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Talk:Kambojas/removed

=Notes= This material was moved here from the talk page because there is too much of it to keep there. Before that, it was presumably in the article itself.

=Part One=

KAMBOJA SRI-LANKA CONNECTIONS
SOME INSCRIPTIONAL REFERENCES TO ANCIENT KAMBOJAS IN ANCIENT SRI LANKA....THE MOST REFERENCED ETHNIC COMMUNITY IN THE SINHALESE INSCRIPTIONS BELONGING TO THIRD/SECOND CENTURY BCE

[1] no. 622:

'Gamika-Kabojhaha lene'

The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja;

Paranavitana, 1970:

[2] no. 623:

'Gamika-Siaa-putra gamika-Kabojhaha lene'

The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja, son of the village-councillor Siva'

Paranavitana, 1970:

[3] (no. 625) (1)

'Cam ika-Siua-putra gamika-Kambojhaha jhitaya upasika-Sumanaya lene.'

The cave of the female laydevotee Sumana, daughter of the village-councillor Kamboja.

Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970

[4](no 625) (2)

'gamika Kabojhaha ca sava-satasoyesamage pati'

The cave of the son of the village-councillor Siva. May there be the attainment of the Path of Beatitude for the village-councillor Kamboja and for all beings. 75 J. Bloch, 0950: 103, 130), ...

Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970

[5](no. 553):

'Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana Manapadaiane agataanagat-catu-disa-agaia'

[The cave] Manapadassana of the members of the Great Corporations of Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha of the four quarters, present and absent.

Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970

[6] (no. 990):

'Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na parumaka-Gopalaha bariya upasika-Citaya lepe iagaio'

The cave of the female lay-devotee Citta, wife of Gopala, the chief of the incorporated Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha.

Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970

[7]

Mediaval age inscription, refering a KAMBOJA VASSALA (i.e Kamboja Dawara/or Kamboja gate) found from Polonnaruva near Vishnu temple.

Discovered in 1887 by S. M. Burros.

(Ref: Journal of Ceylone B Branch of Royal Asiatic Society., Vol X., X No 34, 1887, pp64-67).

[8]

Mediaval age inscription (1187-1193 AD), found from Ruvanveli Dagba, Anaradhapura in Sri Lanka.

It refers to Kambojdin people, which is modified version of Kamboja.

(Ref: Don Martino de Zilva Wickeremsinghe, Epigraphicia Zeylanka, Vol II., Part I & II., p 70-83; Rhys David, J.R.A.S. Vol VII., p 187, p 353f; Muller. E. AIC., No 145; J.R.A.S., Vol XV., 1914, pp 170-71).

See below the wording of this inscription written in Sinhali belended with Sanskrit.

'Nuvarata hatapsina sata gavaka pamanah tana haam satuna no narye hakhye abhaya di ber lava dolos meh va tana masuta abhaya de Kambojdin ran pili aadibhu kamati vastu de paksheen no badan niyayen samata kota abhaya dee'

See original text in the reference quoted below or in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 354, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

(Epigraphia Zeylanka Vol II., p 80).

THE GRAMANIS OF THE WEST-INDUS MAY HAVE BEEN THE ANCESTORS OF MAJORITY OF SINHALESE POPULATION.

Not only the Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka refer to the guilds/Sanghas/corporations (Puka/Pugas, Gote/Goshata) among Sri Lankan Kambojas but also they refewre to their republican titles like Gamika (=Gamini=Gramani) and Paramaka (Parmuka/Parmukha i.e chief of the Sanghas).

The Gramani as a royal title is not referred to in ancient Sanskrit literature. However, Gramani as a Puga/Sangha term is referred to in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. Also MBH makes references to Gramani people/Sangha located in west of river Indus. One Gramani group had organised themselves into a Puga (Sangha) and are referenced to have been living on west of Indus, first in Upper Indus and then the lower Indus, from where they appear to have moved to Gujarat/Surashtra and then finally some section of them onto Sri Lanka. The ethnic connections of these republican Gramaney people are not mentioned anywhere. Mahabharata refers to the fight of Nakula with these powerful Gramanis living on the banks of lower Indus in western India.

 * Sanskrit:
 * gananutsava sanketanvyajayatpurusharshabha.
 * sindhukulashrita ye cha gramaneya mahabalah .//8.
 * —    (MBH 2/32/9)

The corrupted form of this Gramani of Indus is the Gamini or Gamika of the Brahami inscriptions abundantly found in Anuradhapura and some other locations in Sri Lanka.

Surprisingly, though not a royal title in India proper, the Gamani as a royal title (for king/raja) has been profusely used by ancient kings of Sinhala. The Gamini as a title/appellation was mostly applied to heads of trade guilds/corporations/Sanghas and also some-times to political Sanghas/Pugas in north-west as is the case of Lower Indus Gramanis of MBH. It appears likely that the ancestors of Sinhala either belonged to the above Republican Graminis or else they may have been closely connected with them (History of Ceylone, Vol I, Part I, p 91, Dr S Parnavitana; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 349-353, Dr Kamboj). All circumstantial evidence therefore indicates that the Gramanis of Mahabharata and of Panini's reference had moved from upper west Indus to lower Indus and then probably to Gujarat and finally, one section of them may have made it to Sri Lanka.

The existence of ancient well known Kamboja Dravati Caravan Route implies that the trader groups from Kamboja were familiar with ancient regions of Sindhu, Sovira, Surashtra and further the western Indian coastal areas as far as Sri Lanka. (see Kamboja-Dvarka ancient trade Route and the Kambojas)

Mahavamsa (6/34) states that ancestors of the Sinhalese came from Sinhala-kalpa or Sinhapura in Lata desha. Also there is mention that Vijay's father had left his maternal grand-father's country (Sinhapura) and had founded a new colony in Lata-rattha (=Lata Rashtra). We have already seen one Sinhapura located contiguous to Ursa/Hazara west of Jammu/Kashmir i.e near the ancient land of Kambojas/Gandharas.

The Gramanis refered to in MBH who are said to be living on Indus thus may well fit Vijay's migrant clan as refered to in Mahavamsa. Vijay's father may have moved from Upper Indus to lower Indus i.e in Lata-Desha/Surashtra, where a reference to Gramanis is also made in MBH. There is one Sinhore located in Kathiawada. In the Gift records of king Valbhi, this Sinhore has also been referred to as Sinhapura (Epigraphia Indica, XVII, p 110; also see Dr J. L. Kamboj). It is thus perfectly conceivable that the migrant clan of the Gramanis (probably same as that of Vijay's father) may have founded this town in Kathiawada/Surashtra several centuries prior to Christian era and may have named it also as Sinhapura in memory of their Sinhapura of Upper Indus.

It is stated that Vijay and his 700 companions had started off their sea vovage to Sri Lanka from Sinhapura in Lata-Desha and caravan is stated to have passed through Bharukachcha and Soparka sea ports located on west coast of India.

Thus this discussion may imply connections of Gramanis of lower Indus with Sinhapura of Upper Indus (neighbor to Kashmir/Hazara) as well as with the clan of Vijay Sinha's, the ancestor of Sinhalese.

Mahavamsa (6th c AD creation) states that the ancestors of Sinhalese i.e Vijay Simha was a prince, but Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka rather allude to earlier Sinhalese settlers most likely as coming from some trader's group. Thus, Vijay Sinha's being a chief/leader/Sarthavaha of some carvan of the merchants/traders from north-west in the remote past is more likely a possibility. The group led by Vijay Sinha may have visited the island for purpose of trade but may have finally settled in the island and become its permanent residents.

These Anuradhapura inscriptions profusely refer to Gramani (Gamini, Gamini/Gamika) as a chief of trader's guild. In Pali texts, the tiltle appears as Sarthavaha. The Pramaka (Parmukha, Chief) used for the head of guild/corporations in these Brahmi inscriptions also points in the same direction.

All these terms (Gamika/Gamini/Gramani, Gote, Puga, Gote/Goshat etc) are pure republican in character and belong to north-west. And most interestingly, they are found to have been prevalent among ancient Kambojas groups (MBH, Kautiliya, Panini evidence). Thus, one can easily conceive that Vijay's clan may have been the same as that of the republic Gramaneys of lower Indus as referred to in MBH. And further, this Gramani clan had migrated from upper Indus to lower Indus, then to Surashtra/Kathiawada and finally a section of them had landed in Sinhala. And further, this clan may have been an offshoot from the Gandharan/Kambojan ethnic group...the former inhabitants of Sinhapura of Upper Indus. This is because the ancient Sinhalese inscriptions make numerous references to the Kambojas from north-west. No other ethnic group from North-west or north-east has been referred. The Meryas (=Mauryas..mentioned only once in the inscriptions) may have been migrants from Meros (of Arrian) ....the modern Koh-i-Mor of Swat/Kunar region. There is absoluterly no reference to Anga, Kalinga, Vanga, Gandhara or any other Aryan group of north-east or north-west India nor there is any reference to name Sinhala itself in these numerous inscriptions. The Milekas of the Sinhalese inscriptions (referenced twice) were the aborigines (Veddas). The other dominant group was the Daemedas (Tamilians) from Dravidian group from Southern India who find mention in three Inscriptions.

Mahavamsa was composed in 6th c AD, about 800-900 years from the date of these Inscriptions. Undoubtedly, Mahavamsa represents later conditions of Sinhala island when population from north-east India (second and later stream) had also come and settled in the Island. Unlike ancient cave inscriptions, Mahavamsa does make references to Anga, Vanga, Kalinga. But this is later phenomenon. And being literary traditions, the Mahavamsa may have been interpolated/re-written to reflect the later historical/political realities of the island. The absence of the name Anga, Kalinga, Vanga etc in these ancient inscriptions shows that there was as yet no population from the north-east India and north-easterners had only joined the north-west Aryan speaking group much later in time.

Thus the original stream of migrants, the so-called ancestors of the Sinhalese population, to Sinhala island were indeed from north-west and to all probability, they were from the Kambojan republican ethnic group.

The 'shaved-headed tradition' referred to in Mahavamsa about Vijay and his companions also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group. There are numerous other reasons which also point to north-west being the home of ancient Sinhalas.

David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON SHIPPING COMMUNITIES

page 108/109

" The second category of beads which deserves attention, is those made from lapis lazuli, becamee the only known source for this material in antiquity was Badakhshan (in northern Afghanwestan). The author of the Periplus mentions lapis lazuli among the products exported from Barbaricum.72 This precious material doubtless travelled along the sea route to reach the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Hema Ratnayake (1993: 8Q.) has also observed that on a painted slab belonging to one of the frontispieces of the Jetavana stupa, there are traces of lapis lazuli underneath the line of geese. He dates it to the third century AD, to the reign of king Mahasena, who built this feature of the stupa. The intaglio depicting a seated wild boar, unearthed along with carnelian seals and beads from Akurugoda (Tissamaharama) on the southern coast of the island, is important in this context. . This type of wild boar is known on Sasanian intaglios.73 The presence of lapis lazuli on the southern coast of Sri Lanka cannot be an isolated event, because epigraphical evidence bears witness to the fact that this area had close relationships with the regions of Afghanistan. 'Kaboja' occurs as a proper name in three inscriptions from Koravakgala (Situlpavua) in the Hambantota District, on the southeastern part of the island, in ancient Rohana.74 S. Paranavitana (1970: xc) believed that the Kabojha, Kabojhiya and Kabojhika are to be connected with the ethnic name Kamboja, which occurrs in Sanskrit and Pali literature as well as in the Vth and Xlllth inscriptions of Asoka, Kabojhiya being equivalent to the derivative term Kambojiya and Kabojika to Kambojika.75 The Brahmi inscription from Bovattegala on the southern border of the Ampari District, a few miles from the northeast limit of the Hambantota District, also in ancient Rohana, refers to 'Kabojhiya-mahapugyiana' i.e.'those who were members of the great corporation of the 'Kabojhivas'.76 The Brahmi inscription from Kaduruvava in the Kurunagala District, to the southwest of Anuradhapura, mentions a parumaka (Chief) of the Gota-Kabojikana, i.e. of the corporation of the Kabojikas.77 These inscriptions indicate that the Kambojas had organised themselves into a corporations and were certainly engaged in trade. The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century (on page 109) attests that a group of people called the Kambojas were in Rohana. In the third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, we are informed that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni.78 The Kambojas are often mentioned together with Yonas (Yavanas), Gandharas and Sakas. The Kambojas were a native population of Arachosia in the extreme west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin.79 The finds on the southern coast of the island of lapis lazuli from northern Afghanistan and various coins of Soter Megas, Kanishka II, Vasudeva II and posthumous Hermaios, all from Bactria and Northwest India, and the references to the Kambojas of Arachosia, compel us to believe that there were close relationships between Sri Lanka and the communities of Central Asia and North-West India. S. Paranavitana (1970: xci) did not exclude the possibility of the presence of Sakas in the island. His starting point was the inscription in Brahmi script, known as Anuradhapura Rock Ridge West of Lainkarama,so which refers to 'The flight of steps of Uttara, the Murundiya (Muridi-Utaraha seni). Since the epithet 'Muridi' is prefixed to the name '-Utara' (Skt. Uttara), S. Paranavitana believed that Muridi is a derivative of Muruda, which is the same as Murunda in the compound Saka-Murunda that occurs in the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta. S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued,S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued, that murunda is almost certainly a Saka word meaning 'master', 'lord', and he argued that the word murunda has become synonymome with Saka, when applied to royalty. Apart from the coins, beads and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Gandhara region are revealed by other pieces of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schisst, still unpublished, was unearthed from the excavations at at Jetavanarama. Most of the identified 'Hellenistic' and Greek-influenced pottery from the citadel of Anuradhapura, and from our recent excavations at Kelaniya appears to be from the Greek East, in other words, somewhere in Northwest India or Bactria.8' ..." Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002,

[by David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes]

Himanshu Prabha Ray, Norman Yoffee, Susan Alcock, Tom Dillehay, Stephen Shennan, Carla Sinopoli.
THE MERCHANT LINEAGE AND THE GUILD

Page 194:

Sri Lanka also provides evidence for niyama or nigama. The Tonigala rock inscription from the Anuradhapura district dated to the third year of the King Srimeghavarna (303-27 CE) records the grant of grain to the Kalahumanakaniyamatana (nigama-sthana), with the stipulation that only the interest is to be used for the maintenance of the monks (Epigraphia Zeylanica III, 1933: 172-98). Another later Brahmi inscription from Labuatabandigala refers to money, i.e. 100 káhápanas being deposited with the Mahatabaka niyama (247-53). Other terms used for guilds are puka or púga and goti (Sanskrit gosthi), the former often being used in association with either a village (Paranavitana 1970, nos. 135, 138; Dias 1991: no. 5) or community, such as that of the Kambojas (Paranavitana 1970, no. 553). There are references to the chief (jete) and sub-chief (anu- jete) of Sidaviya-puka (no. 1198). Literary texts further corroborate these distinctions, for example those between a general trader (vanik) and the setthi, who was possibly a financier, as opposed to the sárthaváha or caravan leader who transported either his own goods or those of other merchants. The sep thi in the Játakas was a man of immense wealth and hence constantly in the retinue of the king. References to rice fields owned by setthis imply that they were both traders and landowners. . Panini refers to traders as vanik (Astádhyáyi, 111.3.52) and makes a distinction between the krayavikrayika (whose main occupation was buying and selling, IV.4.13), the vasnika (who invested his money in business, IV.4.13), the sarnsthanika (a member of a guild, IV.4.72) and the dravyaka (a trader on the outward journey carrying merchandise for sale, Agrawala 1953: 238). In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a sárthaváha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are travelling in a caravan. There are several alternative arrangements described in the Játakas by which merchants could purchase or obtain goods. When a ship arrived in a port, merchants converged there to buy the goods and often had to pay money in advance to secure a share in the cargo (Book I: no. 4). Alternatively, a merchant could procure goods by mutual agreement with another living along the border. Once, the Boddhisattva was a wealthy merchant in Varanasi and had as a correspondent a border merchant whom he had never seen. There came a time when this merchant loaded 500 carts with local produce and gave orders to the men in charge to go to the Boddhisattva and barter the wares in his..

Page: 205/206.

FOREIGNERS AND TRADE NETWORKS

The complexity of economic transactions in the ancient period makes it difficult to determine ethnic identities of trading groups. Another problem is the ambiguity of the literary sources and their inability to distinguish between different ethnic identities, as in the case of allusions to Romans, Arabs, Indians and Ethiopians in Greek and Latin accounts. From the first century BCE to the second century CE, while many of the Arabs of the eastern Mediterranean regions were Roman subjects or Roman citizens, others lived beyond the frontiers of the empire and included groups such as Nabataeans, Palmyrenes, Sabaeans and so on. Early Brahmi inscriptions from Sri Lanka refer to two foreign groups involved in trading activity, i.e. the Damila (Sanskrit Dravida) and the Kabojha (Sanskrit Kamboja). The former figure in an important inscription engraved on the vertical rock face to the north-west of the Abhayagiri monastic complex at Anuradhapura. The inscription records that the terrace belonged to Tamil householders (gahapatikana). The floor of the terrace is on different levels, and the names of the owners are engraved on the rock face below their portion of it, e.g. dameda-samana, dameda-gahapati and navika or mariner. Two other inscriptions refer to a Tamil merchant named Visaka and a householder (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 94, 356, 357). These records are further corroborated by references in the Mahávarimsa, which term the damilas 'assandvikas' or those who brought horses in watercraft (chapter XXI, verses 10-12). It is significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. The inscriptions referring to the Kabojha or Kambojas are found in ancient Rohana and associate the region with the gamika or village functionary (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 622, 623, 625), there are references to the guild of the Kabojhiyas and its chief (Kabojhiya-maha-pugiyana, no. 553; parumaka or chief of the gota (Sanskrit gostha) Kabojikana, no. 990). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of the fourth century, refers to a village of the Kambojas in Rohana. Wheeler identified so-called 'foreign pottery' during his excavations at the site of Arikamedu on the east coast of India (figure 8.5). He used these ceramic finds to endorse not only the nature of trade, i.e., ., Roman, but also the ethnicity of the users and hence suggested an Indo-Roman trading station at the site (Wheeler et al. 1946).

The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia [Cambridge World Archaeology], 2003,

[by: Himanshu Prabha Ray, Norman Yoffee, Susan Alcock, Tom Dillehay, Stephen Shennan, Carla Sinopoli]

[The above refernces are quoted here with due gratitude].

Other relevant references on The Kambojas in Sri Lanka are:

 * History of Ceylone Vol I, Part by Dr S Parnavitana.
 * Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, (Chapter: Kambojas in Sri Lanka) Dr J. L. Kamboj.

KLS

ON MATHURA KAMBOJA LINKS
There is a full size sculputure in Mathura Museum called Kambojaka. Scholar identify it with Aiyasi Kamuia, the chief queen of Kshatrapa Rajuvula of Mathura.

(The catalogue of the Sculpultures of the Archaological Museum, Mathura, F. 42J. P. Vogel; cf: Female Images in the Muesums of U.P., and their social Background., p 122, Padama Upadhyaya; India in Kala Dasa, p 200, B. S. Upadhyaya; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 215, 228, 306-09; Dr J. L. Kamboj).

Thus Kamuia has been identified with Kambojaka/Kambojika. To be Noted that the standard Sanskrit Kamboja is also found written as Kambojaka in Pali and Kaamboja and Kambuja in  Sanskrit literature. (e.g. Kambojake assastare sudante; ete hi dhama araryrupa Kambojakanam vitatha bahunam (Pali); Dakshintai Kambujanam Vashistanam  (Sanskrit) etc).

See further reference below:

Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath,

'The Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city, housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharosthi character, referring that Ayasi Kamuiá (Kambojika) the chief queen of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula established the relic of Lord Sakyamuni, a stupa and a Sangharama for the order of the four quarters of the Sarvástivádins.48 The record ends with obeisance to all the Buddha, the law, the order and the ~akastána. Thus, this pillar furnishes useful information for the study of Buddhist Church at Mathura" (Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath, 2002, page 35, Usha Rani Tiwari.)

It is notable that Aiyasi Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription A) was daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaosta Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription  E) according Dr Stein Konow and his line of scholars. Yuvaraja Kharaosta is unanimously identified as Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been studied and examined by Rapson and Luders. According to Kharaosta's own coins, he was son of Arta or Orata. Arta is said to be elder brother of king Moga.

Since queen Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Kharoshtha) both bear Kamuia as last name in the Lion Capitol Inscriptions, hence scholars have concluded that Arta and Moga were also Kamuia.

Making use of science of linguistics, the scholars like Dr S Konow have identified the last name Kamuia with as the Kharoshtised version of Prikritic Kambojaka or Sanskrit Kamboja/Kambuja or Kambujia (cf: O.P Kambujiya).

(Linguistic transformation possibilities: In the Mathura Capitol Kharoshthi inscriptions, 'u'. is used for common 'o' as the usual personal name Sodas is found wriiten as Sudas in the Mathura Capitol Inscriptions. Also in Khroshthi, 'mb' becomes 'mm' or 'm' as in Dhammapada.... Also the hard 'j' becomes soft 'y' as the Kamboja is also found written as Kamboya in Shahbazgarhi inscriptions of king Ashoka: Hence Kamboja/Kambuja => Kamboya/Kambuya => Kaboia/Kambuia => Kamoia/Kamuia. Similarily, using rigorous linguistics, the Kambojaka => Kamuia, as Dr S. Konow has shown...see Corpus Inscritionum Indicarum (CII), Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi; also see p 36, Dr S Konow).

See References: (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, part I, p xxxvi; p 36; see also: Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research society, Vol XVI, 1930, parts III, IV, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-21, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; cf Comprehensive History of India, 1957, Vol II, p 270, Dr K. A. Nilkantha Shastri; ; op cit, Dr Buddha Parkash, p 154; For detailed discussion, see Ancient Kamboja People & Country, 1981 pp 41, 42, 306-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc).

King Moga is often connected with Saka clan which is said to have migrated from Issykkul or Tien-shan (Saka country?) in southern direction, passed through Pamirs/Hsuan-tu or hanging pass and settled in Kipin.

It is worth noticing that the clan name Kamuia has not been attested amongst the Scythians in any of the ancient sources. Its closest equivalent is Kamboja/Kamboya/Kambu/Kamu. The surname Kamuia obviously points to Sanskirit/Pali Kamboja/Kambuja ir Old Persian Kambujiya.

