Pettway

Kenneth Aaron Pettway (born November 13, 1982) is a former American gridiron football player. He played in the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL) from 2005 to 2012.

Pettway played college football for the Grambling State University Tigers. He was drafted into the NFL by the Houston Texans in the seventh round of the 2005 NFL Draft. He played for the Jacksonville Jaguars from 2006 to 2007 and Green Bay Packers in 2008 and then shifted to the CFL, where he played for the Edmonton Eskimos in 2010 and the Calgary Stampeders in 2012.

Early life
Pettway was born in Houston, Texas. He attended Gilmer High School in Gilmer, Texas and was a letterwinner in football, basketball, and track. After attending Southern Arkansas University (whose Muleriders team was in NCAA Division II), he transferred to Grambling State University in 2002 and sat out the season pursuant to NCAA transfer rules. He played for the Grambling State Tigers football team in 2003 and 2004.

Houston Texans
Pettway was drafted by the Houston Texans in the seventh round (227th overall) of the 2005 NFL Draft. He spent most of his rookie season on the team's practice squad before being promoted to the active roster on December 9. He was inactive for the team's final three regular season contests. An exclusive-rights free agent in the 2006 offseason, Pettway re-signed with the Texans on March 27. He was released by the team during final cuts on September 1.

Jacksonville Jaguars
Following his release from the Texans, Pettway was signed to the practice squad of the Jacksonville Jaguars on October 18, 2006. He was promoted to the active roster on November 8 and went on to play in the seven games for the Jaguars during the 2006 season, registering two sacks in limited action. He was released by the Jaguars during final cuts on August 30, 2008.

Green Bay Packers
Pettway was signed by the Green Bay Packers on September 30, 2008 after defensive end Cullen Jenkins was placed on injured reserve. He was signed over free agent defensive end Patrick Chukwurah, who also worked out for the Packers following Jenkins' injury. The Tennessee Titans and Pittsburgh Steelers reportedly showed interest in working out Pettway prior to his signing with Green Bay.

Pettway appeared in eight games for the Packers in 2008, recording four tackles. He was placed on season-ending injured reserve with a knee injury on December 1. He was released by the Packers on April 6, 2009.

Edmonton Eskimos
Pettway was signed by the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League in 2010. He made his first start against the Montreal Alouettes, replacing an injured Greg Peach. He was released by the Eskimos on May 16, 2011.

Calgary Stampeders
Pettway was signed by the Calgary Stampeders on June 18, 2012. He was released by the Stampeders on January 30, 2013.

Personal life
On September 2, 2008, Pettway was in a car with his former Jaguars teammate Richard Collier when Collier was shot 14 times, leaving him with life-threatening and career-ending injuries. Pettway was unharmed.

title: Kenneth Pettway