It is obvious that due to time and space proximity, the Trans-Oxian Kambojas, the next door neighbors to Issykkul Sakas had also become somewhat 'Scythianised' in culture by osmotic process if not otherwise, in the centuries preceeding Christian era. The so-called Sai or (Saka) clan which is stated to have settled in Kipin (Kashmir(?) or Kapisha(?)) per Chinese sources, may have actually been the Scythianised section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas who had been living off northern-eastern Pamirs or western-Sinkiang province of China and who may also have also joined the Sakas in their southward movements under similar pressures from Yueh-chihs. The Galcha Sri-Qoli as a dialect of ancient Kamboja is attested in western Sinkiang, around river Yarkand, attesting that it may have been a part of ancient Kamboja. Kamuia clan of Moga may have belonged to this section of the Kamboja settlement.

That may have been the reason as to why the Kambojas have some-times been confused with the Sakas.

Also, one section of the Kambojas is confused with the Yueh-chihs too. The Kambojas who had lived as neighbors to the Kushans/Yueh-chihs, north of Oxus country (former Parama-Kamboja) had also later migrated to cis-Hindukush region in 2nd/1st c BC along with  Kushans/Tukharas and thus some writers like Cunnigham have thought that the Kaofu clan (the Kambu=Kamboja) were  a clan of the Yueh-chihs '''which is not correct'''.

Cunnigham writes: ....Kaofu was the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yueh-chih or Tochari, who are said to have given their name to the town (Kabol) which they occupied, towards the end of second century before Christ (The Ancient Geography of India, p 15, Col A. Connigham).

On the other hand, noted scholars like J.W. McCrindle and many others claim that Kamboja (=Afghanistan) was the Kaofu (Kambu) as mentioned later by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang in his travels.

[Ref: J. W. McCrndle, Alexander's Invasions, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 235, Dr B. C. Law; cf: Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, pp 254-255, Dr Buddha Parkash; Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 1943, p 280, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People andthe Country, p 43118, Dr Kamboj  etc etc]

It also notable that the name Kabol or Kubha (Kophese/Kophen of Greeks) is attested since Vedic times, so this name was not given to this town by the Kaofu tribe as Cunnigham writes.

Thus Cunnigham 's observations on Kaofu tribe as being a Tochari tribe are wrong.

The name Kaofu in fact referred to Kambu or Kambuja or Kamboja. In the wake of political turmoils of second/1ist c BC, a section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas along with Yueh-chih clans had also crossed Hindukush and settled in the cis-Hindukush region. Hence the Kaofu clan (of the Kambojas) has erroneously been considered a clan of the Yuehchis by Cunnigham.

Thus we can see that besides Sakas, the Kamboja clans are sometimes confused with the Kushans/Yueh-chihs also. This is because the Rshikas(Tukharas/Yueh-chihs) and Kambojas have been very close neighbors accross the Oxus as the MBH powerfully attests for us.

Arjuna had to fight a fierce battle first with the Kambojas and Daradas in the cis-Hindukush region (Rajori/Swat valley) and after this, with the allied forces of Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rshikas north of Pamir-Badakshan/Tran-Oxian region.

 * Sanskrit:
 * daradAnsaha kAmbojairajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 22..\\
 * prAguttarA.n disha.n ye cha vasantyAshritya dasyavaH.
 * nivasanti vane ye cha tAnsarvAnajayatprabhuH .. 23..\\
 * lohAn.PparamakAmbojAn.RShikAn.uttarAnapi.
 * sahitA.nstAnmahArAja vyajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 24
 * —    (MBH 2/27/23-25)

Writing on political situation in Central Asia created as a result of Hunic pressure on Yueh-chihs and Yueh-Chih pressure in turn on the Sakas of Issykkul etc during second c BC, Dr. D Devhuti observes as follows:

 * These pressures brought all these tribes from central Asia...-sometimes very indistinguishable from each other-to north-western India around the beginning of the Christian era.[India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia (Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy & Culture, Volume 3 Part 2), Philosophy, and Culture Project of History of Indian Science, 80-81, (Dr D. Devhuti)]

Also, as it has also been noted by numerous scholars, ''due to intensive cultural admixrture in second and first century before Christ, the social customs, manners, dresses and language of the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Pahavss etc had become identical. Therefore, it is sometimes very difficult to differentiate one clan/tribe apart from the others'' [Ref: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 308, Dr Kamboj; cf India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia ( op cit., pp 80-81, Dr D. Devhuti; cf: Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256-257, Dr Sircar]

KLS

KAMBOJAS, SAKAS AND YAVANAS IN THE HEARTLAND OF INDIA, INCLUDING MATHURA:

Scholars have noted that the ancient sources and Sanskrit literarture composed around Christain Era and after do not very carefully differentiate the Kambojas from Yavansas or the Kambojas  from  the Sakas, or the Sakas from the Pahlavas  and vice versa.

Example 1: Sakas counted among the Kambojas:

In Kabol area, Ashoka's Rock Edicts only attest Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas. Undoubtedly, there was also some Saka population living in north-east Afghanistan during Mauryan age. It is notable that whatever Saka population was present in Kabol region, it was indiscriminately counted among the Kambojas. (See: Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Organization, Vol XVI, Parts III, and IV, 1930, p 229, Dr Jayswal, Ancient Kamboja, People and the country, 1981, p 308, Dr Kamboj).

Example 2: Kambojas and Pahlavas counted among the Sakas in Sakasthan.

Only Sakas are often considered to be the inhabitants of Sakasthan. But, besides the Sakas, there was also some Kamboja and Pahlava population settled in Sakasthan. The Kambojas and Pahlavas inhabitants of Sakasthan are often counted among the Saka population and treated as Sacas (See: Dr. S Chattopadhya;  Sakas in India, p 14; Dasgupta C. C., The Developement of  the Khroshathi Script, p 77;  Dr G. N. Bannerjee, Hellenism in Ancient India, p 120]

Example 3: Sakas counted among the Yavanas or the Kambojas (MBH 12/105/5)

The Sakas had entered Mathura in large numbers prior to Christian Era. Mathura was also the political headquarter of the Sakas. The Lion Capitol Inscriptions sufficiently attest that Sakas and Kambojas in Mathura. But the Mahabharta verses composed around Christian era do not attest the Saka presence in Mathura. They only attest the Kambojas and Yavanas in Mathura. This clearly shows that the authors of these verses had included the Sakas either into the Yavanas or else into the  Kamboja population and counted them as such.

After the massive intrusion of the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Yavanas  into India,  the term Yavanas had  become a common designation  for all aliens and was indiscriminately applied by the ancient Sanskrit composers to all foreign tribes  irrespective of their true ethnic or racial identity   (See: Journal of the Royal  Society Bengal,  Vol XLIII, Part I, 1874, pp  269, Dr R. L. Mitra, 271; op.cit., pp 19-20, Dr G. N. Banerjee;  Padama Purana, Srsti.khanda, Ch 47/69-75; Geog Data Early Puranas, 1972, p 144-45;  Look up Yavana in  Williams Monier Sanskrit-English Dictionary).

Further, the culture of the Kambojas  had substantively been modified due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both Yavanas and Kambojas are known to be following common culture, customs and mannerism such as supporting short cropped hair (Kamboja mundah..yavana mundah), non-entertainment of  Brahmanas  (Manusmiriti X/43-44, R.E XIII), observance of  two varnas only  (Arya and Dasa see Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3,  Vishnu Purana 2/37) etc etc.

The expression Yonakambojesu  found in Rock Edict  XIII and Majjhima Nikayia (43.1.3) strongly alludes to very intimate connections of the Yavanas with the Kambojas.

Due to these reasons, ancient verse composers had sometimes indiscriminately included the Kambojas among the Yavanas and counted both as  the Yavanas and vice versa.

Similarily, there are instances where the Kambojas are also included among the Sakas and addressed as Sakas and vice versa.

The ancient Kambojas were geographically located in the extreme fringe of ancient Jambudvipa in Central Asia, located even beyond Gandhara. The Kamboja-land (Avestan land)  thus bordered  with both the Scythian-land located to its  north-west, and the Indo-Aryan land located to its south-east. Thus the Kambojas were simulatnoeusly exposed to nomadic Scythian culture on its north-west and to Indo-Aryan culture on its south-east. In other words, the Kambojas had formed the geographical, cultural and linguistic transition region between the Scythian world and the Indo-Aryan world.

Therefore, the northernmost clans of Kambojas may have been somewhat scythianised in culture while those in southernmost side may have been somewhat Indo-Aryanised. Probably the central fringe of Kambojas (Pamirs) only remained remained pure Iranian in culture.

On Mathura Issue: '' It very important to note that both  literary and inscrptional sources i.e the Mahabharta as well as the Lion Capitol Inscriptions are in agreement about the Kamboja presence in Mathura. Yavanas in Mathura are attested by Mahabharta and Yuga Purana .Only the Lion Capitol Inscriptions attests the Sakas in Mathura.''

KLS

=Part Two=

The Kambojas
Kambojas (modern Kambojs/Kambohs) are a very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda itself. They are known to belong to ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

In Aitareya Brahmana, the Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra tribes have been stated to be living beyond Himalaya (VIII.14). The Vamsa Brahmana (1/18) of the Samveda refers to Madrakara Shaungayani as a teacher of Aupmanyava Kamboja (Vedic Index II, p 61). According to Dr A. D. Pusalkar, sage Upamanyu mentioned in the Rgveda (I.102.9), too all probability, is the father of this Kamboja teacher(History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 259). Similar are the views of Dr Zimmer, Dr Ludwig and  Dr Law (Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 231). From the fact that Kamboja Aupamanyava is stated to be pupil of sage Madrakara, Dr Keith and Dr Macdonnel of the Vedic Index as well as Dr H. Zimmer etc postulate a possible connection of the Uttaramadras with the Kambojas, who probably had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities (Vedic Index, I.84, 138; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, pp 65, 164, Dr M. R. Singh; India as Known to Panini, p 50, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; cf also: An Ancient People of Panjab, The Udumbras, Journal Asiatique, 1926, p 11, Jean Przylusky showing that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who were known as Bahlika-Uttaramadras).

Kambojas - An Iranian Tribe
Numerous historians now believe that the Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranian Aryans.

 * "As shown in the Jataka and Avestic literature, Kamboja was a center of ancient Iranian civilization as evidenced by the peculiar customs of the country " (The Kamboja Janapada, Jan 1964, Purana, Vol VI, No 1, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, p 229; Jataka edited by Fausboll, Vol VI, p 210 )

 * "Zoroastrian religion had probably originated in Kamboja-land (Bacteria-Badakshan)....the Kambojas spoke Avestan language.'' (Bharatiya Itihaas Ki Rup Rekha, p 229-231, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar).

Dr Michael Witzel also thinks that the Kambojas were east Iranians speaking Avestan language [Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies,Vol. 7 (2001), issue 3 (May 25), Art. 9]

Yaska (700 BC), in his Nirukuta, contrasts the speech of the Kambojas with that of the Aryans i.e Indo-Aryans:

 * Sanskrit:
 * shavatir gatikarmaa Kamboje.sv eva bhaa.syate...vikaara enam Aaryaa bha.sante shava iti./
 * — Nirukuta II/2

 * English:
 * The verb 'shavati', meaning 'to go', is used by the Kambojas only..... but its root 'shava' is used by the Indo-Aryans.

Almost similar information on Kambojas is provided by Patanjali's Mahaabhaasya (2nd c BC).

 * Sanskrit:
 * zavatir gatikarmaa kamboje.sv eva bhaa.sito bhavati, vikaara enam aaryaa bha.sante zava iti/
 * —        (Patanjali's Mahaabhaa.sya is p. 9, in Vol. 1 Kielhorn's Edition).

 * English:
 * The verb 'zav' in the sense of 'going' is used only among the Kambojas. The same verb in the nominal form 'zava' is used by the Aaryas in the sense of 'transformation'.

It is interesting to note that this evidence by Yasaka (~7th c BC) and Patanjali (2nd c BC) puts the Kambojas in straight contrast to the Indo-Aryans and further, the word shavati is not found in ancient Sanskrit literature but it is a well known Iranian word. (See: The Language of the Kambojas, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1911, p 802, Dr G. A. Grierson; cf: Kamboja verb shavati represents, sound by sound, the Young Avestan sauuaiti 'to go'....Dr Michael Witzel, Persica, 9, 1980, p 92).

Based on Yasaka's Nirukuta (2/2), Dr G. A. Grierson wrote in 1911 that  'the Kambojas, a barbarous tribe of north-western India, either spoke Sanskrit with an infusion of Iranian words to which they gave Indian inflexions or else spoke a language partly Indo-Aryan and partly Iranian'   (The Language of the Kambojas, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society 1911, pp 801-02).

Even prior to Dr Grierson, and based on Yasaka's Nirukuta as well as a gatha from Bhuridatta Jataka, one noted German scholar,  Dr Ernst  Kuhn had written in 1904 that the Kambojas spoke a language embodying specialities of both the Sanskrit as well as Iranian language, and further as a part of  their religious practice, the Kambojas considered it a duty to kill  snakes and other poisnous insects  ( Das Volk Der Kamboja bei Yasaka, First Series of Avesta, Pahlavi and Ancient Persian Studies in honour of the late Shams-ul-ulama Dastur Peshotanji Behramji Sanjana  (Strassberg & Leipzig, 1904), pp 213 ff, Dr Ernst Kuhn).

After Dr Grierson's investigations on Kambojas appeared in 1911, Dr Kuhn managed to publish a summary of  his own article (Das Volk Der Kamboja bei Yasaka) in English in  the 1912 issue of Journal of Royal Asiatic Society in support of Dr Grierson, also including comments from Dr Grierson himswelf. Dr Kuhn had specifically drawn Dr Grierson's attention to the following verses from the Buddhist Jatka about the Kambojas (Fausboll, Jataka, Vol VI, pp 208, 210; The Jataka, VI, p 110, Trans. E. B. Cowell)

 * Pali:
 * kita patanga urga cha mekka/
 * hattya kirmi sujjhati makkhika//
 * ete hi dhamma anaryarupa/
 * kambojakanam vitatha bahunan ti//
 * —  (Jataka, VI, 208)

 * English:
 * Those men are counted pure who only kill,
 * Frogs, worms, bees, snakes or insects as they will,
 * These are your savage customs which I hate,
 * Such as Kamboja hordes might emulate.
 * — (The Jataka, VI, p 110, Trans. E. B. Cowell).

In the light of above disclosures from Jataka gatha on the Kambojas, the views of Dr Grierson had completely changed and, thence-afterwards, Dr Grierson started considering the Kambojas undoubtedly a tribe of the Iranians.

Dr Grierson wrote: "This gatha, by itself, establishes a close connections between the ancient Kambojas and the ancient Iranians with whom the destruction of noxious or ahramanic creatures was a duty" (Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson).

That killing of lower animals is a Zoroastrian religious practice is attested from the passages in Mazdean books like the Videvati (XIV.5-6) as well as from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140) about the Persian religion.

Herodotus on Persians/Magians:

[Book 1.140]: "....... The Magi (priests of the Persians)...... kill animals of all kinds with their own hands, excepting dogs and men. They even seem to take a delight in the employment and kill, as readily as they do other animals, ants and snakes, and such like flying or creeping things....." (Herodotus, Translated by: George Rawlinson).

Almost similar information is also furnished by Mahabharata, which speaks of the Yavanas, Kambojas, Darunas etc as the fierce barbarians from Uttarapatha (MBH 6/9/65) as well as a Mlechcha tribes (i.e non-Indo-Aryans) from beyond the north (MBH 6/11/63-64):

 * Sanskrit:
 * uttarashchapare mlechchha jana bharatasattama .//63
 * Yavanashcha sa Kamboja Daruna mlechchha jatayah /
 * —    (MBH 6/11/63-64)

and further reckons them among the sinful people having nature of Svapakas and Grddharas (MBH XII/207/43-44).

 * Sanskrit:
 * uttara pathajanmanah kirtayishyami tanapi./
 * Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata barbaraih saha.//43
 * ete papakritastata charanti prithivimimam./
 * shvakakabalagridhrana.n sadharmano naradhipa.//44
 * — (MBH 12/207/43-44)

Hence, this Mahabharata evidence also alludes to non-Indo-Aryanism i.e Zoroastrianism of the Kambojas, as attested by the Buddhist Jataka above.

Assalayanasutta (II.149) of Majjhima Nikaya differentiates the Kambojas from Indo-Aryans in that the Kambojas, Yavanas (alien westerners) and some other  frontier people practiced only two social classes...Arya and Dasa...master and slave:

 * Pali:
 * Yona-Kambojaseu annesu cha panchchantimesu janapadesu dvea vanna
 * ayyo ceva daso ca ayyo hutva daso hoti daso hutva ayyo hoti ti..
 * —  (Majjhima Nikaya (II.149))

This social practice of the Kambojas differentiated them from the Indo-Aryans who believed in Brahmanical varnasharmadharama and thus practiced chatur-varna or four-class social system.

Even the Ganapatha 178 on Panini's rule II.1.72-Mayuravyamsakadi differentiates the Kambojas from Indo-Aryans saying that Kambojas practiced wearing short head-hair (Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah) where as the Indo-Aryans usually wore long hair or else they supported a top knot. This fact is also attested from Mahabharata (7/119/23) as well as from numerous puranas.

 * "Beyond any reasonable doubt that the Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranians "(Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson)

 * "The Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranians " (History of lndia, Vol. I, Dr R. Thapar 1961/1997: p 276).

 * cf: " The Kambojas were of Iranian extractions....they were settled in Afghanistan region in Uttarapatha. Their numbers were ocassionally swelled by new migrants from Iran, especially during age of Achaemenians "(Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256, Dr D. C. Sircar).

 * cf: "The Kambojas...who were known in Indian traditions as a foreign people, with peculiar customs, who raised celebrated horses, spoke - as the Nirukuta (II,2.8) tells us- a language with iranian words in it..... and had, according to Buddhist Jataka (VI.206, 27-30), a certain religious practice - the killing of insects, moths, snakes and worms - which we may recognize as Mazdean from the passages in Mazdean books like the Videvati (XIV.5-6) as well as from the remark of Herodotus (I.140) about the Persian religion " (Journal Asiatique, CCXLVI 1958, I, pp 47-48, E. Benveniste).

 * cf: "... the Nirukta of Yáska (300 BC) has been cited for the statement the word shavati as a verb of motion is spoken among the Kambojas, a statement that would be correct for speakers of an Iranian dialect.."(See: The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, (c.525 to 479 BC), Volume 4, 1988, p 199, John Boardman, N. G. L. Hammond, D. M. Lewis, and M. Ostwald)

 * cf: " The Kambojas located somewhere in east Afghanistan spoke Iranian language and followed Zoroastrian habits of killing lower animals " (Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, fn 81, p 114, Dr Michael Witzel).

 * According to W. J. Vogelsang and Willem Vogelsang, "the name Kamboja was commonly applied in Indian sources to the Iranian population of the borderlands i.e Afghanistan " (The Afghans (Peoples of Asia), 2001, p 127, also Index,  W. J. Vogelsang and Willem Vogelsang; Also Fraser 1979).

One thing more: The ancient Kambojas have also been referred to as Asura warriors in texts like Markandeya Puraana (Verse 8.1-6) as well as in Srîmad Devî Bhâgawatam (verses 5/28/1-12) etc.

These ancient texts refer to a mythological war of goddess Durga/Ambika with some mighty Asura warriors/clans of north-west like Udayudh, Kambu, Kotiveerya, Dhumravanshajaata, Kaalaka, Kaalkeya etc (obviously, all Iranians). There is reference to eighty-four select warriors from the Kambu (Kamboja) clan accompanied by Kambu fighters set on a ferocious war with the deva forces of goddess Durga [Glory of the Divine Mother (Devi Mahatmyam), p 211, Sri Sankaranarayanan]

Scholars like Swami Vijnanannanda have correctly identified the Kambu clan with the Kambojas of Hindukush and the allied Kaalkeyas with the Afridis etc [See: The Shrîmad Devî Bhâgawatam, Trans: Swami Vijñanananda (1921-22), p 451]

It may be noted that the great Asura warrior king Shumbha, the hero of the Asura/Danava forces has been referred to as danuja-lord, the son of Diti (i.e ditija-danuja-âdayah) in Shri Devî Bhâgawatam as well as Markandeya Puraana traditions etc (Ref: Devi-Mahatam verse 9.30).

It is also very interesting to note that great epic Mahabharata also mentions one king Chandravarman of the Kambojas, who has been referred to as an incarnation of a great Asura Chandra, addressed as ditija.shreshtho i.e. foremost among the Asuras, the son of Diti (Diti was perhaps a local cult deity affected in Hindukush).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Chandrastu ditija.shreshtho loke taradhipopamah //31.
 * Chandra.varmati vikhiyaatah Kambojanam.nradhipah /32.
 * —  MBH 2/67/31-32, Gorakhpore Edition; See also K.M Ganguli's online MBH)

This reference also alludes to Iranian affinities of the Kambojas. It appears likely that this mythical Asura king Shumbha of Puranic Hindu texts actually refers to some daring-do warrior from the Iranian Kambojas of north-west; and that the Durga/Shumbha legend may refer to some dimly remembered remote tradition on border clashes among the ancient Iranian Aryans and the Vedic Aryans after the great divide had occured. Perhaps Ditija Chandravarman (a Kamboj) of Mahabharata and Ditija Shumbha of Merkendeya Purana/Srîmad Devî Bhâgawatam texts refer to same personage.

Asura was the name by which the ancient Indo-Aryans addressed their ancient Iranian neighbors. The same word is found as Ahura in ancient Persian traditions. The Asuras or Ahuras were Iranians followers of Ahuramazada (Zoroastrian religion) which the Kambojas indeed were. Initially, the word Asura did not have the negative (demoniac) connotations which it got only in later times. The Iranians, on the other hand, called the Indo-Aryans as Daivas on account of their being Deva worshippers which term also carried similar demoniac connotations.

[Refs: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1911, p 801-02; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 255-56; Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 456-57, Dr G. A. Grierson; Das Folk Der Kamboja bei Yasaka, Dr E. Kuhn, First Series of Avesta, Pahlavi and Ancient Persian Studies in honour of the late Shams-ul-ulama Dastur Peshotanji Bahramji Strassberg and Leipzig, pp 213-14; cf: J. Bloch, Indo-Aryan, Paris, 1965, p 330; Also Lit. Gesch, 9 169, p 363, Weber; Early Eastern Iran and Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, fn 81, 83 Witzel; Purana, Vol V,No 2, July 1963, p 256, Dr D. C. Sircar; The Afghans (Peoples of Asia), p 127,  W. J. Vogelsang; The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 3, p 951, E. Yarshater; 'Ancient Kamboja', in Iran and Islam, Bailey, H. W. etc; The Cultural Heritage of India, 1962 (Foreign Elements in Indian Population), p 615, Dr Debala Mitra]

The noted scholars like C. Lassen, S. Levi, M. Witzel, J. Charpentier, La Valle Poussin, A. Hoffman,  A. B. Keith, A. A. Macdonnel, G. K. Nariman, E. Kuhn,  H. W. Bellow, A. D. Pusalkar, S. Sen, D. R. Bhandarker, S. Thion and others have traced the ethnic name Kamboja in the royal name Kambujiya/Cambujiya  of the Old Persian Inscriptions (Cambyses/Kambuses of the Greeks). Kambujiya (also Kambaujiya) was the name of several great Persian kings of Achamenian dynasty. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyran, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elemite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language.

H. W. Bellow writes: "Darius succeeded, about 521 B.C to the empire founded by Cyrus (Kurush), and enlarged and consolidated by his son and successor Cambyses (Kambojia, Kambohji). Cyrus]-whose mother was called Mandane (Mandana; perhaps a princess of the Mandan tribe), and said to be a Mede, and whose father was called Cambyses (Kambohji; probably a chieftain of the Kamboh tribe) having reduced the Medes and conquered the kingdom of Croesus the Lydian (Lùdi), thereby became master of all the territory extending from the Indus to the Hellespont".
 * — (An enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan H. W. Bellow; also see: Sectarianism and Ethnic Violence in Afghanistan, Musa Khan Jalzai).

Kambujiya III (Cambyses III) is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he had wrought upon this country.

Location of Ancient Kamboja
The scholars are not unanimous on the location of ancient Kamboja. The Kambojas are variously said to have belonged to Khorasan, Balkh, Bokhara (H. H. Wilson); Afghanistan (J. McCrindle, Alexandra's Invasion); East Afghanistan (Dr Stein);Kafiristan to Kashmir (H. C. Raychaudhury, D. R. Bhandarkar); Pamir, Badakshan (Dr J. C. Vidyalankar, Raymond Allchin, Dr G. A. Grierson, Dr S. K. Chatterjee, Dr V. S. Aggarwala); Arachosia (D. C. Sircar, J. Fillozat, E. Benveniste, Michael Witzel); mountains of Gazni(Willford); Sindh/Gujarat (Dr S. K. Aiyanger, Dr P. N. Banerjee); Hindukush/Tibet (Dr V. A. Smith); Tibet [Charles Elliot, Dr Foucher, Dr G. G. Gokhale); and Cambodia (R. D. Banerjee), with their capital at an unidentified place called Dvarka, a name with Maga Associations. Scholars have identified this Dvarka with the modern 'Darwaz city' located in Tajikstan in Central Asia (Ancient India, Dr Rhys David, p 7; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, Dr Motichandra, p 38; Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I, pp 44,51, Dr S. K. Chatterjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 118, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

In ancient literature and inscriptions, the Kambojas are frequently listed with the tribes of Uttarapatha such as Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, Sakas etc. At several places in Mahabharata, the Kambojas are referred to as a tribe of Uttarapatha i.e north or north-west. e.g.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Uttarapatha janmanah kirtayishyami tanapi
 * Yauna kamboja gandharah kirata barbaraih saha
 * — (MBH 12/201/40)

 * Sanskrit:
 * Uttarashchapare mlechchha jana bharatasattama
 * Yavanashcha sa Kamboja daruna mlechchha jatayah
 * — (MBH 6/11/63-64)

 * Sanskrit:
 * Shakanam pahlavana.n cha daradanam cha ye nripah
 * Kambojarishika ye cha pashchimanupakash cha ye
 * — (MBH 5/5/15)

 * Sanskrit:
 * udichya kamboja shakaih khashaish cha
 * — (MBH 5/159/20)

Bhuvanakosha section of Puranas also specifically locates the Kambojas in the Udichya or north-west division of ancient India.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojashchaiva Dardashchaiva Barbarashcha Angaukikah. //47
 * Chinashchaiva Tusharashcha Pahlavadhayata narah. /48
 * ete desha Udichya.stu
 * —   (See Puranic-list of countries of Uttarapatha:  Based on Kirfels text of Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvankosha; Brahama Purana 27/44-53, Vayu Purana 45/115; Brahmanda Purana 12/16-46; Vamana Purana 13/37 etc).
 * —   (See Puranic-list of countries of Uttarapatha:  Based on Kirfels text of Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvankosha; Brahama Purana 27/44-53, Vayu Purana 45/115; Brahmanda Purana 12/16-46; Vamana Purana 13/37 etc).

This fact clearly proves that the 'Kamboja' of ancient Sanskrit literature invariably referes to a tribe and country of that name located in the Uttarapatha or north division of ancient India. The country was located beyond Gandhara, in the extreme north-west in Central Asia. Therefore, Kamboja of ancient Sanskrit literature must not be confused with trans-Gangetic Kamboja (or Kambuja) centered at Mekong basin which country came into existence several centuries after Christian era. Cambodia or Kamboja of South East India does not find any reference in ancient Sanskrit literature as is erroneously believed by some writers (cf: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Banerjee).

The most acceptable view is that the ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the 'Galcha' speaking area (the Iranian Pamirs and Badakshan) in Central Asia (Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, p 455, Dr G. A. Grierson).

Yasaka's Nirukuta (II/2) informs us that verb 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' was used by the Kambojas and Kambojas only (Early Eastern Iran and Atharvaveda, 1980, 92, Dr Michael Witzel; also Nilukuta, Vol I, Sarup).

The modern 'Galcha' language comprises seven main dialects viz. Valkhi, Shigali,  Srikoli,  Jebaka ( also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi.

It has been pointed out that the Galcha dialects spoken in Pamirs and countries on the head waters of Oxus mostly still have the continuants of the ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' (Op cit., pp 455-56, 468, 474, 476, 500, Dr G. A. Grierson; India as Known to Panini, p 48, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, p 37, Dr Moti Chandra; Bharat Bhumi Aur Uske Nivasi, 1930, pp 297-305, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar).

It has also been pointed out that the former language of Badakshan was a dialect of Galcha which has been replaced with Farsi only in the last few centuries (Op cit, p 456, Dr Grierson).

Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe region in Zerafshan valley (the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes) in Tajikstan also contains, to this date, a relic from verb 'shavati' of the ancient Kambojan language.

Interestingly, ancient geographer Ptolemy (2nd c) refers to one tribal people he calls Komoi (=Kamoi) and Komroi and  locates them  in  the mountainous regions of Sogdia as far as Jaxartes  (J.  McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans/edited by Majumdar, 1927, p 268, 275, 278, 284, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr Seth, Ancient Kamboja, People and Country,  p 49, 300, Dr Kamboj).

Ptolmy also calls the region fed by Jaxartes and its tributaries as Komdei. Ammianus Marcellinus calls it as Komadas.

Komudha in Indian traditions is one of the six dvipas stated to be situated beyond the sea. And is also name of mountainous region, north of mount Meru (Pamir). In anterior epic period, this probably was the name given to high table land of the Tartary, to north of Himalaya, from where the Aryans may have pushed their way southwards into Indian Peninsula and preserved the name as a relic of old mountain worship (Thomson). In Purans, it is described as golden mountain in the center of Jambudvipa (Classical Dictionary of India, John Garett, N.Y, 1973, p 392/393].

Dr Buddha Parkash identifies this Komdei of Ptolemy with the Komudha-dvipa of the Puranic literature and connects it with the Iranian Kambojas (India and the World, p 71, Dr Buddha Parkash; also see Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403,  Dr  H. C. Seth).

This Komoi of  Ptolemy  appears to represent the ethnic name  Kamboi,  a local variant of  the Sanskritic/Pali Kamboja  or Iranian Kambujiya (cf:  prikritic  Kamboya of  Ashoka's Rock Edicts located in Shahbazgarhi in Peshawer...Yone-Kamboy.esu  R.E. XIII;  Yona-Kamboya-Gamdharanam  R.E. V; also cf: Uttradhyana Sutra 11/16, writing  Kamboy for Kamboj).

This identification if true may explain as to why the Yagnobi dialect of Yagnobe region  in  Zerafshan valley in Tajikstan still contains the relics of  ancient  verb 'shavti' of the Kamboji language.

"The Badakshan Tajiks belong to the same Aryan race as the Tajiks of Galcha region and are the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas.......The Tajiks of Zerafshan valley/Yagnobe region are probably the modern representaives of ancient Kambojas...... " (Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, Dr Moti Chandra, Bharat Bhumi Aur Uske Nivasi, pp 313-14, 226; Bharata Itihaas ki Mimansa, p 335; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 165, 128, Dr Kamboj; The Cultural Heritage of India, pp 44,  51, Dr S. K. Chatterje).

The above discussion leads one to summarize that ancient Kamboja land, to all probability, comprised Pamirs, Badakshan and parts of Tajikstan onto Zerafashan river in the doab of Oxus/Jaxartes of Central Asia. Roughly, on east, it was bounded by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on north-west by Sogdia, on north by Uttarakuru, on south-east by Daradas and on south by Gandhara (cf: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 164, 237, Dr J. Kamboj).

This Kamboja location in Pamir-Badakshan originally suggested by Dr Christian Lassen has been accepted by eminent scholars like Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, Dr Moti Chandra, Raymond Allchin, Dr A. M Shastri, Dr S. K. Chatterje, G. A. Grierson, R. R. Pandey, Dr. D. Devahuti, Dr B. S. Upadhyaya, Dr J. L. Kamboj and other scholars).

It is also important to note that Kamboja and Bahlika (Bacteria) are mentioned in the same breath in several verses in Mahabharata e.g.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Shakah Kambojabahlika Yavanah Paradastatha
 * —        (MBH 7/98/13)

 * kritavarma tu sahitah Kambojavarbahlikaih.
 * —       (MBH 6/75/17; see also verses 2/27/23-23 etc).

Valmiki Ramayana also mentions the Kamboja and the Bahlika in the same breath:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kaambhoja.vishhaye jaatair Baahlikaishcha hayottamaih./
 * —     (Ramayana I/6/22)

Kashmir recension of ancient Ramayana has the following reading:

 * Aratta.Kapisham.Balhim.............(Ramayana, 4/44/23)

Ancient Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir has rendered the above reading as follows into his Ramayana Manjri:

 * Aratta.Bahlika.Kamboja.............(Ramayana Manjri, 4/252).

This not only shows that Kapisha and Kamboja were synonymous but also that Kamboja/Kapisha and the Bahlika were adjacent countries/peoples.

Atharvaveda-Parisia also juxtaposes the Kambojas with Bahlikas (Kamboja-Bahlika, AV-Par, 57.2.5; cf Persica-9, 1980, p 106, Dr Michael Witzel), thus further reinforcing the same fact.

This Kamboja-Bahlika association in several ancient sources suggests that the Bahlikas and Kambojas were neighborly tribes in the north-west, and therefore, they must be contiguously located in/around the Oxus country.

The Bahlikas-Madras-Kambojas equation:

The Vamsa Brahmana Aupamanyava Kamboja (1/18) is spoken of as pupil of sage Madrakara, who belonged to Madra tribe. Dr Zimmer as well as authors of Vedic Index postulates a connection between the Iranian Uttaramadras and the Kambojas. They were close neighbors in the north-western part of ancient India (Vedic Index, I, p 84-85, 138; India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 50, Dr Aggarwal; Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 232,  Dr B. C. Law;  Indian as Known to Panini, p 50; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 65, 164, Dr M. R. Singh; The Udumbras, Journal Asiatique, 1926, p 11, Jean Przylusky, showing that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who were known as Bahlika-Uttaramadras).

In Aitareya Brahmana (8.14), the Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras are described as living beyond Himalaya (paren himvantam).

 * Sanskrit:
 * tasmad atasyam udichya dishi ye ke ca pren himvantam janapada uttarakurva uttaramadra......
 * —    (Aitareya Brahmana, VIII/14).

This probably implies regions lying beyond Hindukush/Trans-Karakoram ranges. Hence the Kambojas as Uttaramadras' neighbors must also be located beyond the Karakoram/Hindukush somewhere.

Madra king Shalya of Mahabharata has been referred to as a Bahlika Pungava i.e foremost among the Bahlikas (MBH I. 67.6; I.112.3).

Princess Madri from Madra Royal family has also been referred to as Bahliki (MBH  I. 124. 21).

This implies that in the remote past (Vedic age) the (Iranian settlement of) Madras was located in Bahlika (Bacteria).....the eastern parts of Oxus country. These Madras were, in fact, the Uttaramadras of the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII/14) (Dr J. Przyluski, Dr A. B. Keith, Dr I. A. Macdonnel, Dr V. S. Aggarwal, Dr M.R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj)

However, in 4th c BC, this Bahlika/Bacteria came under Yavana/Greek political control and thus the land was referenced as Bahlika-Yavana in some of ancient Sanskrit texts.

Kamasutra of Vatsyayana refers to a peculiar custom prevalent among the Bahlika as well as Strirajya countries i.e. of several young men marrying a single woman  (Kamasutra p 385). This reference suggests that there was either a tribal closeness or a geographical proximity between the Bahlika and Strirajya people.

Since the Bahlika is attested in the western parts of Oxus country, while the Strirajya was situated in West of  Tibet/South of  Khotan, the most plausible location for the Kamboja must be in eastern parts of Oxus country i.e in Badakshan and Pamirs.

Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (5th c AD) informs us that after reducing the countries of western- Ghats, king Raghu proceeds via land-route to conquer the Parasikas (Raghu 4/60). Inspite of fierce fight, the Persians loose the battle (Raghu 4/65). Raghu's forces move in north (kauberi) direction from Parasika (Sassanian) land (Raghu 4/66), reach the Vamkshu (Raghu 4/67). At Vamkshu, Raghu's horses take breather and shed the Kesra (SAFFRON) leaves off their shoulders by rolling in the sands of Vamkshu Banks (Raghu 4.67). Here follows the encounter with the Hunas (Raghu 4/68) on west Banks of Vamkshu (Oxus). The Hunas in 5th c AD were located in west parts of Oxus country i.e in Bacteria. The Huna forces meet with complete disaster. Immediately after reducing the Hunas on western bank of Oxus, Raghu faces the Kambojas (Raghu 4/69). This suggests that the Kambojas were in close neighborhood to Hunas and were thus located in eastern Oxus country in 5th c AD. There is reference to Kamboja's WALNUT trees being bent on account of Raghu's elephants being tied to them:

Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah samare sodhum tasya viryam aniivarah
 * gajalan.prikilishatairakshotaih sardhmaantah. //69
 * teshaam sadashva.bhuyishthaas tunga.draviynah.rashyah. //70
 * —    (Raghu 4/69-70)

The Kambojas did not give battle to Raghu (Kambojah samare sodhum tasya viryam aniivarah, Raghu 4.69) but by discretion as better part of valor, sent their embassies with presents of excellent horses and high mounds of material wealth i.e immense treasure  (teshaam sadashva.bhuyishthaas tunga.draviynah.rashyah) including the paipilika gold to sue for peace (Purana, VI, No 1, Jan 1964, Dr V. S. Aggarwal; Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India,  p 240, Dr B. C. Law ).

Kalidasa's reference to Raghu's horses being covered with KESRA (SAFFRON) (Raghu 4/67) is very important. Interestingly, the region lying on both sides of Vamkshu is still very famous for Kesra/saffron produce and thus holds strong clue to ancient Kamboja being located in this region (Raghu's line of conquest along India's Northern Border, Proceedings & Transactions of the 6th A.I.O. Conference, 1930,  pp 101-120, Dr J. C. Vidyalnakar; Bharatya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 531-33;  Ancient Kamboja People and the Countryt, 125, Dr  Kamboj).

Again, Kalidasa's reference to Raghu's elephants being tied to Kambojas' WALNUT TREES (4/69) is also revealing. It is important to note that Badakshan and the Central Asian region around it is still very famous for its quality cultivation of walnuts which thus correctly points to this region being the land of  ancient Kambojas  (India In Kalidasa, p 61, B. S. Upadhyaya; Indian Historical Quarterly, III, p 524, K. D. Uapadhyaya; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 239)

It is also noteworthy that Kalidasa's reference to IMMENSE TREASURE (tunga.draviynah.rashyah...(Raghu 4/70)) presented by Kambojas to Raghu also points to the correctness of above identification of Kamboja in eastern parts of Oxus country (Badakshan-Pamirs) since even now there are emerald and lapis lazuli mines extant in Galcha speaking Munjan. (India in Kalidasa, 1968, p 61, B. S. Upadhyaya). Arabic sources also make references to famous mines of Wakhan and Anderab (Geographical Econom. Studies, p 46, Dr Moti Chandra). The Kámbuka silver of  mountain Kambu (located in ancient Kamboja ...see Tribes, Coins and Study, Dr M. K. Sharma, 1972, p 274), probably near Munjan, is also referred to by Kautiliya in his Arathashastra  (2/13/15).

Kalidasa's evidence on Kambojas' riches/opulence is also supported from Nirukuta (II/2.8) of Yasaka, which notes the Kambojas as follows:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah Kambalabhojah kamanyiabhoja va kambalah kamaniyo bhavati.....
 * —     (Nirkuta II/2.8)

 * English:

Kambojas are fond (bhojah) of blankets (kambala) or they are found of pleasant/beautiful(kamaniya) things. A blanket (kambala) is also a desirable object (kamaniya).

Commenting on the above statement of  Yasaka about Kambojas, ancient commentator Acharya Durga  noted as under:

 * Sanskrit:
 * kamniyani prarthaniyani chaite hi dravayanih upbhunjante parchurratano hi ca desha iti.
 * —       (Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Nirukuta II/2)

 * English:

They (Kambojas) were so called because they made use of pleasant and beautiful things since there was abundance of  gems/ratanas and  precious stones in their country.

Also cf the following statement of Sikanda Swami about Kambojas:

 * Sanskrit:
 * ashva.ratanady va kamaniya.meva prayenopabhujiyante
 * —      (Sikanda Swami and Maheshvara on Yasaka' Nirukuta II.2.8)

 * English:

The Kambojas enjoyed ashvas/horses, ratanas/gems and other pleasant or desirable things.

Thus, Kalidasa's reference to presents of high mounds of gem/ratna rashya (teshaam sadashva.bhuyishthaas tunga.draviynah.rashyah)  including paipilika gold and numerous excellent quality horses from the Kambojas sufficiently supports the Kamboja location in eastern parts of Oxus country comprising the mineral-rich Pamirs and Badaksahan (India in Kalidasa, 1968, p 61, B. S. Upadhyaya;  Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 129,  248-49, Dr  Kamboj)

[cf: Kambojah.......yama.vishvar.opapmah...i.e. extremely rich Kambojas...(MBH 7/23/40-42)].

After settlement with the Kambojas (4/70), Raghu's army is stated to have ascended Himalaya (tato gaurigurum shailmaru-rohasvasadhanah..(Raghu 4/71)). The route Kalidasa is referring to in his Raghuvamsa is the one which descends from Pamirs in Central Asia, passes through Karakoram, eastern parts of Kashmir including Leh-Ladakh, Kashatwar, to the west of Tibet, and touches Trigarta (Kulu Kangra), Utsava-Sumketa/Kinnara country, then the Kirata  (Nepal)and skirting the Himalayas, which finally reaches Kamarupa. The terminal point of Raghu's journey refers to head-waters of Ganga (Ganga.shikarinah marge marutas tam shishevire..Raghu, 4.73) in Garwal etc. There is also a very important reference to kichaka bamboos and birch bar trees  in Raguvamasa  (bhrijesu marmarobhutah kichaka.dhavanihetavah.. (Raghu 4/73)).

Kalidasa's reference to GAURI-GURU/Himayalaya after the Kambojas  and the details of  the route he describes (including KICHAKA-BAMBOOS and BIRCH-BAR TREES) in his play correctly suggest that the Kambojas were somewhere in eastern parts of Oxus country in Badakshan/Pamirs north of Karakoram/Himalaya ranges.

Hiuen Tsiang (7th c AD) refers to one Kumito as an independently ruled provincial unit in Pamirs (east of Khotlan) stated to form one of the 17 political provinces in former Tukharistan region. Wu-k'ong refers to it as 'Kiomeche', while T'ang calls it 'Kumi'. Ancient Muslim writers refer to it as Kumed or Komadh. Al-Maqidisi refers to the people living in this region as Kumiji. The scholars have identified this name with Komedon, Cambothi or Kambuson of the Greek writings. Indian texts refer to it as 'Kamboj' (Ref: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi; cf: Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empires, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; cf India and the World,  p 71, Dr Buddha Parkash).

That the Kumito (=Kamboj) of Hiuen Tsiang existed as an independent political territory in/around Pamirs in 7/8th c is also confirmed from Kalhana's Rajatrangini.

According to Rajatarangini of Kalhana (4/163-175)... a text from the north itself, King Lalitaditya of Kashmir undertakes to reduce his neighbing countries. He launches war expedition onto the region of north (from Kashmir):

 * Sanskrit:
 * sa pravishat suvistiranamapthenottrapatham
 * —    (Raghu 4/163)

and first he fights with the Kambojas (4/164- 4/165) and deprives them of their horses. Immediately after the Kambojas, he meets the Tukharas. Tukharas do not give him fight, but run away even abandoning  their horses in the field (Rajatangini 4/166). Then Raghu meets the Bhauttas (Western Tibetans in Baltistan, north of Kashmir...(Raghu 4/168)), then the Dardas in Karakorum/Himalaya (4/169, 4/171), the Valukambudhi (4/172). Then he encounters Strirajya (4/173-174), the Uttarakurus (4/175) and the Pragjyotisha [Rajatarangini, Translated and annotated by Ranjit Sitaram Pandit (1935; New Delhi: Sahitya Academi, 1968), pp. 128-134.].

It is noteworthy that the Uttarapatha of Rajatrangini here means the region lying north to Kashmir which obviously means trans-Himalayas in/around the East Oxus country/Pamirs (Dr  Vidyalankar; Dr Aggarwal, Dr Kamboj).

Based on this trail of victories of Lalitaditiya, scholars have located the Kambojas in the Eastern Oxus country as immediate neighbors to Tukharas who were located in western Oxus country including Bahlika (Geographical and Economical studies, p 38, Dr Motichandra;  Bharatiya Itihaas ki Mimansa, pp 225-226, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Purana, V, No 2, pp 355-59, Dr V. S. Aggarwal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 153; 300, Dr Kamboj; Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, 1972, p 166, Dr M. R. Singh;  also: Bhartiya Bhumi aur Uske Nivaasi, 1930, p 297-304 and  Bharatia Itihaas Ki Ruprekha, pp 526-37).

Dr Sircar also observes: 'Rajatrangini (4/165-166) places the Kambojas along with the Tukharas in the upper Oxus valley including the Balkh and Badakshan' (Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, The Land of Kamboja, p 252, Dr D. C. Sircar).

Interestingly, in this trail of victories, Kalhana also mentions Uttarakuru, Strirajya (mythical or otherwise) and Pragjyotisha after the Bhauttas/Tibetans. It is also noteworthy that both Rajatrangini as well as V.D lists the Kambojas among the neighboring tribes to Strirajya.

Now the Uttarakuru to the north of Pamir is attested in Mahabharata in Arjuna's Digvijay expedition of the north-west countries, where the epic specifically refers to (mythical) Uttarakuru (MBH II.28.9-12) situated beyond the lands of Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rshikas (MBH II/27/25).

Mahabharata further attests that the Uttarakurus were located to the south of Nila Parvata and to the north of Mt Meru.

 * Sanskrit:
 * dakshinena tu nilasya meroh parshve tathottare. /
 * uttarah Kuravo rajanpunyah siddhanishevitah. 2//
 * —  (MBH 6/7/2)

The Meru of Hindu traditions is identified with the Pamirs (Dr V. S. Aggarwal, Dr M. R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Richard L. Thompson, Bertrand L., Byron Lebeau; Penny Kelly's, H. P. Blavatsky, I. P’iankov', David Salo, B.B. Kumar .....also see MSN Encarta online).

Dr K. P. Jayswal takes the Hindukush mountains as the Meru of Puranic traditions (Hindu Polity, I & II, 1978, p 138, 139) which is only an extension of Pamirs.

Nila Parvata was probably the north-east range of Tien-shan or the Altai-Mt.

Ramayana also refers to Uttara-Kauravas (Ramayana 4-43-38) and suggests their location in trans-Himalayaya region beyond the land of Kichakas/Bamboos, across river Shailoda which river has been identified with Khotan/Jade (Dr S Levi, Dr M. R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc ) or with Yarkandh/Sita (Dr Motichandra etc).

Thus, Uttarakuru of Sanskrit tradition probably referred to the region comprising north-west of Sinkiang province of China, the Tien-Shan ranges and south-eastern parts of Kirgyzstan.

According to scholars like Dr Aggarwala, the Uttarakuru was located to north of Pamirs in Central Asia and was also famous for its horses of Tittirakalamasha variety (2/28/6;19) (Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 63).

And according to Dr Michael Witzel, 'Strirajya' was located to north of Kashmir and west of Tibet (Early East Iran and Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 118, fn 105). The Strirajiya was probably  to the south of Khotan  and west of Tibet  (Yuan Chwang, I, p 330; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 168 ff, Dr M. R. Singh)

Thus the above evidence based on Rajatrangini verifies the Kambojas as simultaneous neighbors to the Daradas (located in the north-west of Kashmir in Karakoram/Himalaya), to the Tukharas (in Balkh and perhaps parts of Badakshan), to the Bhauttas (in Baltistan, west Tibet), to the (mythical) Uttarakuru (in N.W. Sinkiang/Tien-shan/Southern Kyrgizstan ) and to the Strirajya (in south of Khotan, west of Tibet). Obviously, this Rajatrangini evidence places all these people, except the Daradas in the trans-Himalayan central Asia.

The above tribal distribution leaves eastern parts of Oxus country including the Pamirs and parts of Badakshan as the most plausible location for the 'Kumitos' (of Hiuen Tsiang) or the 'Kambojas' (of Kalhana) in 7th/8th c AD. This region is indeed to the north-west of Daradas and borders with the Tukhara country located in the north-west, as Kalhana's Rajatrangini attests for us. This Oxus country was occupied by Tukharas in early second c BC. According to Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, during second c BC, the Tukharas (Yueh-chihs) held political sway over Badakshan-Pamir and thus the ancient Kamboja land became a part of Tukharistan. But later, when the fortunes of Yueh-chihs fell, Tukharistan boundaries had shrunken to western parts of Oxus country only so that the Pamirian Kambojas again got the former name for their country (Refs: Bharata Itihaas Ki Rup Rekha, p 534, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 153, 301, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

The land of 'Kichaka bamboos' growing along Shailoda river, referenced both in Raghuvamsa as well as in Ramayana, is situated between the Pamirs (Meru) and Altai Tag (Mandara Mt), and the river valleys between these two are still overgrown with forests of Kichaka Bamboos. It is also noteworthy that the Gauriguru route followed by Raghu (4/73), after settlement with the Kambojas started from this Kichaka-bamboos region in Central Asia, through the passes of Karakoram (which are used till date as a direct route from Central Asia to India) through eastern parts of Kashmir and Kashatwar (overgrown with birch-bar trees), to Trigarta (Kulu-Kangra) to Utsava-Samketas i.e. Kinnaras  of Rampur-Bushar, Kirata (in Nepal)(Purana, Vol  VI, No 1, Jan 1964, p 224-225, Dr Aggarwal; Ancient Kamboja, p 145-46, Dr Kamboj).

The Kishkindha Kanda of Valmiki Ramayana (composed around 200-100 c BC) mentions Sakas (Scythians), Kambojas and the Yavanas (Greeks) as close neighbors (in trans.Himalyan region i.e beyond Hindukush).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kaamboja Yavanaan caiva Shakaan pattanaani ca /
 * Anvikshya Daradaan caiva Himavantam vicinvatha //12
 * —    (Ramayana 4/43.12)

The Yavanas here refer to post-Alexandrian Yavanas located in Bacteria/Balkh (western Oxus country), and the Sakas here refer to Sakas of Sogdia/Jaxartes and beyond. The Kamboja location in western Oxus country as neighbors to both the Yavanas and the Sakas is thus pretty much certain.

Arabic geographer Al-Idrisi (1099c-1166c AD],  while writing on Badakshan and about its flora, its fauna, its scenic beauty, its quality horses & ponis, its precious stones and mineral wealth etc, then at the end he states that Badakshan shared boundaries with Kanoj. The Kanoj of Idrisi, in fact, is the Sanskrit Kamboj. Due to misplacement of dot, the Kamboj got changed to Kanoj in Persian transcription. Al-Idrisi belonged to 11th c AD.  Obviously, the boundaries of ancient Kamboj had considerably shrunken down at times of Idrisi so that he had to differentiate Badakshan from the Kamboj located in its contiguity i.e. Pamirs. Otherwise also, the Kanoj of  Idrisi can't be the Kanauj of  Uttar Pardesh since the Kanauj of Uttar-Pardesh does not share boundaries with Badakshan and it is also located thousands of miles away from Badakshan.

Parja Bhatta the author of fouth Rajatrangini while writing about history of Moghul dynasty in India writes emperor Babur as a Yavana king from Kambhoja.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kaambhoja.yavaneshen Vabhore.n vipatitah/
 * tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra// 223//
 * —    (Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatrangini Sangraha: p 110)

Since Vabur (Babur) was native of Fargana in Central Asia, which region is immediately to the north of Pamirs/Badakshan...the land of ancient Kambojas, this medieval age evidence furnishes us almost with the precise location of Ancient Kamboja.

Thus, Yuan Chwang, Kalidasa, Kalhana, Idrisi and Parja Bhatt etc all seem to locate the ancient Kamboja in eastern parts of Oxus country, to the north/north-west of Kashmir i.e in Pamirs-Badakshan. There are many more references in ancient Sanskrit literature which also seem to place the Kambojas in Badakshan/Pamirs.

Dr Aggarwala concluded: "The Kamboja as equivalent to Pamir-Badakshan satisfies all ancient references and data" (Geographical Data in Panini's Ashtadhyayi, J.U.P.H.S., Vol XVI, part I, p 27, Dr V. S. Aggarwala)

During Achamenian rule, some sections of Kambojas from Trans-Hindukush had crossed Oxus/Hindukush and planted colonies  on its southern side including Swat valleys and Rajapura/Rajori. This view is beautifully reinforced from the fact that Yidga, a sub-dialect of the Galcha Munjani is still spoken in Ludkoh  on the south of Hindukush  (cf: op cit, p 455, Dr G. A. Grierson; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, p 154, Dr Kamboj).

The ancient name of Kabol is Kamboj (Supplementary Glossary, 1889, p 304, Elliot, H, . M). The Kaofu of Hiuen Tsang is 'Kambu' or Kabol or Kamboja and is equivalent to modern Afghanistan (McCrindle, Alexandra's Invasion, p 38, Megasthenes and Arrian, p 190; Chandragupta Maurya and his Times, 1943, p 280, Dr R. K. Mukerjee).

With passage of centuries, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially still Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region appear to have come under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are attested to have both Indian as well as Iranian affinities.

There is scriptural evidence showing that like the Kuru/Uttarakuru, Madra/Uttaramadra, China/Parama-China, Yona/Parama-Yona, there were also two Kambojas....one located probably in Pamir/Badakshan and beyond which was known as Parama-Kamboja and the second was located to the south of Hindukush in Paropanisadai region which was known as Kamboja. This view is powerfully substantiated from Mahabharata verses (II.27.23-25) which specifically draw our attention to Kamboja and Parama-Kamboja people:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Grihitva tu bala.n saram phalgu chotsrijya pandavah./
 * Daradansaha KambojairajayatpakashAsanih.//23
 * praguttara.n disha.n ye cha vasantyashritya dasyavah./
 * nivasanti vane ye cha tansarvanajayatprabhuh.//24
 * LohanParama.KambojanRishikan uttarAnapi./
 * sahita.nstanmaharaja vyajayatpakashasanih.25//
 * —      (Mahabharata II/27/23-25)

The above scriptural text relates to Arjuna's Digvijay expedition against the tribes located in the north-western parts of ancient India (MBH 2/27/23-25). Obviously, these verses attest two Kambojas.... one located as neighbors to the Daradas in cis-Hindukush region (Kamboja) and the second  as  neighbor to the Lohas and Rshikas in the Trans-Hindukush/Trans-oxian  regions (Parama-Kamboja).

Thus we see: The historical truth is that there were two Kambojas.

The above fact is also supported from Ptolemy's Geography which references a geographical term Tambyzoi on the Oxus in Badakshan and also an Ambautai people located on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropanisadae region (Geography 6.18.3, Dr Witzel; See map in McCrindle, p 8 ). Interestingly, eminent indologists like Dr S. Levi (Indian Antiquary, 1923, p 54) and Dr Michael Witzel (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September)) have identified these Ptolemian 'Tambyzoi' and 'Ambautai' with the Sanskrit Kamboja

(Refs: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 4; Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, A Critical Study, pp 167, Dr M. R. Singh; Geographical Text of the Puranas, A further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No I, Feb 1962, pp 112-46, C. A. Lewis; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 150-157, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

'It appears that the Kambojas were originally a people of the Pamir-Badakshan region who later planted colonies in southern side of Hindukush including Rajori. The later came to be known as Kamboja and the former as it was away from the later became famous as Parama-Kamboja' (Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, a Critical Study, 1978, p 168, Dr M. R. Singh; also Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, History of Panjab; cf: Sidhant Kaumudi, R. R. Pande, 1966, p 20-22).

The Kambojas whom we see often associated with the Bahlikas in ancient Sanskrit literature, in fact, are the Trans-Hindukush Branch of the Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas). These Kambojas are associated with the Rshikas of Trans-Hindukush. The Rshikas have been identified with the Tukharas/Kushans (Dr Aggarwal, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalanakar).

Obviously the Parama-Kambojas lived in what today comprises the Galcha speaking region of Central Asia. These Kambojas were allied with the Lohas and the Rshikas against Arjuna's troops.

 * Lohan Parama.Kambojan-Rishikanuttaranapi.
 * —   (MBH 3/27/25)

The Kambojas whom we see aligned with the Daradas against Arjuna were the cis-Hindukush Kambojas. These are the Kambojas whom we often find listed with the Yavanas, Gandhars and the Daradas (Yona-Kamboja-Gandharanam......Ashoka's R.E  V; Yone-Kambojesu....R.E XIII; Yona-Kamboja-Gandhara ...MBH 12/207/43).

These Kambojas have been grouped with the Daradas in Arjuna's war expedition against the countries of Uttarapatha (MBH 2/27/23).

 * Daradansaha Kambojairajayat pakashasanih
 * —   (MBH 2/27//23)

They are the Kambojas of Rajapura/Abhisara (modern Rajori-Poonch) whom Karna had also earlier fought with and defeated (Mahabharata 7/4/5).

 * Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava. //5
 * —   (MBH 7/4/5).

The political head-quarters of cis-Hindukush Kambojas at the time of Mahabharata appear to be at Rajapura/modern Rajori (For Rajapura = Rajori, see: Yuan Chwang, Vol I, p 248, Watters; Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p 148 Cunnigham; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr Raychaudhury)

Later, some sections of the Kambojas had moved still further onto Arachosia, which fact is attested from Aramaic version of 'Shar-i-Kuna inscriptions' of king Ashoka found in Kandhar in which the Aramaic version of the Ashoka's inscriptions is said to have been intended for the Kambojas.

John Boardman argues: "Due to the fact that passages from the Mahabharata link the Kambojas with the Bahlikas 'Bactrians', the Yavanas `Greeks', the Sakas '(Indo-Scythians)' and the Gandharans. Likewise in Ashoka's Vth Rock Edict, the Kambojas are coupled with the yonas `Greeks' and the gamdharas `Gandharans' (yona.kamboja.gamdharanam...) and in XIIIth Rock Edict, they are connected with the yonas (yona.Kambojesu...). Prof E. Benveniste, in his discussion of the Asokan Greco-Aramaic inscription from Kandahar, suggested that it may have been addressed to the Yonas and Kambojas in that region, though no mention of such peoples is made in the text of Kandhar inscription " (The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, (c.525 to 479 BC), p 199, John Boardman; Journal Asiatique, p 48, E. Benveniste; also Puranas, Vol V, No 1, July 1963, Land of Kambojas, Dr D C Sircar).

Dr Michael Witzel holds similar views. Hence Dr Witzel locates the Kambojas from Kabol valley down to Arachosia (Persica-9, p 92, fn 81).

The Kambojas - A Kshatriya Tribe
The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas is Panini's Ashtadhyayi.

Panini (5th c BC) refers to the Kamboja Janapada and mentions it as one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas. e.g:

 * Sanskrit:
 * [4.01.168] Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ
 * [4.01.175] Kambojal.luK
 * — ''(Panini's Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168, 175)

(Refs: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 29-31, 200, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 427, Dr Aggarwal)

This is the most powerful evidence attesting that the ancient Kambojas were Kshatriyas or warriors by professions.

Harivamsa informs us that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas etc were formerly Kshatriyas. It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas and other allied tribes from their Kshatiyahood and forbidden them from performing the Svadhyaya and Vasatkara (Harivamsa, 14/1-19).

 * Sanskrit:
 * nih.svadhyaya.vashatkarah kritastena mahatmana .//.17
 * —     (Harivamsa 14/17)

 * sarve te Kshatriya Vipra dharmastesham nirakritah. //.19
 * —    (Harivamsa 14/19)

It is also interesting to note that Harivamsa calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e foremost among the Kshatriyas.

Manusmriti informs us that the tribes of Kambojas etc were originally noble Kshatriyas but were gradually degraded to the status of Shudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites and of their not consulting the Brahmanas ((verses X/43-44).

Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) states that the 'Kshatriya Shrenis' (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kamboja, Surashtra and some other countries lived by agriculture, trade and by weilding weapons. From this statement also, it is clear that the Kambojas were Kshatriyas (Dr B. C. Law).

Mahabharata also specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally noble Kshatriyas, but later on, got degraded to barbaric status for not following the Brahmanas and due to not performing the sacred rituals (verses 13/33/31-32].

Kamatha Kamboj of Mahabharata is referred to as one of the foremost Kshatriya kings (Kshatriya shreshtha) present at the inaguration ceremony of Indraprastaha arranged by king Yudhishtra (MBH 2/4/21-22)

Sudakshina Kamboj, the brave king of Kambojas had joined the Bharata war leading one Akshauhini army comprising the Kamboja, Yavana and Shaka warriors. Sudakshina was the chief Sanapati of this formidable joint army of Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas, which army has been likened to a mass of loury clouds accompanying the storm!

 * Sanskrit:
 * vibhuyamana vatena bahurupa ivambudah/
 * Sudakshinashcha Kambojo Yavanaishcha Shakaistatha//
 * upajagama Kauravyamakshauhinya visham pate/
 * tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau//.
 * — (MBH 5/19/21-23)

Dr Law: "We thus find the Kambojas leading a very large and powerful army to the field of Kurukshetra and laying down their lives like valiant Kshatriyas which they were" (Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 247, Dr B. C. Law).

The legend of divine sword detailed in Shanti parva of Mahabharata also powerfully endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. The sword, as a symbol of Kshatriyahood was awarded to a certain Kamboja king by Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, the celebrated king of Kosala, who in turn, had passed it on to king Muchukunda (a Yavana king?).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Dhundhumarachcha Kambojo Muchukundastato.alabhat
 * MuchukundanMaruttashcha Maruttadapi Raivatah
 * — (MBH 12/166/77-78)

Bhagavatam Purana (verse 2.7.35) references a king of Kamboja and calls him as powerfully armed and mighty warrior.

 * Sanskrit:
 * ye va mrdhe samiti-salina atta-capah kamboja-matsya-kuru-srinjaya-kaikayadyah
 * yasyanty adarashnam alam bala-partha-bhima vyajahvayena harinah nilayam tadiyam
 * —     (Srimada Bhgavatam  2.7.35)

There are numerous references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature which powerfully document the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas.

Hence it is safe to conclude that the Indianised version of the Iranian Kambojas belonged to the Kshatriya varna in the Indo-Aryan Society.

Kambojas in Indian literature
Kambojas find repeated reference in ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature including Atharvaveda, Panini's Ashtadhyayi, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas, Kautiliya's Arthashastra, Buddhist Jatakas, Jaina Canons, several Sanskrit plays and numerous other ancient texts.

Kambojas of Yasaka's Nirukuta (2/2)
Yaska (700 BC?) in his Nirukuta (2/2) refers to ancient Kambojas as follows:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Shavtirgatikarma Kambojesveva bhasyate........
 * vikaramasy.Aryesu bhasyante shava iti
 * —    (Nirukuta 2/2).

 * Translation:
 * The verb S'avati, meaning ' to go', is used by the Kambojas only. Its modified form s'ava in the sense of 'dead body' is used by the Aryans i.e. Indo-Aryans.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah kambal.bhojah kamaniya.bhoja va
 * kambalaha kamaniyo bhavati
 * —    (Nirukuta 2/2).

 * Translation:
 * The Kambojas (are so called because) they enjoy blankets (kambala), or beautiful or desirable(kamaniya) things. A blanket (kambala) is also a desirable object (kamaniya).

Thus it can be seen that Acharya Yasaka not only enlightens us on  the language of Kambojas but also attempts to give an etymology of  name Kamboja.

Yasaka's comments on the language of the Kambojas (shavatir gatikarmaa Kamboje.sv eva bhaa.syate...vikaara enam Aaryaa bha.sante shava iti) have already been sufficiently dealt with in the preceding sections (See: Location of Ancient Kamboja;  Kambojas - An Iranian Tribe).

This section reviews Yasaka's comments on the etymology of Kamboja.

YASAKA'S ETYMOLOGY OF KAMBOJA
Yaska defines Kamboja as
 * kamaniya.bhojah and
 * kambal.bhojah.

Several ancient commentators have commented on these Yasaka's etymological terms i.e. Kamaniya.bhoja as well as Kambal.bhoja as follows.

(i) ANCIENT COMMENTATORS ON KAMANIYA.BHOJAH:

(a). Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Kamaniya.bhoja:

 * Sanskrit
 * Kambojah  kamaniya.bhojah.
 * kamnaniyani prarathaniyani chaite hi dravayani upbhunjate parchur ratano hi sa desh iti.
 * —   (Nirukuta Vimarash 2/2: Acharya Durga)

 * Translation:

Kambojah = kamaniya.bhojah:

They (Kambojas) enjoy beautiful things since their country is abounding in precious pearls/gems i.e precious stones.

(b). Brahmuni Privrajika on Kamaniya.bhojah:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kamboja  kamniya.bhoja.
 * kamaniyam iti kam ka.n ca sukham bhavati hi sukham kamniyam bhavati ka.n sukham.
 * kamniyam, kamaniyani badamadini vividhani sufalani bhunjate tasmaat Kambojah.
 * —   (Nirukuta Vimarash 2/2: Swami Brahammuni Parivrajik)

 * Trannslation:

Kambojah = kamaniya.bhojah:

The 'kam' in Kamboja implies kamaniya. 'Kam' means pleasure, happiness (sukham). Since they (Kambojas) enjoy pleasant or beautiful things (kamaniya) like the almonds/Badams and variety of  precious fruits  (dry fruits), hence they are called Kambojas (enjoyers of pleasant things).

(c). cf: Sikand Swami on Kamaniya.bhojah:

 * Sanskrit:

 * Kambojah  kamaniya.bhojah.
 * kamaniyan va yatheshata.n vishayaan bhunjate, mlechhadeshatvan.
 * Istriopey.gabhyagabhyadi.vivayaharrahita ityarathah.
 * Ashva.ratanadi va kamaniya.meva prayayenope.bhunjate.
 * —    (Nirukuta 2/2, Acharya Sikand Swami)
 * —    (Nirukuta 2/2, Acharya Sikand Swami)

 * Translation:

Kambojah = kamaniya.bhojah:

They (Kambojas) do not follow proper rules in the choice of  their diet, they use mlechcha food since they belong to a mlechcha country. They also do not observe proper rules in choice of women i.e they are indiscriminate in the choice of woman (for their sexual needs)..................................They (Kambojas) enjoy horses, ratanas/motis (i.e. pears/gems..precious stones) and kamaniya fruits/meva etc...hence are called Kambojas.

Comment: The dictionary meaning of Kamaniya is pleasant, lovely, beautiful, desirable etc (See: Wiiliam Moniers Sanskrit-English Dictionary; see also Standard Bhargava's Hindi-English Dictionery, 2000, p 128 etc). The ancient lexicons have also rendered 'kamaniya' in the comely, pleasant, or beautiful sense. Celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa also uses 'kamaniya' in the sense of desirable, pleasant, lovely and beautiful  (See: Kumaarasambhavam, 1/37; Also ref: Ancient Kamboja,  People and the Country, 1981, p 225, Dr Kamboj).

Dr Moti Chandra has interpretted the 'kam' or 'Kamaniya' of Yasaka's Kamboja in the handsome, beautiful or comely sense (Geographical and Economical Studies, J.U.P.H.S., Part II, 1943, p 39). Dr B. C. Law also translates 'Kamaniya' in the pleasant or beautiful sense (Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 233).

Thus, the commentators like Acharya Durga, Swami Brahammuni Parivrajika etc have correctly interpretted the underlying meaning of 'Kamaniya' in Yasaka's etymology of  Kamboja.

Hence, Acharya Sikand Swami's interprettation of Yasaka's 'kamaniya' in the negative sense with rerence to Kambojas is in error and therfore, unaceptable.

(ii) ANCIENT COMMENTATORS ON KAMBAL.BHOJAH:

(a). Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Kambal.bhojah

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah  kambal.bhojah.
 * te hi prayen kambalan upbhunjate, himprayayatvat tasya deshasya.
 * —   (Nirukuta Vimarash 2/2: Acharya Durga)

 * Translation:

Kambojas are Kambal.bhojas.

Only, they (Kambojas) make use of Kambalas (blankets) since their country is extremely cold.

(b). Acharya Sikand Swami on Kambal.bhojah:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah   kambal.bhojah.
 * te cha himaprayatvad deshasya eishvara api santah kambalan upbhunjate iti kambalbhojah ::santo varana.lopevyapatiyadina Kamboja iti uchyante.
 * —    (Nirukuta 2/2, Acharya Sikand Swami)

 * Translation:

Kambojas are Kambal.bhojas.

In spite of their luxurious living, they (Kambojas)  make use of kambalas (blankets) since their country is extremely cold. And therefore being Kambal.bhojah, and due to elision of characters/letters (in Kambal.bhoja), the name got changed into Kamboja....hence they are called Kamboja''.

Thus, it is seen that Yasaka's Nirukuta (2/2) and the comments thereon from various commentators following Yasaka furnish us with very valuable information on Kambojas' language, ethnicity, their food habits, dress-mode as well as on the climate of Kamboja and  its geographical location. It also provides powerful evidence on Kambojas' opulence and the luxurious lives they lived.

The connection of kambalas with Kambojas reveals  that the Kamboja  was a very cold country. Therefore, the Kambojas habitually wore woolen blankets  out of fashion, as well as necessity to protect themselves from the rigors of cold (cf. Dr Law). The blankets or kambalas, warm skins and soft furs from Kamboja were all emroidered with fine threads of gold (MBH 2/51/3). The kambals and the soft furs woven with threads of gold were indeed a very luxurious stuff compared to clothes made of raw goat skins/deer skins which many of other clans were accustomed to wear in those remote times. Hence, Acharya Yasaka's Nirukuta provides very informative hints on Kambojas's luxurious dress and clothing.

cf: The Kamboja people were famous for their furs and skins embroiderd with threads of gold and their woolen blankets.. i.e. kambalas)..... (Ref: Hindu World Vol I, p 520, Benjamin Walker).

In Rig Veda(V. 1. 126 .7), Gandhara i.e Gandhari is stated to be very famous for its good wool. A special variety of blankets known as pandu-kambala  (Panini IV.2.11) was a product of Gandhara. Gandhara is also known to the Atharvaveda for its fine wool.

"Quite in keeping with Kambojas's association with Gandhara, is the love of Kambojas for blankets (kambhals) to which Yasaka (2/2) bears testimony" (Political History of Ancient India 1996, p 132 fn, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury).

Mahávánija Játaka (No. 493) specifically mentions blankets or kambalas of Odyana (or Udyana) of Swat valley (region between Swat  and Ghoure (Panjkora) rivers ... Suastos and Guraeus of  the Greeks respectively)  which region was undoubtedly a part of ancient Kamboja Mahajanapada and was inhabited by Assakenois (Ashavakas) and Gaurean (Gore) Kambojan clans (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 216-217, 133), as we have already sufficiently proved (Location of Ancient Kamboja;   The Ashvaka Kambojas and Alexander, the Great).

(It is important to note that the Gandharans were first blood cousins of the Kambojas).

Mahabharata too speaks very high of the expensive blankets/shawls of Kamboja country. The kings of Kamboja presented to Yudhishtra innumerable skins of the best kind, and blankets made of wool, of the soft fur of rodents and other burroughers, and of the hair of cats,--all inlaid with threads of gold. (MBH 2/51/3).

 * Sanskrit:
 * aurnan vailan varshadamsha~njatarupaparishkritam.
 * pravarajina mukhyamshcha Kambojah pradadau bahun .//3
 * —    (MBH 2/51/3)

There is further reference to princes of Kamboja sending unto Yudhishtra (as tribute) innumerable skins, black, darkish, and red, of the deer Kadali, as also numberless blankets of excellent textures. (See also Early Eastern Iran and the Atharavaveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 114, fn 81, Dr Michael Witzel)

 * Sanskrit:
 * kadali mrigamokani krishna shyamarunani cha.
 * Kambojah prahinottasmai parardhyanapi kambalan. //19
 * —   (MBH 2/49/19)

Mahabharata further refers to Kamboja princes as worthy of sleeping on soft/precious woolly astrans (MBH 12/25/1)

 * Kambojam pashya durdharsha.n Kambojastaranochitam/.
 * shayanamrishabhaskandha.n hatam pa.nsushu madhava .//1
 * —      (MBH 12/25/1).

Numerous references to kambalas also show that that ancient Kamboja  was very cold country and hence was a mountainous land. As noted before, it comprised Hindukush mountains, Pamirs, Badakshan and parts north of Oxus as far as Yognobe region/Zerafshan valley in Tajikstan, where fine varieties of grapes, pistachio, walnuts, almonds, raisins, kesera etc were abundantly cultivated and are still cultivated which  stuff formed important constituent of  ancient Kambojas' diet. Another valued food delicacy of ancient Kamboja was 'honey' which is attested in Atthakatha of Kunala Jataka (Jataka, Vol V, p 446; Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 240; Ancient Kamboja, pp 240, 246, Dr Kamboj). These food stuffs were counted amongst the most precious and solicitable foods in ancient India and still are considered the most expensive delicacies from Indians' point of view. Hence these comments of Yasaka on Kambojas.

The numerous comments from ancient commentators on Nirukuta (2/2) as we have noted above also demonstrate that Kamboja was indeed a very rich country,  full of precious mineral wealth including ratanas/gems and other precious stones.

There are ancient Buddhistic references to the merchants visting Kamboja land with a desire to harvest wealth  [Yassa atthaya gacchama Kambojam dhana-haraka....Ankuravatthu section of  Petavatthu (verse 257-258)]. Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa also attests to immense treasures i.e high mounds of material wealth of  the Kambojas (tunga.draviynah.rashyah...  Raghuvamsa verse 4/70 ). And Mahbharata also bears strong witness to extreme riches of ancient Kambojas (Kambojah.... Yama. vaishravan.opamah  MBH 7/23/41-42  i.e. the Kambojas rich like Kuber, the god of wealth).

All these ancient literary references powerfully attest  to the opulence and luxurious life styles of ancient Kambojas.

The precious wealth of Badakshan/Munjan/Andrab including Kambuka/Kamboja silver, paipilika gold, zinc, ioly iron, lapis lazuli, garnets, emerald, amethyst, diamonds, Kambu (conchs/ shells)  and other precious stones as well as abundance of Kamboja horses and a variety of woolen carpets/blankets, furs, skins... all embroidered with threads of gold appear to have greatly contributed to Kambojas' opulence, and hence their life styles. According to Dr Aggarwala, an important economic feature of the Kamboja was its special breed of horses.

In 6th c BC,  Bahlika, Kamboja and Gandhara formed parts of 20th strapy of Achamenian Empire which included parts of  Vahika country (Panjab) and the lower Indus Sindhu also. According to Herodotus, it was the richest strapy of Achamenian empire and paid in tribute proportionately much larger than all the rest ---360 talents of gold dust. Undoubtedly, most of the gold came from Bahlika and Kamboja. Gold deposits are known in several tracts of North-West Frontier and quantities of gold were recovered from alluvium of the rivers in this region.

cf: In early 6th c BC, north-west division comprised Kamboja, Gandhara and Madra ....the region was at once wealthy but disunited, thus formed a natural pray for the foreigners  (Political History of Ancient India, 1996,  p 211). In nutshell, we gather the following useful information, directly or indirectly, on Kambojas from Yasaka and the later commentatators on his Nirukuta.

1. The Kambojas, especailly the Trans-Hindukush Kambojas, were Iranian/Avestan speaking people.

2. Kambojas made use of precious woolen stuff, blankets, carpets, astrans etc.

3. Woolen industry was very important industry of Kamboja (Achemenids and India, p 57, Dr S. Chattopadhayaya).

4. Climate-wise, ancient Kamboja was a extremely cold country.

5. Kamboja was a mountainous/parvarta country of north-west, inhabited by so-called men of the Mountain-Land, the Highlanders of the Classical writings (Arrian) or the Akaufaka of Xerxes.

6. Kamboja land abounded with precious/delicious food stuffs like grapes, raisin, walnuts, almonds, kesra (saffron), honey etc.

7. Kamboja land teemed with precious mineral wealth including lapis-lazuli, garnets, amethyst, gems, ratanas, Paipilika gold (Dr Aggarwala) and Kambu/Kambuka silver etc, thus contributing to the riches of Kambojas.

Kambojas of Panini's Ashtadhyayi
As stated before, Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi, notes the Kamboja as one of the fifteen prominent Kshatriya Janapadas in the north-west division.

 * Sanskrit:
 * [4.01.168] Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ
 * [4.01.169] Salveya.Gandhari.bhyan cha
 * [4.01.170] dvinaC.Magadha.Kalinga.Surama.sadn
 * [4.01.171] vrddhait.Kosala.Ajada.Ñyan
 * [4.01.172] Kuru.nadi.bhyo.rayah
 * [4.01.173] Salvaavayava.Pratyagratha.Kalakuta.Asmakad iÑ
 * [4.01.174] te tadrajah
 * [4.01.175] Kambojal.luK
 * [4.01.176] striyam Avanti.Kunti.kurubhyas.cha
 * [4.01.177] aTascha
 * — (Panini's Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-177)

Sutra IV.1.168 (Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ) is important. Grammatically, it teaches that the affix aÑ (or  Ñyan,  iÑ etc)  comes after a word which is both the name of a country and a Kshatriya tribe settled therein. Here the identity of Janapada and the powerful Kshatriya clans settled there is repeated. These ruling Kshatriyas inhabiting these Janapadas were, as we are informed by Katyayana (2nd c BC), governed by two-fold constitutions; some were monarchies (ekarjat) and others were republics (Sanghas).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kshatriyad ekarjat Sangha-pratishedhartham./
 * —   (Katyayana's vartika V.1.168.1)

As monarchical countries, Panini mentions Salveya, Gandhari, Magadha, Kalinga, Suramasa, Kosala, Ajada, Kuru, Salva, Pratyagratha, Kalakuta,  Ashmaka, Kamboja, Avanti and Kunti.

The kings who ruled over these countries were Kshatriyas, and Panini's sutra 4.1.174 (te tadrajah) teaches us that the same word denoted both a descendent of the Kshatriyas i.e a citizen of Janapada and their king or ruler. (India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 427, Dr V. S. Aggarwala)

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kshatriya.samana.shabdat janapadat tasya rajanyapatyavat/
 * —   (Katyayana's vartika V.1.168.3)

Illustration:

KSHATRIYA TRIBES AND THEIR JANAPADAS/COUNTRIES:

(i)
 * Panchaala = name of Panchaala Janapada or country.
 * Kamboja  = name of Kamboja Janapada or country

(ii)
 * Panchaala = name of Panchaala Kshatriya clan.
 * Kamboja  = name of Kamboja Kshatriya clan.

The above nomenclature holds good for all the Kshatriya tribes so named by Panini in sutras (4.1.168 through 4.1.177) including the Kamboja.

KSHATRIYA DESCENDENTS AND THEIR RULERS:

But Panini recommends appropriate affix (aÑ, Ñyan, iÑ etc) to be added to the Janpada word for all Kshatriya Janapadas (except  the Kamboja Kshatriyas)  to obtain derivative to denote the descendents of  the ruling Kshatriyas as well as their kings. e.g:

(iii)
 * Panchaala + aÑ => Paanchaala = descendents of Panchaala Kshatriya clan.

And per Sutra 4.1.174 (te tadrajah), the same word  shall denote the descendent of Kshatriyas as well as the ruler of  that Kshatriya tribe/Janapada. Hence:

(iv)
 * Panchaala + aÑ => Paanchaala =  the ruler of  Panchaala Kshatriya tribe.

(Ref: India as Known to Panini, 1953, pp 426-27, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 29-31, Dr J. L. Kamboj)

Thus, by adding appropriate affix (aÑ, Ñyan, iÑ etc) with Janapada word, the derivative to denote the descendents of  Kshariyas  as well as their Kshatriya kings  can be obtained for various  Janapadas named by Panini (4.1.168 through 4.1.177)  except the Kamboja.

For Kamboja (and only the Kamboja) Panini recommends Luk  of an affix with janapada Kamboja  (sutra  4.1.175: Kambojal.Luk)  which importantly informs us of an EXCEPTION for  KAMBOJA, such that the Kshatriya word  Kamboja  does not need any affix (aÑ, Ñyan, iÑ etc) to be added to it  to obtain derivative to denote the Descendents of Kamboja Kshatriyas  as well as the Kshatryia ruler  of Kambojas Kshatriyas.

This means that the word KAMBOJA itself denotes not only (i) the Kamboja country/janapada and (ii) the Kamboja Kshatriya tribe, but, unlike other Kshatriya Janapadas, it also denotes (iii) the descendents of Kamboja Kshatriyas and (iv) the Kshatriya ruler/king of the Kamboja Janapada.

(Refs: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 29-31, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf : Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp 6-7, Dr D. R. Bhandarkar; Some Kshatriya Tribes of ancient India, p 234, Dr B. C. Law; Panini Kaleen Bharat (Hindi), 1955, p 61; India as Known to Panini, p 427, Dr V. S. Aggarwal; cf: Early East Iran and Atharvaveda, Persica, 1980, ffn 47, Dr Michael Witzel).

Katyayana (3rd c BC) has expanded the scope of Panini's sutra 4.1.175 (Kambojal.luk) by adding a vartika to the sutra as follows:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kamboj.adhibhyo-luk-vachanam chadadyartham.
 * —    (Katyayana's Vartika V.1.175.1)

And he states that like Kamboja, the words like Choda, Kadera, Kerala, Saka, Yavana also denote each not only the country and the Kshatriya tribe inhabiting the country, but also the Kshatriya king ruling over it (op cit, p 6-7, Dr Bhandarkar; Op cit, p 234, Dr B. C. Law; op cit p 30, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

Panini has also read Kamboja in the Ganas to IV.2.133 (Kachhadi ) and   IV.3.93  (Sindhuvadi) and has recommended adding affix like aÑ etc to obtain appropriate derivatives to denote  the ancestral homeland of  Kamboja Kshatriyas and  the products  native to the Kamboja-land as follows:

Kamboja  +  aÑ   =>  Kaamboja.

Kaamboja here denotes the ancestral homeland of the Kambojas.

Also, Kaamboja denotes a horse or  an elephants native to Kamboja  (Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary)

Similarly, Mashpurni, Hingpurani, Somavalak, Punaag,  Silver/Gold and Conch  native to Kamboja were also named Kaamboja, Kaambojaka or Kaamboji etc  (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, pp 29-31, 255; Monier Williams Sanskrit-English  Dictionary; Halayudha Kosha;  Shabdratansamanyakoshah etc etc).

The above animal/plant/mineral derivatives are in accordance with the principles of Linguistics/Philology which teaches us that a special product native to a certain place gets named after that place.

The Ganapatha 178 on Panini's rule II.1.72 - ''Mayuravyamsakad'i' informs us that the Kambojas and the Yavanas observed a social custom of supporting short-cut head-hair:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah

i.e shaved headed Kambojas, shaved headed Yavanas.

This same fact is also conveyed by the Mahabharata:

 * Sanskrit:
 * mundanetanhanishyami danavaniva vasavah.
 * pratigyam parayishyami Kambojan.eva ma vaha.
 * —      (MBH 7/119/23)

as well as numerous Puranic literature.e.g.

Sanskrit:
 * Yavananam shirah sarvam Kambojanam tathaiva cha.
 * —     (Brahma Purana, verse 8.48)

Kambojas in Mahabharata Traditions
Adiparva (1/67/31-32) references a powerful king of Kambojas called Chandravarma, of whom the Mahabharata says as follows:

 * Sanskrit
 * candras.tu.ditija.zrestho.loke.taaraa.adhipa.upamah. /
 * Candra.varmati vikhiyaatah Kambojanam.nra.dhipah.// 32
 * —       (MBH, 1/67/31-32  Gorakhpore, Vulgate)

 * Translation:

The foremost among the sons of Diti known by the name of Chandra and handsome as the lord of the stars himself became on earth noted as Chandravarman, the king of the Kambojas

In Sabhaparva (MBH 2/4/22), we learn of another king of Kambojas called Kamatha Kamboj who is counted among the principal Kshatriya guests who had joined Yudhistra at the inauguration ceremony of the kingly palace at Indraprastha

 * Sanskrit:
 * tathaiva kshatriya shreshtha dharmarajamupasate./ 20
 * kakshasenah kshitipatih kshemakashchaparajitah./.
 * Kambojarajah Kamathah kampanashcha mahabalah.// 22
 * —      (MBH 2/4/20-22)

The ancient kings of Kambojas were all known as 'Kamboja' (Panini Ashtadhyayi 4/1/175). Long ago, this country was ruled by a king named 'Kamboja'. In Mahabhara Shantiparva (MBH 12/166/77), we learn that this Kamboja king was awarded the prized sword by Dhundhumara aka Kuvalashava, the celebrated king of Ayodhya:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Dhundhumarachcha Kambojo Muchukundastato.alabhat .//77
 * —       (MBH 12/166/77)

Perhaps, it was from this king 'Kamboja' that the country came to be called Kamboja (Puranic Encyclopaedia, by Vettam Mani)

The king of Kambojas had taken part in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhishtra.

Also the Kamboja king was present at Syamantapapanchaka at the time of Solar eclipse (Srimad-Bhagavatam X/75.12; X/82.13).

Sudakshina of Kamboja had participated in the swayamvara of princess Draupadi's of Panchala (MBH 1/185/13).

Among the Kshatriya tribes in the great Epic, the Kambojas occupy a very prominent place. They were allies of Duryodhana and by their bravery, and especially the prowess of their king Sudakshina (MBH 5/166/1-3), they had rendered great service to Kuru side in the long drawn battle at Kurukshetra (Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 241, Dr B. C. Law).

With his army comprising Kambojas as well as the Sakas and Yavanas which looked like multicolored loury rainclouds moved by gusty winds, Sudakshina, the chief of the Kambojas had started his march on to the aid of Kaurvas. The mass of his one akshauni army looked indeed like a swarm of locusts, which on reaching Kurukshetra had merged with the Kaurava army and disappeared among them.

 * Sanskrit:
 * vibhuuamana vatena bahurupa ivambudah/
 * Sudakshinashcha Kambojo yavanaishcha shakaistatha.// 21
 * upajagama kauravyamakshauhinya visham pate/
 * tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau.// 22
 * — (MBH 5/19/21-22)

Sudakshina Kamboj was the chief Sanapati of the composite formidable army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and the Sakas.

Sudakshin Kamboj was also one of the ten very intelligent, mighty, powerful, illustrious, purushavyaghrah, lionlike, Mahabahu Generals or Sainapatis of the composite Kaurava army. These Generals have been descrbed as bestowers of charities and performers of Yajnas.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Shakunih Saubalah Shalyah Saundhavo.atha Jayadrathah./
 * VindAnuvindavAvantyau Kambojashcha Sudakshinah.// 15
 * Shrutayudhashcha Kalingo Jayatsenashcha Parthivah./
 * Rihadbalashcha Kaushalyah Kritavarma cha Satvatah.// 16
 * dashaite purushavyaghrah shurah parighabahavah./
 * akshauhininam patayo yajvano bhuridakshinah.// 17
 * —        (MBH 6/16/15-17)

There were numerous great warriors in the composite army of Kauravas capable of striking fierce force, but from amongst them, after very careful consideration, king Duryodhana had picked up 10 most intelligent and brave Chiefs/Generals including  Sudakshin of Kamboja.

 * Sanskrit:
 * duryodhanasya senasu yotsyamanah praharinah..//29
 * tatra duryodhano raja shuranbuddhimato naran.
 * prasamikshya mahabahushchakre senapati.nstada ..//30
 * prithagakshauhinina.n cha pranetrinnarasattaman.
 * vidhipurva.n samaniya parthivanabhyashechayat .. //31
 * Kripa.n Dronam cha Shalyam cha Saindhavam cha maharatham.
 * Sudakshina.n cha Kambojam Kritavarmanameva cha .. //32
 * Dronaputra.n cha karnam cha Bhurishravasameva cha.
 * Shakuni.n saubala.n chaiva Bahlikam cha mahAratham ..// 33
 * —     (MBH 5/155/30-33)

 * Translation:

The mighty-armed king Duryodhana had selected from amongst them ten very brave and intelligent warriors and made them the Generals placing an Akshauhini of troops under each of those best of men, viz., Kripa, Drona, Salya, Jayadratha, the king of the Sindhus, Sudakshina of Kamboja, Kritavarman, Drona's son (Aswatthaman), Karna, Bhurisravas, Sakuni Subala, and the mighty Vahlika....Each of these Generals  was ceremoniously brought before the Kaurava army with proper honor and were consecrated for the prestigious office. And thus appointed, all warriors, with all their followers, became desirous of doing what was most agreeable to king (Duryodhana).

In the enumeration of great heroes on Kuru side, Bhishma extols the prowess of Sudakshina of Kambojas of whom he says: ' in my opinion, Sudakshina of Kambojas is equal to a Ratha and he will certainly fight in the battle with the enemy desiring the success of your objects. The prowess of this lion among the chariot warriors exerted on your behalf, O best among the kings, will be seen by the Kurus, in battle as equal to that of Indra himself. The best of the chariot warriors under him are strikers with fierce force. The Kambojas, O great king, will cover the land like a swarm of locusts '(Op cit, p 242, Dr B. C. Law).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Sudakshinastu Kambojo ratha ekaguno matah ./
 * tavartha siddhimaka~Nkshanyotsyate samare paraih. //1
 * etasya rathasi.nhasya tavarthe rajasattama. /
 * parakrama.n yathendrasya drakshyanti kuravo yudhi. //2
 * etasya rathavamsho hi tigmavegapraharinam. /
 * Kambojanam maharaja shalabhanamivayatih. // 3
 * —      (MBH 5/165/1-3)

Duryodhana in his message to Pandavas gives a very important place to the Kambojas by placing them side by side with the greatest heroes on his side: thus he says that his immense army with Bhishma as the current which cannot be crossed, with Drona as the alligator which cannot be approched, with Karna and Salya as a swarm of small fishes and the Kamboja as mouth giving out flames, was a veritable truth (Op cit.,  p 242, Dr B. C. Law).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Bhishmavegamaparyantam Dronagrahadurasadan./
 * Karna-Salyajhasavartam Kambojavadava mukham. //40
 * —      (MBH 5/160/40)

Duryodhana again extolls the prowess of Sudakshina of Kamboja as well as of Bhishma, Drona Acharya, Kripa Acharya, Kritvarma, Bhurisravas, Vikarna and Bhagadatta etc, describing them all as 'Great Maharathas, high born, recklessly fearless and, in might and fight, more than a match even to the three worlds united together.

 * Sanskrit:
 * tva.n cha Dronashcha Shalyashcha Kripo Draunistathaiva cha../
 * Kritavarma cha hardikyah Kambojashcha Sudakshinah..//31
 * Bhurishrava Vikarnashcha Bhagadattashcha viryavan../
 * maharathah samakhyatah.kulaputra.stanutyajah..//32
 * trayanamapi lokanam paryapta iti me matih../
 * —      (MBH 6/65/31-33)

Brave Sudakshina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes on the field (Op cit., p 241, Dr B. C. Law) and has numerously been referred to as Mahabali/Maharatha, Purushavyaghrah, Shurah, durdharsha (invincible), Parighabahavah, Mahabahu, or a great hero, invincible in the battle field even by the gods.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Sudakshina.n tu rajendra Kambojanam maharatham. //66
 * —             (MBH 6/45/66)

 * Shrutakarma tatah kruddhah Kambojanam maharatham.// 68
 * —            (MBH 6/45/68)

 * Kambojarajo balavanstatah pashchat.Sudakshinah .// 14
 * —           (MBH 6/108//14)

 * Kambojarajo balavan varayamasa sa.nyuge.// 18
 * —           (MBH 6/111/18)

 * Kambojam pashya durdharsha.n Kambojastaranochitam ./
 * —          (MBH 11/25/01)

Besides with others, Sudakshina Kamboj had displayed very memorable ferocious duels with Shrutakarma (6/45/63-65), Abhimanyun (MBH 6/110/15, 6/111/18-21) and Arjuna (7/92/61-75).....all of them stated to be great Maharathas of the Pandava Army.

Sudakshina had fought very fiercely and valiantly until slain by Arjuna on 15th day of the war (MBH 7/92/61-76). While fighting, he roared like a lion (sinha.nadamathanadat) and gave Arjuna a very tough fight (MBH 7/92/61-76). In the final and deadly duel, Sudakshina had seriously wounded Arjuna and sent him into a terrible swoon but finally was overcome and fell a magnificent martyr to Kuru cause.

Sudakshin Kamboj was indeed one of the great heroes of Mahabharata war. Besides Bhishama and Duryodhana, even Karana and Vasudeva have highly acknowledged the great role played by Sudakshina as well as the Kamboj soldiery.

Karana glorifies Sudakshina as a great stalwart and includes him among the greatest Generals of Bharata war  stating  that Sudakshina and other few select warriors were undefeatable even by the gods ( MBH 7/158/64-66)

At the start of war, Vasudeva glorifies Sudakshin Kamboj and lists him amongst the greatest heroes/Maharathas gathered at Kurukshetra battlefield (MBH 5/95/19-21).

He further applauds Sudakshina along with other select Maharathas of Bharata war at the conclusion of war addressing to Arjuna thus:

O weilder of the Gandiva! who except you was capable of conquering these mighty warriors in the battlefield? Numerous were the warriors seen in this war, each of whom of great prowess, each of whom was no less than god Indra himself, but none of those could stand before you for long. O Arjuna! who except you in this world could have clashed with the powerful Maharathas like Drona, Bhishma, Bhagadatta, Vinda-Anuvinda of Avanti, Sudakshina Kamboj, Mahabali Shrutayu, Acutayu etc in the battlefield and still be alive!?

 * Sanskrit:
 * gandivadhanvan sangrame ye tvaya dhanusha jitah /
 * na tesham manusho jeta tvadanya iha vidyate ..//17
 * drishta hi bahavah shurah shakratulyaparakramah /
 * tvam prapya samare vira.n ye gatah parama.n gatim .//18.
 * ko hi drona.n cha bhishmam cha bhagadattam cha marisha./
 * vindanuvindavavantyau Kamboja.n cha sudakshinam..//19
 * shrutayusham mahaviryamachyutayushameva cha./
 * pratyudgamya bhavetkshemi yo na syattvamiva kshami //20.
 * —      (MBH:  8/72/17-20;  also: 5/95/19-21)

When the enemy admires his opponents, it really reflects the realities..it's no false praise.

Mourning the death of Sudakshina, Gandhari addresses Vasudeva thus:

Behold how that irresitible ruler of the Kambojas with shoulders like those of a bull, though deserving of being stretched at his ease on the Kamboja blankets, is now lying amid the dust:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojam pashya durdharsha.n Kambojastaranochitam ./
 * shaysnamr^ishabhaskandha.n hatam pa.nsushu madhava .//
 * —      (MBH 11/25/01)

Duryodhana also grieviously laments the death of the great heroes of his army including Sudakshina thus: Behold that mighty bowman, Jalasandha slain by Satyaki..... And that hero, the great car-warrior, the ruler of the Kambojas,  who proudly came to battle for my sake, caring the least for his own life ever prepared to lay down his life. When I see him (Sudakshina) and also Alambusha and many other allies of mine dead and gone, what purpose can I have for remaining still alive?

 * Sanskrit:
 * Jalasandham maheshvasam pashya satyakina hatam /.
 * madarthamudyata.n shuram prananstyaktva maharatham //22.
 * Kambojam nihatan drishtva tathalambusameva cha /.
 * anyanbahumshcua suhrido jivitartho.adya ko mama ..23//
 * — (MBH 7/150/22-23)

Sudakshina's younger brother (addressed as Kamboj) had also participated in the destructive war of Kurukshetra and had fought ferocious duels on Kaurava's behalf. This prince was also finally slain fighting with Arjuna on 17th day of the war (MBH 8/56/111-114). Like Sudakshina Kamboja, this young prince is also decribed as very tall and exceedigly handsome, having a face as beautiful as the full moon and eyes resembling lotus petals. As this prince fell fighting, it appeared as if a tower of gold or a summit of the golden Sumeru had collapsed. The fact that this young Kamboja prince had survived 16 days of destructive war shows him to have been an accomplished warrior.

 * Sanskrit:
 * hastyashvarathapattina.n vratannighnantamarjunam.
 * sudakshinadavarajah sharavrishtyabhyavivrishat .. //111
 * asyasyato.ardhachandrabhya.n sa bahu parighopamau.
 * purnachandrabhavaktra.n cha kshurenabhyahanachchhirah .//112.
 * sa papata tato vahatsvalohita parisravah.
 * manahshila gireh shringa.n vajrenevavadaritam ..//113.
 * sudakshinadavaraja.n Kambojam dadrishurhatam.
 * pramshu.n kamalapatrakshamatyartham priyadarshanam.
 * kanchana~stambhasa nkasham bhinna.n hemagirim yathA .//114.
 * —        (MBH 8/56/111-114)

The Mahabharata repeatedly talks of the mighty and immense army of the Kambojas, calling it a flooded river, a swarm of locusts covering the lands, a grand army of wrathful warriors etc etc.

 * Sanskrit:
 * prayayau tvaritasturna.n Kambojanam mahachamum // 61
 * —       (MBH 7/113/61).

 * jalasandharnava.n tirtva Kambojanam cha vahinim.// 9
 * —       (MBH 7/120/9).

 * Sudakshinashcha Kambojo Yavanaishcha Shakaistatha// 21
 * tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau./ 22
 * —       (MBH 5/21-22)

 * Kambojanam maharaja shalabhanamivayatih// 3
 * —       (MBH 5/166/3)

 * Akshauhinyashcha sanrabdha dhartarashtrasya bharata/ 45
 * —           ''(MBH 7/112/43-45)

The Kamboja army has been described as unconquerable in the battle:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojasainyan vidravya durjayam yudhi bharata
 * — (MBH, 7/23/16)

There are also numerous references to countless Maharathas or great heroes of the Kambojas:

 * Sanskrit:
 * prayayau tvaritasturna.n Kambojanam mahachamum/
 * sa tatra bahubhih shuraih samniruddho maharathaih//.
 * — ((MBH 7/113/61))

Kamboja Maharathas have been described as strikers of fierce force.

 * Sanskrit:
 * etasya rathavamsho hi tigmavegapraharinam.
 * —          (MBH 5/165/3)

The Kamboja cavalry has been described as extremely fast (yayur.ashvai.mahavegaih MBH 7/7/14) and there are numerous epic references to foremost Kamboja soldiery (Kambojavara) (MBH 8/88/16; 6/75/17 etc)

Dronaparva section of Mahabharata terms the entire Kamboja soldiery as scholars of Vedas (kritavidyashcha), very brave, firmly devoted to the science of weapons, highly united and self-sacrificing for each other (7/112/43-44).

In the hot battle field, the Kambojas have been described as 'elephants gone berserk' (durvarana nama Kamboja); Kambojas of fierce deeds, war-intoxicated warriors, biting their lips in rage as they fight (damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah); Kambojas as Death-Personified (samana.mrityavo); the strikers of fierce force (tigmavegahpraharinah); deadly like the cobras (tikshnai.rashivishopamah); terrible like Yama the god of death and opulent like Kuber i.e very rich (yama vaishravanopamah);  the masters of horsemanship (ashva.yudha.kushalah) etc etc.

Govind Krishana Pilley aptly remarks them "as war loving Kambojas" (Trasditional History of India, A Digest, p 300)

The Katas and Kambojas living in the north-west have been described as expert in warfare and famous for their courage. (Hindu Polity, Ordinance of Manu, Dr Arthur Coke Burnell,, 1972, p 29).

Kambojas in Puranic Traditions
According to Harivamsa Purana (14.01-19) and other Puranic literature (e.g Vayu Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padama Purana (6.21.16-33) etc etc ), Iksváku king Bahu of Ayodhya was driven out of his dominions by Haihayas and Talajanghas with the assistence of Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Pahlava and Parada Ayudhajivin  five hordes  (pañca gana)  from Uttarapatha.

Sagara, son of Bahu was born in exile and as he grew up, he learnt of his father's fate from her mother and decided to punish his enemies. He raised a powerful army and invaded Ayodhiya. After a fierce fight, Sagara was able to defeat the alliance. He had totally destroyed the Haihayas and Talajanghas, and was about to annihilate the five assisting hordes when Sagara's priest Vasishta intervened. Vasishta advised Sagara not to destroy these hordes but let them go after divesting them of their Kshatriyahood. King Sagara, listening to his spirtual guide, forced the Kambojas and Yavanas to shave their heads full, the Sakas to shave half of their heads, the Pahlavas to grow beards and the Paradas to wear their hair free. He also forbade these former Kshatriyas from performing Svadhyaya and Vasatkara, thus divesting them of their Kshatriyahood i.e turning them into Vratyas.

 * Sanskrit:
 * sagarah svam pratijna.n tu gurorvakya.n nishamya cha ./
 * dharma.n jaghana tesha.n vai veshan anya.nshchakara ha .//15
 * ardha.n Shakana.n shiraso mundayitva vyasarjayat ./
 * Yavanana.n shirah sarva.n Kambojana.n tathaiva cha .//16
 * Parada muktakeshashcha Pahlvan shmashrudharinah ./
 * nih.svadhyaya.vashatkarah kritastena mahatmana .//17
 * Shaka Yavana Kambojah Paradashcha dvijottamah. /
 * Konisarpa Mahishaka Darvash.Cholah Sakeralah. //18
 * sarve te Kshatriya vipra dharmastesham nirakritah .//
 * Vasishtha.vachanad.rajna Sagarena mahatmana. //19
 * —   (Harivamsa 14.15-19)

This group of five is referred to as the "five hordes" (pañca.gana) and are often branded as mlechcha barbarians from the north-west in most of ancient Sanskrit literature (Myths of the Dog-Man, p 119, David Gordon White)

This story appears to have been altered by puranic writers in order to explain cetain peculiarities of these foreign tribes by suggesting that their peculiar characteristics were due to their defeat at the hands of king Sagara (cf: Some problems of Kushana and Rajput Hisory, p 73, Dr Sircar; Pre-Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India, p 87, S. Levi etc).

The expression half-shaven (or shaven full) does not mean 'shaven over half or full of the head', but that their hair was cropped short. This was normal custom of these peoples just as it is among many people in West today and copying the Westerners among civilized people of Asia as well. The Indians who normally wore their hair long must have invented the story of Sagara degrading them by having their heads shaven or half shaven to show their disapproval of the custom (History of Ceylone, Vol I, part I, p 92, Dr S. Parnavitana; cf: The Indo-Greeks, Clarendon Press, 1957, p 1-2, A. K. Narain).

It is obvious that the Hindus, who by religion were ordained to have a sikha or a top knot looked askance towards those who had all their hair cropped short (cf: Geographical and Economical Studies in Mahabharata, Upayana Parva, J.U.P.H.S. Vol XVI., Part II, 1943, p 41), Dr Moti Chandra)

Kambojas of Kautilya's Arthashastra
Arthashastra (2/13/10) informs us that Kambuka silver was extracted from mountain Kambu.

 * Sanskrit:
 * tuttha.udgatam gaudikam Kambukam cakravalikam ca rupyam. //10
 * — (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 2/13/10)

Scholars identify this mountain Kambu in Afghanistan. i.e Ancient Kamboja (Tribes, Coins & Studies, Dr M. K. Sharma, Univ of Magadhah, 1972, p 274). The Silver mines of Badakshan have been famous since Ancient times. The Arabic historians refer to silver mines of Anderab/Vakhan (Geog. & Economic Studies in Mahabharata, J.U.P.H.S. Vol XVI, Pt II, p 46, Dr Moti Chandra; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, p 246, Dr Kamboj;  Sindhaant Kaumadhi, Arthaprakashaka, Acharya R. R. Pande, 1966, pp 20-22).

Arthashastra (2/30/29) lists horses of several countries including Kamboja and puts the Kamboja horses at the head of list of best horses.

 * Sanskrit:
 * prayogyanam uttamah Kamboja.Saindhava.Aratta.Vanayujah,
 * madhyama Bahliika.Papeyaka.Sauviraka.Taitalah,
 * shesah pratyavarah //
 * — (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 2/13/10)

 * Translation

The (horse) breed of Kámbhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanáyu countries are the best; those of Báhlíka, Pápeya, Sauvira, and Taitala, are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary (avaráh).

And more importantly, the Arthashastra informs us that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Kautiliya contrasts the 'varta.shastr.opajivin' (martial republican) sanghas with 'raja.shabd.opajivin' (king-council) sanghas in his Arthashastra (11/1/4-5) and includes the Kamboja and Surashtra Kshatriyas in the 'varta-shastr.opajivin' or 'martial republics' category.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kamboja.Suraastra.Ksatriya.shreny.aadayovarta.shastra.upajiivinah./
 * Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raaja.shabda.upajiivinah. //
 * — (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 11.1.03)

i.e Corporations of warriors (Kshatriya shrenis) of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agtriculture, trade and by weilding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája. (Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, p 407, Dr R. Shamashastri).

The martial republics mentioned in Arthashastra are headed by the Kambojas (Dr Jayswal, Hindu Polity, p 52 1978). Kautiliya further informs us that the 'shastr-opajivin' Shrenis or Corporations  (of the Kambojas and Surashtras etc...verse 11/1/04)  were the most heroic (Shreni.pravira.purusanam....verse 7/14/27) and recommended them as best fit for military recruitment (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar; cf: Comprehensive History of ancient India, Vol II, p 3, Dr N.  K. Shastri).

The republicanism of the Kambojas is also attested from the Rock Edicts of king Ashoka (araja-vishaya...R. E. XIII) as well as from great epic Mahabharata, which refers to many Ganas or Sanghas of the Kambojas fighting on Kauravas side. e.g.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Narayanashcha Gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye ganah/.
 * Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah''//39.
 * — (MBH 7/91/39)

 * Translation:

".....the numerous Ganas/Sanghas of the Kambojas all of whom were regarded as very brave in battle field and whom Karna had earlier fought with and vanquished...."

Kambojas in Buddhist Literature
Anguttara Nikaya refers to Kamboja as one of the sixteen great nations of ancient times ((Aguttara Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. I. p 213; Vol. IV. pp 252, 256, 261).

The same fact is also contained in one of the oldest Pali commentary, the Chullaniddesa (Age of Imperial Unity, 1951, p 1, Dr B. C. Law; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna).

Majjhima Nikaya informs us that in the land of Yavanas, Kambojas and some other border lands, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves. The master could become slave and vice versa (Majjhima Nikaya,  2/149). e.g:

 * Pali:
 * evam bho sutam me yona.kambojesu ajjesu ca paccantimesu janapadesu
 * dveva vannaa ayyo ceva daaso ca. ayyo hutvaa daaso hotii, daaso
 * — (Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3)

The Commentary [Papañca Súdaní, Majjhima Commentary, (Aluviháa Series, Colombo) Vol II, p.784] explains that a brahmin would go to Kamboja or Yavana with his wife for purpose of trade and would die there, his wife would then be compelled to work for her living and her children might consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves. This gives an indication that in the land of Kambojas and Yavanas (yona.kamboj.esu), there was no place for brahmanical class. Ashoka's Rock Edict XIII, also conveys similar information on the Yavanas (directly) and the Kambojas (indirectly) when it says:

 * nathi cha se janpade yata nathe eme nikayia anataa yonesu bahmane cha shamne.
 * — (Ashoka's R.E XIII).

(Refs: Select Inscriptions, p 36, note 9; cf Hultzsh, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol I, pp 209)

The Visnu Purana also affirms the absence of chaturavarna system among the Kiratas in the East and the Yavanas, Kambojas etc in the paschima or west (Vishnu Puarana, 2/37; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 116, Dr Kamboj).

In the Kambojasutta of Anguttara Nikaya, Kamboja is mentioned as a country not to be visited by women of other countries in spite of their desire to do so (Anguuttara Nikaya Vol II. p82). The Commentary (Manorathapúraní, Anguttara Commentary (Simon Hewavitarne Bequest Series (Colombo)) Vol II, p 523) also distinctly supports this reading.

There was, perhaps a shortage of women in Kamboja, and it was probably unsafe for women from other countries to visit Kamboja for fear of being misused (cf: op cit, p 227, Dr Kamboj).

This may also be suggested from commentary of ancient Acharya Sikand Swami on Yasaka's Nirukuta (2/2) which says that the Kambojas did not observe proper code/rules in the matters of choice of females i.e they were indiscriminate in the choice of woman for their physical needs.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah kamaniya.bhojah:
 * Istriopeya.gabhyagabhyadi.vivayahar.rahita ityarathah.
 * —      (Nirukuta 2/2, Sikand Swami)

This may again be due to shortage of women in Kamboja land.

Bhuridatta Jataka refers to the Kambojas as following the non-Aryan (i.e Zoroastrian) customs like killing poisnous insects, moths, snakes and worms--which is recognised as Zoroastrian from passages in Mazdean books like the Vedevat (XIV.5-6) and from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140).

Kambojas of Manusmriti
Manusmriti (II/39) informs us that, if after the last prescribed period, the people (twice-born) remain uninitiated, they become Vratyas, fallen from Savitri and thus discarded by the Aryans.

 * Sanskrit:
 * ata uurdhvam trayo 'apy ete yathaakaalam a.samskrtaah. /
 * saavitriipatitaa vraatyaa bhavanty aaryavigarhitaah. //39
 * —  (Manusmriti II/39)

Manusmriti (verse X/20) informs us that those (sons) whom the twice-born beget on wives of equal caste, but who, not fulfilling their sacred duties, are excluded from the Savitri (initiation), one must also designate by the appellation Vratyas.

 * Sanskrit:
 * dvijaatayah savarnaasu janayanty a.vrataams tu yaan. /
 * taan saavitriiparibhrastaan vraatyaan iti vinirdizet. //20
 * —   (Manusmriti X/20)

And finally, Manusmriti (X/43-44) informs us that, in consequence of the omission of sacred Brahmanical rituals/codes and of their not heeding to the Brahmanans, the following noble Kshatriyas have gradually sunk in this world to the state of vrishalatam i.e become degenerate Kshatriyas:  the Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakhas, Paradhas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas and Daradas.
 * Sanskrit:
 * shanakaistu kriya-lopadimah Kshatriya-jatayah. /
 * vrashalatvam gata loke brahmna-darshanen cha. //43
 * Paundrash-Chaudra-Dravidah-Kamboja-Yavanah-Shakah. /
 * Paradah Pahlavash-Chinah Kirata Daradah Khashah. //44
 * — (Manusmritti, X/43-44)

Based on these statements of Manusmriti, the scholars have listed the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas, Chinas and other ancient Kshatriya clans as Vratya Kshatriyas or degraded Kshatriyas  etc  (See: Origin and Growth of Caste  in India, Vol I, 1968, p 121-122, Dr N. K. Dutt).

A very similar information on the Kamboja, Saka, Yavana and other Kshatriyas is also contained in the Anusasanaparva of Mahabharata (MBH verse 13/33/21) which also states that due to neglect of Brahmanas (and sacred Brahmanical codes and regulations as a consequence), these noble Kshatriya clans have sunken to vrishalatvam i.e become degraded Kshariyas or Vratyas.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Brahmana yam prasha.nsanti purushah sa pravardhate /.
 * brahmanairyah parakrushtah parabhuyatkshanaddhi sah .// 20.
 * Shaka Yavana Kambojas tastah Kshatriya-jatayah/.
 * vrishalatvam parigata Brahmananamadarshanat .// 21.
 * — (Mahabharata 13/33/20-21)

cf: also:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Mekala Dramidah Lathah Paundrah Konwasirah /.
 * Shaundika Darada Darvash Chaurah Shabara Barbarah .//17.
 * Kirata Yavanashchaiva tastah Kshatriya-jatayah. /.
 * vrishalatvamanuprapta brahmananamadarshanat .//18.
 * — (Mahabharata 13/35/17-18)

 * Translation:

The Mekalas, the Dravidas, the Lathas, the Paundras, the Konwasiras, the Saundikas, the Daradas, the Darvas, the Chauras, the Sabaras, the Barbaras, the Kiratas, the Yavanas, and numerous other tribes of Kshatriyas, have become degraded into the status of Vrishaltam i.e degraded Kshatriyas or Sudras through the wrath of Brahmanas.

The inevitable consequences of neglecting the Brahmanas are beautifully highlighted in the epic which states that the descendents of those Kshatriyas who neglect the Brahmanas soon become Dasyus or Mlechchas  (MBH 12/73/9-10).

 * Sanskrit:
 * naisham putra vedamadhiyate cha,
 * yada brahmakshatriyah santyajanti .. 9..\\
 * naishamukshavardhate jatu gehe
 * nadhiyate sa praja no yajante.
 * apadhvastA dasyu bhuta bhavanti
 * ye brahmanah kshatriyansantyajanti .. 10..\\
 * —     (MBH 12/73/9-10).

That the Kambojas were non-Indo-Aryan foreign tribes is clearly reflected from the above statements of Manusmriti and Mahabharata (Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1978, p 163, Dr M.R Singh )

These foreign warrior clans of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and the others, after their entry into India (2nd/1st c BC) did not immediately switch to the religion and social customs of the Hindu society. Obviously, they must have continued to observe their own cuture and religious practices for some time.

The authors of Manusmiriti (X/43-44) as well as Anusasnaparava of Mahabharata (13/33/20-21; 13/35/17-18), in their anxiety to prove the antiquity of their sacred Hindu Caste System and also in great pains to place these foreign hordes into the social organisation of the Hindus, had invented  social laws (~around Christan era) to reasonably accomodate these aliens into the caste-based Hindu Society by using a political language that these tribes, in fact, were originally from the Indo-Aryan stock, but had got degenerated into vrishaltam  i.e had become Vratyas due to their neglect of the Brahmanas, and their non-observance of sacred Brahmanical codes and regulations. It was also, in a way, an invitation to these foreigners to come into the Brahmanical fold if they wanted to get the exalted status of noble Kshatriyas.

A procedure is also detailed in Mahabharata as to how these Vratya Kshatriyas (or the alien hordes) could attain the high status of noble Kshatriyas in Brahmanical Hindu society. The most important among the recommendations are the performance of paka-yajanas (minor sacrifices) and giving rich gifts to Brahamin priests at these sacrifices  (MBH XII/65/13-22; also see Comprehensive History of India, Dr K. A. Nilkanta Sastri, Vol II, 1957, p 468)

 * Sanskrit:
 * dakshina sarvayagyana.n dttavya bhutimichchhata /.
 * pakayagya maharhashcha kartavyah sarvadasyubhih .//21
 * etanyevam prakarani vihitani puranagha /.
 * sarvalokasya karmani kartavyanIha parthiva ..//22.
 * —      (Mahabharata 12I/65/13-22, Gorakhpore Editionh)

There are references in Mahabharata that someone donating one hunderd horses of  Kamboja variety to  the Brahmin ascetic would get absolved of all his  shortcomings/defects  (and would be graced in the Brahamnised Hindu society).

 * Sanskrit:
 * shata.n tai yastu kambojan.brahmanebhyah prayachchhati/.
 * niyatebhyo mahipala sa cha papatpramuchyate ..//
 * —    (Mahabharata 12/35/11)

Thus, a way for upward mobility for Vratya Kshatriyas and aliens indeed existed in the ancient Brahmanical society.

cf: "The leaders of ancient Indian Society were eager to place the foreigners in the social organisation of the country; e.g Manu regards the Kambojas as degraded Kshatriyas (X-43-44) while Patanjali in his Mahabhasya (Pa II.4.10) regards the Sakas and Yavanas as anivasita (pure) shudras. Even the Gautama Dharamasutra (IV.21) regards the Yavanas or Greeks as sprung from the Shudra females + Kshatriya males  ". (Ref: Journal of Ancient Asian History, Vol I, Part I & II, 1967-68, p 89, Dr D. C. Sircar).

cf: "The foreigners were expected to practice the same normal pieties as the Hindus, and the latter in return considered them henceforth, as belonging to their own social organisation "(The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I, p 612; cf: History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 313-314, Dr R. C Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr K. D. Munshi).

Valmiki Ramayana: Kambojas/Vasistha Relationship
Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 43 of Valmiki Ramayana tells us that Sugariva had sent his detectives under Shatabala in search of Sita in the lands of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas and further of the Uttarakurus in the extreme north-west (Ramayana 4.43.11-12).

Bala-Kanda Sarga 6 of Valmiki Ramayana speaks of famed stallions of Kamboja land and ranks among the best of the horse breeds (Ramayana 1.6.22)

In Adi-Kanda of the Ramayana (1/55/2-3), we read that the Kambojas and some other allied tribes of north-west were 'created' at the request of sage Vasishta by the Divine cow Shavala to defend Vasishta sage from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law).

 * Sanskrit:
 * tasyaa hu.mkaarato jaataah Kambojaa ravi sannibhaah/
 * uudhasah tu atha sa.njaataah Pahlavaah shastra paanayah//
 * yoni deshaat ca Yavanah shakri deshaat Shakaah tathaa/
 * roma kuupesu Mlecchaah ca Haariitaah sa Kiraatakaah//
 * — (Valmiki Ramayana, I/55/2-3)

 * English:
 * Forth sprang Kambojas, as she lowed;
 * bright as the Sun their faces glowed,
 * Forth from her udder Barbars poured,
 * soldiers who brandished spear and sword,
 * And Yavans with their shafts and darts,
 * and Shakas from her hinder parts.
 * — (Valmiki Ramayana: I.55.2-3: Trans Ralph T. H. Griffith)

This mythical 'creation' of the Kambojas may point towards the earliest attempt to convert the Iranian Kambojas and other allied tribes into the brahmanised Kshatriyas of the Indo-Aryan version by one rishi from the Vasishta Brahmina line.

It appears that one section of the Iranian Kambojas was proselytized into Hinduism by the rishis of Vashista clan. These Hinduised Kambojas later became ardent champions of Vedic religion and the great scholars of the Vedas. Kamboja Aupanayava was a distinguished grammarian and great scholar of his times and finds a place in the line of great ancient Vedic teachers of Vamsa Brahmana (1/18-19) of Samveda. Being a Kamboja and son of Upamanyu, he was called Kamboja Aupamanyava (Dr Ludwig, Dr Law, Dr Majumdar, Dr Pusalkar, Dr Kamboj etc).

 * Sanskrit:
 * anandjascand.anayana.sambaccsarkarksyat.kambojaccopamanyavat.//18
 * samba.sarkarkya.kambojascaupamanyavo.madrakaraccsaungayane.//19
 * —  (Vamsa Brahmana, 1/18-19)

Rig Veda (1.102.09) refers a sage named Upamnayu.

 * tvaam deveshu prathamam havaamahe tvam babhuutha pritanaasu saasahih /
 * semam nah kaarum Upamanyum udbhidam indrah krinotu prasave ratham purah // 09
 * —  (Rig Veda 1.102.09)

Scholars have identified this Rigvedic sage Upamanyu as the father of above referred to sage Kamboja Auapamnayava of the Vamsa Brahmana (Refs: The Rigveda (Tr), III, p 113, Dr. Ludwig; Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 231, Dr Law; Alt-Indisches Leben, p 102, Dr H. Zimmer; Histoory and Culture of Indain People, The Vedic age, p 259; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, Jan 1964, p213; Problems of ancient India, 2000, pp 6-7,224, K. D. Sethna; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 202-04, Dr Kamboj etc. etc.)

The Kambojas/Kambujas are also associated and listed at par with the Vasishthas in Paraskar Grihyam Sutram (2/1/23). Both Kambojas and Vasishthas were obligated to wear one choti on right side of the head.

 * Sanskrit:
 * dakshinatah Kambojaanaam Vashisthaanaam,
 * ubhayato Atri Kashyapaanaam mundah Bhriguh,
 * panchachuda Angris.Bajasneyaanaameka manglarth shikhinoanyai/
 * — (Chudakarma Samskaara in the Paraskara GrhyaSutram 2.1.21,, Commentary by Pt Harihar)

This shows trhat the Brahmanised scholarly class of the Kambojas, like the Vasishtas had a Dakshinatah Kapardin or Choti. Thus the social and religious customs of the Hinduised Kambojas and the Indo-Aryan Vasishtas were identical but differed from other scholarly clans of ancient India.

The Bahu/Sagara Puranic legend also implies that the Kambojas were in the good books of the Vashista scholarly clan.

This Vashista clan appears to have played a leading role in proselytising the Persian Kambojas into Hinduism, especially those living in Kabol/Swat valley in Afghanistan. It is very likely that the Vashista Brahminas had acted as family priests to Hinduised Kambojas (cf: Dr J. L. Kamboj).

There are several references in ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature informing us of the scholarship of the Hinduised Kambojas. It appears that the Kambojas had attained this status mainly through the efforts of the Vashista clan of Brahminas. There are also indications that the Kaundanya line of Brahminas, an offshoot from Vasishtas, had also had good relationships with the Kambojas, especially with those Kambojas who had settled in western and southern India after Christian era.

The following evidence from Mahabharata amply attests that, besides being fierce warriors, the Kambojas were also noted as the learned (kritavidyashcha) people.

 * Sanskrit:
 * ye tvete rathino rajandrishyante kanchanadhvajah./
 * ete durvarana nama Kamboja yadi te shrutah.//43
 * shurashcha kritavidyashcha dhanurvede cha nishthitah./
 * sa.nhatashcha bhrisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaishinah.//44
 * akshauhinyashcha sa.nrabdha dhartarahhtrasya bharata./
 * — (MBH 7/112/43-44)

 * English:

Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are brave, a learned people and are firmly devoted to the science of weapons. Desiring one another's welfare, they are all highly united and mutually cooperative. They constitute a full Akshauhini of wrathful warriors.

cf: "They (Kambojas) were not only famous for their furs and skins embroidered with threads of gold, their woolen blankets, their wonderful horses and their beautiful women, but by the epic period, they became especially renowned as Vedic teachers and their homeland as a seat of Brahmanical learning" (Hindu World, Vol I, p 520, Benjamin Walker; cf: History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 159, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; cf: Political History of Acient India, 1996, p 134, Dr R. C. Raychaudhary; cf: Buddhism in India and Around, p 6, Dr Banerjee; Huns, Yavanas and Kambojas, Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol XXVI-2, 1950, p 123, Dr S. B. Chaudhury; cf: Problems of ancient India, 2003, pp 6-7, 224, K. D. Sethna etc etc).

Ashvaka Kambojas and Alexander the Great
As the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as a cavalry-men (ashvaka), the Ashvakas i.e. horsemen was also the term populary applied to them.... These Ashvakas (Arrian, Bk. V, Chap. I; Arrian Indika), inhabited Eastern Afghanistan and were included in the general term Kambojas (Hindu Polity, Part I & II, 1978, pp 121, 140; Dr K. P. Jayswal)

French scholras like Dr E. Lamotte have also identified these Ashvakas with the Kambojas of ancient Sanskrit literature (Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; also see: History of Panjab, Vol I, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi;  Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192,  K. S. Dardi)

J. W. McCrindle considers ancient Kamboja as equivalent to Afghanistan, the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiuen Tsiang and further writes the name Afghan as evidently derived from the Ashavakan,  the Assakenoi of Arrian  (Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. McCrindle)

The Kamboja clans living in the hilly regions in the valleys of Kunar, Swat and Panjkora (cf: Dr S. M. Ali) have been called Aspasios and Assakenois ( from Iranian Aspa,  Sanskrit Ashva).

Panini calls them respectively as Ashvakayana (Ashtadshyayi IV-1, 99) and Ashvayana (Ashtadshyayi IV-1,110).

(History and Culture of Indian People, the Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, p 45, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar).

cf: "With the expression 'Assanam Ayatanam' ...land of horses used by Pali Texts in reference to the Kambojas, may be compared the names Aspasios and Assakenois given by classical writers to the sturdy people living in the Alishang and Swat valleys in the days of Alexander " (Ref: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, p 216 ffn 2, p 576 commentary, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; cf: MBH VI.90.3).

" The Ashsvakas in their coins are referred to as Vatashavaka. The 'Vata' is probably a prikritic version of Sanskrit Varta which reminds us of the Varta.shastr.opajivin description of theirs (i.e. the Kambojas) in the Arathshastra." [See: Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 51, 121, Dr Jayswal; Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, XX, p 289 on their coins; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 11, Dr J. L. Kamboj;  for vata.ashavaka = varta-ashvaka,  also see:  Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1900, pp 98-106;  History and Culture of Indian People, the Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, p 45, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar].

Dr Buddha Parkash writes: " The Mecedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangments of Darius and over-running Achaemenian empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff residstence of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana " (Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; also ref: History of Porus, pp 12, 38,  Dr Buddha Parkash).

These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboja clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayana Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring 'a glorious death to a life of dishonor' (Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270).

The Ashvaka Kambojas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexandra.. [Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 248, Dr Kamboj]

Not only an irresitible warriors, the Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas were also a good agriculturists and cattle breeders (cf: Varta-shastr.opajivin appelation used for them by Kautiliya).

"It apears that the Asvayanas (=Kambojas) were good cattle breeders and agricuturists. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture "(History of Panjab, Vol I, p 226, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, op cit Dr Kamboj, p 247;cf: A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (Oxford India Paperbacks), p 91, K. T. Achaya February 2001).

AFGHAN AND ASHVAKAN RELATIONSHIP:

Scholars like Christian Lassen, Saan Martin, L. Bishop, Dr Crooks and several others think that the word Afghan has originated from the Sanskrit word Ashvakan......the Assakenois of  the classical writings.

cf: McCrindle: "The name Afghan however, has evidently been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian " (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J. W. McCrindle)

[Also refs: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, A Critical Study, 1972, p 179 Dr M. R. Singh; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol-I, 1966, p 243, William Smith, Phillip Smith; Geographical Dictionary of ancient and Medieval India, Dr Nundo Lal Dey; Itihaas Parvesh, 1948, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country,  1981, p 118, Dr Kamboj etc].

The Kambojas and the Maurya Kings
The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain works Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalyan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of  the Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as stated in the Mudra-rakashas (History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr Pusalkar and Dr Majumdar; also: Ancient India, 1956, pp 141-142, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, 1964, p 202, Dr  Buddha Parkash; The Culture and Art of India, p 1959,  p 91; Comprehensive History of Ancient India, Vol II, 1957,  p 4,  Dr K. A. N. Sastri).

 * Sanskrit:
 * asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parsika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
 * Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
 * balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama
 * —    (See: Mudrarakshasa 2)

With the help of these frontier martial tribes from north-west, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexandra as well as the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and succeeded in founding the Maurya empire in northern India.

Kambojas find a prominent mention as a unit in  Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka (Dr H. C. Raychaudhury). The Rock Edict tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict  V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'araja vishaya' in Rock Edict XIII which shows that they were kingless i.e Repulican units. In other words, the Kambojas formed self- governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors. (Dr K. P. Jaqyswal, Dr V. D. Mahajan, Dr M. V. D. Mohan,Dr J. L. Kamboj).

King Ashoka had sent censors or missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism and has recorded this fact in his fifth Rock Edict.

The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa tell us that Majjhima thera went to Kashmir, Gandhar (Kamboj) and other countries of the north-west to preach the Law of Piety.

During Ashoka's times, Maharakkhita thera was sent to Yona country to spread the message among the Yonas and Kambojas (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 215, Dr Kamboj).

It is stated in the Sasanavamsa that in two hunderd and thirty fifth year of the Parinibhana of the Buddha, Maharakkhita thera, was sent to Yonaka country and he established the Buddha's Sasana in the Kamboja and other lands. (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p 49; Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 249, Dr B. C. Law; op cit, 215, Dr Kamboj).

Thus the Zoroastrian and Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his censors.

The Kambojas - The Horselords and the Master Horsemen
The horses of the Kambojas were famous throughout all periods of ancient history. The horses raised and trained in Kamboja were also known as Kamboja [Kambojh pu.n o (Kambojdeshe bhavah iti aN) Kambojadesho.ghotakah: (Halayudh Kosh); see also entries under Kamboja/KAmboja in Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary].

Sanskrit/Pali literature is effusively overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses.

In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini etc, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the birth place of horses:

 * Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... (Samangalavilasini, I, p 124).

Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa states the Kamboja as the base of horses (10/28)!

Champeya Jataka (verse 23), Mahavastu (II, 185), Kunala Jataka (verse 28) etc make very laudatory references to the Kamboja horses. Champeya Jataka also mentions well-trained mules from Kamboja. Kunala-Jataka details the procedures followed by the Kambojas to catch wild horses for training them as war horses (Jataka Vol V, p 446).

Jaina Uttaradhyana-Sutra (XI/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it:

 * Prakrit:
 * jaha se Kamboyanam aiiyne kanthai siya/
 * assay javeyan pavre ayam havayi bahuassuye//
 * —      (Uttaradhyana Sutra XI/16).

The Epics, Puranas and numerous other Sanskrit literature all agree that the horses of the Kamboja, Bahlika and Sindhu regions were the finest breed.

The Valmiki Ramayana (I.6.22) rates the horses from the Kamboja, Bahlika, Vanayu lands as of best quality but puts the Kamboja horses at the head of this list. Further, it equals them to Ucchaisrava, the steed of god Indra, the Lord of Heavens:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojavishhaye jatair Bahlikaishcha hayottamaih./
 * vanayujairnadijaihshcha purna harihayottamaih.// 22
 * —       (Ramayan I.6.22)

Prince of Ayodhiya, Rama Chandra  was the proud possessor of  magnificent, powerful and sleek stallions of the Kamboja breed (Prince of Ayodhya, 2004, pp 138, 306, 444, A.  K. Banker).

Sauptikaparva of Mahabharata (10/118/13) also ranks the horses from Kamboja as the finest breed:

 * Sanskrit
 * syandanes.u ca Kamboja.yukta.parama-vajinah. //
 * —       (MBH  10/18/13)

Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) refers to the quality horses from various lands but puts the steeds from the Kamboja at the head of the list and marks them as Mukhyas (leaders) among the listed best breed of horses.

 * Sanskrit:
 * tatah Kamboja.mukhyanam nadijana.n cha vajinam.
 * Arattanam Mahijana.n Sindhujana.n cha sarvashah .. 3..\\
 * Vanayujana.n shubhrana.n tatha parvatavasinam.
 * ye chapare tittiraja javana vatara.nhasah .. 4..\\
 * —     (MBH 6/90/3-4)

Besides the horses from Kamboja proper, Mahabharata makes very appreciative references to the excellent (shreshtha) horses from Parama-Kamboja also.

 * Sanskrit:
 * yuktaih Parama.Kamboj.airjavanairhemamalibhih.
 * bhishayanto dvishatsainya.n yama vaishravanopamah ..42
 * prabhadrakastu kambojah shatsahasranyudayudhah.
 * nanavarnairhayashreshtha irhemachitrarathadhvajah .43
 * —        (MBH 6/23/42-43, Gorakhpore rec.; see also: 8/38/13-14, MBH 10/13/1-2)

In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful horses of Kamboja were of greatest service (MBH 6/71/13; Dr B. C. Law, Dr Kamboj).

The best steeds come from Kamboja, Aratta, Mahi, Sindhu and Vanayu countries, but those from the Kamboja head the list (Persica-9, p 114, Dr Michael Witzel; MBH 6/90/3).

The horses of Kamboja, very beautiful to look at (darshaniya), decked with feathers of suka bird and of the colour of parrots, they ran with sleek speeds with their tails, eyes and ears remaining motionless (MBH 8/23/7, 8/36/36).

Kautiliya Arthashastra also ranks the Kamboja horses as the leaders in the list of the best horses:

 * Sanskrit:
 * prayogyaanaam uttamaah Kaamboja.Saindhava.Aaratta.Vanaayujaah,
 * madhyamaa baahliika.paapeyaka.sauviiraka.taitalaaH,
 * zesaah pratyavaraah // 29
 * —      (Kautiliya Arthashastra. 2/30/29)

 * English:

The (horse) breed of Kámbhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanáyu countries are the best; those of Báhlíka, Pápeya, Sauvira, and Taitala, are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary (avaráh).
 * —   (Trans: Kautiliya Arthashastra, Dr R. Shamashastri, book, II, Ch 30)

In his play Karnabhara, ancient Sanskrit poet Bhaasa (3rd c AD) makes god Indra speak very high of the Kamboja horses. God Indra compares the celebrated horses from respected Kamboja as matching that of god Surya. They bring fortunes, are worthy of all compliments, are a proud possession of all kings, are full of all virtues, and are capable of running with the speed of wind and displaying best behavior in the war:

 * Sanskrit:
 * raviturgasmanam sadhanam rajyalakshamyah sakalnripatimanyam manyakamboja jatam/
 * sugunhmanilvegam yudhdrishatapadanam sapadi bahusahasar vajinam dadami. //19//
 * —           (Karnabhara 19)

Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (verse 4/69-70) makes references to the Kamboja horses and mentions them as of excellent quality.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah samare sodhum tasya viryamaniishvarah
 * gajalan.prikilishatairakshotaih sardhmaantah
 * teshaam sadashva.bhuyishthaas.tunga.draviynah.rashyah.
 * —    (Raghu 4/69-70)

Laksanaprakasa quotes numerously from several important old authorities some of which are probably lost to us. Among them are the Asvayurveda and Asvasastra..... the former attributed to Jayadeva and the latter to Nakula.

Asvashastra by Nakula divides horses of this earth into four classes. uttama, madhyama, kanyama and neechatineecha. In the uttama or best category, Nakula lists horses from Tajik, Khurasan and Tushara countries. Further in this list of best class, the horses from Tajik (i.e. Kamboj) are put at the head of the list.

 * Sanskrit:
 * chaturdha vajino bhumau jayante deshsanshryat/
 * Tajikah Khurasanashcha Tushanashchottama//
 * gojikanashcha keikeyanah potaharashcha madhyamah/
 * gahurah sahuranashcha sindhuwarah kaniyasah/
 * anayadeshodhbhava ye cha neechneechasatthaapre//
 * —        (Virmitryodhye Laksanaprakasa, p 415)

According to Manasollasa of the Calukyan King Somes'vara III of the early twelfth century, there are sixty five types of horses out of which thirty nine varieties are well known while twenty six types are rather unknown. In the thirty nine well-known types described by him, the Kamboja horses occupy the first place (Somes'ara's Manasollasa 4.4.715-30)

Vishnu Vardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore had the Kamboja horses and he had made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses (Ancient India, p 236, Dr S. K. Aiyangar).

Vishnu Purana refers to thousands of horses from Kamboja and other lands in the stable of king Naraka of Pragjyotisha but the Kamboja horses are stated to be of finest quality (Vishnu Purana, p 460, H. H. Wilson).

Shat.panchashad.desha.vibhaga of Shakati.Sangham.Tantra attests that the land of Kamboja was teeming with excellent quality horses.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Panchaldeshamarambhya mlechhad dakishinahpurvatah/
 * Kambojadesho deveshi vajiraashi.prayanah// 24
 * —    (Shakati-Sangam-Tantra, 'Shatpanchashadddeshavibhag', Verse 24)

Verse 12 of the third Asama-patra (1185 AD) of king Valabha Deva proudly refer to him as the possessor/rider of the Kamboja horses and elephants.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojavajivrajavahnendryantabhavad valabha deva aye/
 * —     (Kielhorn, F. (ed) Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 184, 187)

The Abhidhana Ratanamala mentions examples of excellent horses from Kamboja, Persia, Vanayu, Bahlika, Sindhu and the lands bordering on Sindhu (Indian Inscriptions, No 511, 284).

Upamiti Bhava Prapanch Katha singles out horses from Kamboja, Bahlika (Balkh) and Turuksha as the best class (Upamiti 474).

Brahmanda Purana (II, 2.16.16), Mahabharata (II.49.20, II.51.4; II.53.5, VII.3.2-3, VII.23.7, VII.36.36; VII.36.39, VII.121.27, VII.125.25, VIII.22.42, VIII.7.11, IX.38.13, X.13.22 etc), Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhyapithika, Mahayana Buddhist Text Mahavastu,  Jataka No 504,  Kalidasa's, Mandakranta, Kalhana's Rajatrangini (4.163-65), Harashachrita of Bana Bhatta (verses 7/88-90); see also p 62, Trans E. B. Cowel, F. W. Thomsan, p 50), and numerous other ancient texts as well as many inscriptions like Nalanda gift records of king Deva Pala of Bengal etc  make very laudatory references to the Kamboja horses. All these references, undoubtedly prove one important fact:  the Kamboja trained stallions were magnificant,  powerful and fastest runners. No doubt, they were very much sought after by kings and warriors in ancient times, and had also done great job for the Kamboja warrrors themselves.

And very justifiably, the great epic Mahabharata states the Kambojas as the horselords and the masters of horsemanship i.e expert cavalrymen (Ashva-yudha-kushalah: MBH 12/105/5).

Kamboja, according to ancient lexicons also means elephant (Kambojo-hastimede...........(Nanarathamanjari 421); Kambojo hastimede cha shankh.deshavisheshayoh (See: shabd.ratan.samanyakosh); see also entries under Kamboja/KAmboja in Monier Willimas Sanskrit-English Dictionary), which shows that, besides horses, the anncient Kambojas also raised elephants.

The Ashvaka Kambojas had fielded 30,000 cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander (Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 248, Dr Kamboj).

Chieftain Afrikes, the real brother of chieftain Assakenos [=Ashvaka Kamboja chief....see Political History of Ancient India, p 216-217, Dr Raychaudhury, Dr P. N. Banerjee] is said to have a a fleet of fifteen elephants which he used against Alexandra. The name Afrikes obviously points towards Apryti (Afridis) [Ref: History of Panjab, Vol I, p 232, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 287, Dr Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S. Dardi, p 128 ]

Mahabharata refers to wonderful army of war elephants fielded by Sudakshina at Kurukshetra.

 * Sanskrit:
 * yasya rajangajanikam bahusahasramadbhutam.
 * sudakshinah sa sangrame nihatah savyasachina .//20
 * —       ''(MBH 8/5/20)

 * English:

Sudakshina, O king, who had wonderful army of thousands of elephants (i.e numerous elephants) hath been slain in battle by Arjuna.

There are also references to Kamboja kings presenting thousands of elephants, besides cows, camels and horses etc as gifts to king Yudhistra at the time of Rajasuya Yajna.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojah prahinottasmai parardhyanapi kambalan .. 19..\\
 * gajayoshid gavashvasya shatasho.atha sahasrashah.
 * —      (MBH 2/49/19).

And finally as said earlier, Asama-patra of king Vallabha Deva does also proudly refer to the elephants from Kamboja in his stable (Kielhorn, F. (ed) Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 184, 187).

Thus, besides the horses and well trained ponies, the ancient Kamboja land was also noted for its elephants.

Republicanism Among Ancient Kambojas
There are references in ancient literature to republican terms like Gana or a Sangha, and other similar though less important bodies which were labeled as Shreni, Puga, or Vrata. The Gana and Sangha, the most important of these terms, originally meant multitude. In later times, they applied to republican type of polity. Besides political Sanghas, there are references also to religious, economic and educational Sanghas or Guilds in ancient literature.

There are many references in ancient literature to Kambojas following a Sangha/republican system of government.

MAHABHARATA ON GANAS AND SHRENIS OF KAMBOJAS

Mahabharata refers to numerous Ganas of the Kambojas fighting on the side of Kauravas.

 * Sanskrit:
 * narayanashcha gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye Ganah. //39.
 * Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah. /
 * —   (MBH 7/91/39-40)

 * Translation:

"...........and numerous Ganas of the Kambojas who were regarded as very brave and accomplished warriors in the battle-field   (sangrame shura sammatah)  and whom Karna had earlier fought  with and vanquished...."

The term Gana of Mahabharata (and of Vedas, Brahmanas) implies republic. The later commentators have wrongly translated Ganas as Guilds or Industrial Corporations. Following these commentators, some modern writers have also not recognised the constitutional importance of this term and have erroneously equated Gana with tribe which is in not accepted by scholars  (States and Government in Ancient India, 1977, p 115, Dr A. S. Altekar; Ancient India, 2000, p 829,  Dr V. D. Mahajan; Republics in the Mahabharata, J.B.R.O.S, Vol I, 1915, pp 173-78; Hindu Polity, 1978, p 103-108; Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 260-61).

Dr V. M. Apte refers to occurrence of terms like Gana, Ganapati in Vedas etc which in later period were distinctly republican terms.

In Rigveda, the leader of the Gana has the title of Rajan.

According to Dr Altekar, the Gana of Vedic literature probably refer to oligarchy where power was vested in a council of elders, each member of which was entitled to call him a Rajan and had a right to elect Chief of State who was also called Raja (State and Administration in Ancient India, 1977)..

The members of Gana were treated as rulers since they all carried a title or applellation of Raja (Republics in the Mahabharata, J.B.R.O.S, Vol I, 1915, pp 173-78; cf: India as known to Panini, 1953, p 428; Buddhist India, pp 22, 41, Dr Rhys David).

The Gana, as corporate body, probably had originated in Vedic times (Dr H. N. Sinha).

According to Dr R. S. Sharma, the Vedic Ganas were self acting armed organisations, every member of which bore arms and were the fore-runners of Ayudhajivi Samghas of Panini and Varta.shastr.opajivi Samghas of Kautiliya. The Vedic Gana was primarily a tribal republic (Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, pp 84-85, Dr Sharma; Ancient India, 2000, p 830, Dr V. D. Mahajan).

The Gana of Mahabharata refer to whole body politic, the entire Political Communuty, and in the aternative, the Parliament. The executive or governing body was a distinct body inside the Gana. (Hindu Polity, p 101, Dr Jayswal).

In ancient literature Gana and Sangha have been used as synonomyous terms for republic (Dr Aggarwala).

There is Panini's sutra Samgh-odghau Gana-prashamsayoh (sutra III.3.86) which speaks of the political Sangha technically known as Gana  (India as known to Panini, 1953, p 428, Dr V. S. Aggarwala)

Panini writes Yaudheyas as a  Samgha (Ashtadhyayi 5.03.114 to 117).

But Yaudheyas in their coins, refer to themselves as Gana:

 * Sanskrit:
 * Yaudheya-Gana.sya Jaya
 * —   (From Yaudheyas' owns coins).

 * Yaudheya Ganah.purskrittasya.................
 * —   (Bijagad stone inscription. C. Fleet, G.I. p 252; The Early History of North India, p 121, Ancient India, 2000, p 831, Dr Mahajana)

Also, Kasika puts the Ayudhajivi Kshudrakas, Malavas etc amongst the illustrations of Vahika.Sanghas, thus showing that the Malavas were a Sangha of the grammarians.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Vahikesu ya ayudhajivi Sangha.stadhaachina.n ......Kshudrakyah: Malavayah/
 * —  [(Kasika V.3.114)......(pp 455-56)].

But their coins and several inscriptions address them as a Gana.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Malava.Gana.sya (of Malava Gana).
 * — (Catalogue of coins in the Indian Museum pp 170-174).

 * Shri Malava-Gana.nate parshaste Krta.sangyake
 * — (Epigraphia Indica, Vol IX, p 320)

The above illustrations clearly prove that terms Gana and Samgha were identical in meaning and stood for a republic.

The Gana at the time of Mahabharata thus, represented a fully evolved political corporate body....a form of democratic institution rather than an adminsitrative unit.

In the Ganas like those of Kambojas,  there also existed many sub-divisional corporate bodies on a smaller scale which have been called Shrenis. The word Shreni also possessed political significance like Gana as is shown by the expression Kshatriya-Shrenis i.e Corporations of warriors found in Arthashastra for a class of Varta-shastr.opajivin Sanghas  of the Kamboja and Surashtra.....(see: Arthashastra 11/1/04).

Mahabharata also knows of Shrenis. These were the Corporations of fighting Kshatriyas like the ones referenced in Kautiliya Arthashastra (Ref: Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 438, Dr Aggarwala).

Like Ganas (of Kambojas), Mahabharata refers to numerous Shrenis fighting on the side of Duryodhana.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Shrenayo bahusahasrah samshaptaka ganash cha ye//
 * —   (MBH 8/5/40)

Obviously, these Shrenis were Kshatriya Shrenis of the Kambojas, among others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GANAS IN MAHABHARATA:

The Shantiparva section of the Mahabharata (12/107/6-32) gives a detailed lecture on Ganas or republics and lists the essentials for Ganas to succeed politically and militarily. Time and again, the stress is on unity, confederacy, equality, descipline, mutual cooperation, mutual subordination, mutual-respect and high sense of justice  which are stated to be vital ingredients of success for  the Ganas or Sanghas.

The greed and jealousy are the main provoking causes leading to waste, decay and mutual destruction of Ganas.

[Mahabharata verses (12/107/6-32)]

One must notice the following extracts from Shantiparva of Mahabharata which heavily stress on UNITY or confederacy:

 * Sanskrit:
 * tatra danena bhidyante ganah sanghatavrittayah. //12

 * tasmatsanghatayogeshu prayateranganah sada. //14

 * artha hyevadhigamyante sanghatabalapaurushat. // 15

 * tasmatsanghatamevahurganana.n sharanam mahat .//32.

 * —   (MBH 12/107/12, 14, 15, 32).

The Ganas generally formed confederacies (MBH 12/107/11-15; Hindu Polity,  p 101, Dr Jayswal).

The successful (confederated) Ganas could not be broken (were invincible) by prowess or cleverness nor by temptations or beauty (Dr V. D. Mahajan).
 * Sanskrit
 * na tu shauryena buddhya va rupadravyena va punah ./
 * bhedachchaiva pramadachcha namyante ripubhirganah //31.
 * —   (MBH 12/107/31).

The success of the Ganas as suggested in Mahabharata, therefore, lies in their  confederacy only  (MBH 12/107/32) since  the confederated Ganas are considered virtually invincible by the enemy   (MBH 12/107/31). They can only be overturned by the enemy  through the policy of division and subsidy  (Dr K. P.Jayswal,  Dr V. D. Mahajan).

The successful Ganas have been noted as very wealthy, heroic, well-versed in the shastras and accomplished in the art of weaponry e.g:

 * Sanskrit
 * dravyavantashcha shurashcha shastragyah shastraparagah./.
 * —    (MBH 12/107/21; Hindu Polity, Part I & II, pp 103-08; Dr  K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 261-63, Dr Kamboj).

When viewed in light of above characteristics of successful Ganas or republics specifically highlighted in Mahabharata, we find that all these saliant characteristics said of successful Ganas, are beautifully reflected in the Kambojan Ganas/republics.

 * Sanskrit
 * ye tvete rathino rajandrishyante ka~nchanadhvajah./
 * ete durvarana nama Kamboja yadi te shrutah.//43
 * shurashcha kritavidyashcha dhanurvede cha nishthitah./
 * sa.nhatashcha bhrisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaishinah.//44
 * akshauhinyashcha sa.nrabdha dhartarashtrasya bharata./
 * —    (MBH 7/112/43-44)

 * English:

Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are brave, a learned people and are firmly devoted to the science of weapons. Desiring one another's welfare, they are all highly united and mutually cooperative. They constitute a full Akshauhini of wrathful warriors.

Thus the above characteristics of the fighting Ganas of the Kambojas plentifully demonstrate that the Kambojas of Mahabharata were a very well known republican people.

Besides Kambojan Ganas, other Ganas referred to in the Mahabharata are those of Daserkas and the league of Kukuras-Andhakas-Vrishinis.

ARTHASHASTRA ON SANGHAS AND SHRENIS OF KAMBOJAS

Book XI of Kautiliya's Arthashastra treats of Sanghas or republics and attests the Sanghas of the Kambojas, Surashtras, Lichchavis, Vrijis, Kurus, Madras, Panchalas etc as important Sanghas. It also attests Kshatriya-shrenis (corporations/guilds of warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras etc and states them as living besides warfare, also by agriculture, trade and cattle-culture.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kaamboja.surastra.ksatriya.shreny.adayo varta.shastra.upajivinah/
 * Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raja.shabda.upajivinah//
 * —    (Arthashasra 11/1/04-05)

 * English:
 * The Corporations of warriors (Kshattriya.srení of) Kámbhoja, and Suráshtra, and other countries live by agriculture, trade and wielding weapons.

 * The Corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája.

 * —  ''(Kautiliya's Arthashastra, 1956, Dr R. Shamashastriy, p 407, book XI, Chap 1)

Thus Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests the Shrenis or 'Kshatriya-Shrenis' i.e. 'Corporations of warriors' which republican term he specifically applies to Kamboja and Surashtra Sanghas only.

 * Shastr.opajivin means living by 'weilding weapons or by warfare'.
 * Varta.opajivin  means living by 'agriculture, trade and industry'.

Thus the composite expression varta.shastr.opajivini  used by Kautiliya for the Kambojas and Surashtras etc signifies that, besides living by warfare i.e as Ayudhajivis (=Shastr.opajivis), the Kambojas and Surashtras etc were also living by agriculture, trade and industry (varta.opajivis).

The 'Raja.shabd.opajivini' Sanghas of the Arthashastra bore the title or appellation of raja or king. (Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 31, 51, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 2000, p 838, Dr V. D. Mahajan).

Since Kautiliya contrasts the Varta.shastr.opajivini Sanghas with the Raja.shabd.opajivini Sanghas, this clearly means the former had no provision for title or appellation  of raja and did not allow it

In other words, the 'Raja.shabd.opajivin' Samghas observed a king-consul constitution and conversely, the 'Vata-shastr.opajivins' Sanghas did not have a king consul...i.e they were kingless or truly democratic nations  (Dr  K. P. Jayswal; Dr J. L. Kamboj, Dr V. D. Mahajan)

cf: Arthashastra book XI mentions certain tribal republics such as Kambojas who were governed by Shrenis or Corprations of warriors and others such as Licchvis Varijis and Panchalas which though tribal republics, were governed by a titular head i.e king consul  (Ashoka and Decline of Mauryas, p 94, Dr Romilla Thapar).

Kautiliya further informs us that the Shrenis or Corporations of  the 'shastr-opajivis'  (i.e the Kambojas and Surashtras etc) were the most heroic (shreni.pravira.purusanam...Arathshastra: 7/14/27) and best fit for military recruitment.

 * Sanskrit:
 * tesam alabhe bandhu.mitra.kulebhyah samaarjanam // 26
 * utsaaha.hiinah shreni.praviira.purusanam
 * cora.gana.atavika.mleccha.jatinam para.apakarinam
 * gudha.purusanam ca yathaa.labbham upacayam kurvita // 27
 * para.mishra.apratikaaram abaliyasam vaa paresu prayujita //28
 * —     (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28)

 * Translation:

In the absence of such sources of his own, he (king) should acquire them from some one among his relatives and friends. If he is destitute of an army, he should, as far as possible, attract to himself the brave men (1) of corporations (i.e Shrenis),  (2) of  thieves, (3) of  wild tribes, (4) of  Mlechchhas, and (5) of spies who are capable of inflicting injuries upon enemies. He should also adopt the policy of a weak king towards powerful king in view of averting danger from enemies or friends (Trans: Dr  R.  Shamasastri).

Verse 11/1/04 of Kautiliya's Arthashastra specifically attests the Kshatriya  Shrenis of the Kambojas and Surashtras in the 'Varta-shastr-opajivin' category of  Sanghas.....thus showing that the Shrenis i.e Kshatriya-Shrenis of the Shastr.opajivis (Ayudhajivis)  Sanghas of Kamboja, Surashtra etc were the most brave and best source for military recruitment.

(Ref: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar; cf: Comprehensive History of ancient India, Vol II, p 3, Dr N. K. Shastri).

Martial republics named in the Kautiliya Arthashastra are headed by the Kambojas (Dr K. P. Jayswal, op cit, p 52).

KAMBOJA VRATYAS/VRATAS

Dr Aggarwala equates Vrata with Vratya (cf: Sayana explaining vrata of Tandya  XVII.1.5; as vratya.samudaya).

Thus the Vratas were same as the Vratyas. (India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 442, Dr Aggarwal).

Vratya of Atharvaveda (2.9.1) is interpreted as equivalent to troops.

Vratyas or Vratas are said to be democratic bands of warriors of north-west living by warfare, depredation and violence, and existing in the early stage of Sangha Government (op cit, p 441, Dr Aggarwal).

The military leaders of Vratayas, like those of Pugas, were called Gramanis (op cit, p 443, Dr Aggarwal).

According to Dr Weber, Vratyas were non-brahmanical western tribes comprised of the yaudhas or warriors and not following the Aryan way of life, ( Weber, Indische Studien, 1.25.15, 121-40; H.I.L, p 78, Weber; Vedic Index, II, 344; Indian as Known to Panini, p 441)

Sutra texts refer to Vratya as Yaudha (warriors) or arhanta (saints) comparable to the Ksatriyas and Brahmanas  (cf. Vedic Index, II, p. 343).

Panini refers to Vratas in two fold sense...(1) one applied to the elementary stage of Sanghas (2) the other applied to warriors living by depredation and violence (Vratena jivati, V.2.21), from which they were known as Vratinas or Vratas. This was general name given to them by Latyayana also.

The Kasika defines Vratas as Sanghas living by violence (utsedha jivinah sangha varatah V.3.113)

Vratyas of Atharvaveda were the Aryan tribes outside the Vedic pale...outside the Aryavarta. They had no brahmanical culture. They were warriors and keepers of flocks. They roamed about in hordes and fought the Vedic Aryans. They were admitted to all the privileges of the Vedic society if they so chose....They could study the Vedas, perform sacred brahmanical rites, duties and yajnas/sacrifices...and entertain the brahmanas. (Journal Asiatic Society of Bihar, Annual Address, Vol XVII, 1921, No 2, M.M. H Shastri; Some Kashatrya Tribes, 1924, p 22-23, Dr B. C. Law).

Roth opines that Vrata may connotes a guild (cf. St. Petersburg Dictionary; Pan~cavims'a Brahman.a 6.9.25; 17.15.12; VS 16.25; TS 1.8.10.2).

Patanjali notes that Vratyas were part of a republican constitution. (Maha_bha_s.ya 5.2.21)

According to Dr Raychaudhury, the Vratyas were those who did not observe ceremonies enjoined in Brahmanic code, neglected the Brahmanic rites and showed a predilection for heretical doctrines like Buddhism and Jainism (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 111).

Manu calls the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and some other tribes as Vratyas or degenerate Kshatriyas since they did not fullfil sacred duties, perform sacred brahmanical rites & sacrificial ceremonies and further did not entertain the Brahminas (Manusmriti X.43-44). They did not go for Savitiri (initiation) sacrament and therefore, were Vratyas by Manu's definition (Manusmriti II.39, X.20, X.43-44; Origin and Growth of Caste in India, Vol I, 1968, p 121-122, Dr N. K. Dutt).

In Ancient India, the republicanism was a non-brahmanical concept as the Brahmanical role was completely eliminated in republican constitutions. The Kambojas being well known republican peoples were considered incompatible with Brahmanical culture and thoughts. This was also the reason for the Kambojas being listed as degenerate Kshatriyas or Vratyas in Ancient Sanskrit literature (cf: History of India, Vol I, p 51, Dr Romila Thapar).

According to numerous Puranic literature like Harivamsa (14.1-19), Vayu Purana (2, 26.127-40), Brahma Purana (8.33-51) etc, the tribes of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally Kshatriyas, it was Ikshvaku king Sagara who had divested them of their Kshatriyahood and turned them into Vratyas by  forbidding them from performing Brahmanical rites like Svadhyaya and Vashatakara.e.g:

 * Sanskrit:
 * nih.svadhyaya.vashatkarah kritastena mahatmana .//.17
 * —     (Harivamsa 14.17)

 * sarve te Kshatriya Vipra dharmastesham nirakritah./19
 * —    (Harivamsa 14.19)

Since the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc are known to have been frequently fighting with ancient Vedic Aryans (Bahu/Sagara war, Vasishtha-Vishwamitra war, Kalika-Kali war, Mahabharata war, Vikarmaditya-Mlechcha war etc) and were also living outside Aryavarta, hence by Atharvavedic defintion also, the Kambojas and these other allied tribes from north-west were Vratas or Varatyas.

These so-called "five hordes" (pañcagana or ganapañca)  i.e Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Yavansas and Paradas of the Puranic literature were, in fact,  the Ayudhajivin hordes organised into military bodies such as Ganas, Shrenis, Pugas, Vratas etc and were apparently living by warfare. These military hordes did not represent the whole mass of their respective nations but were only some corporations of Ayudhajivi Kshatriyas coming from these borderland nations into India either as invading hordes or else to offer their military services as Ayudhajivis to the Indo-Aryans who solicited them.

Panini's sutra 4.4.14 (ayudhachchha cha) teaches that the one who earns his living by means of arms (ayudhena jivati) is called ayudhiya or ayudhaka. Kautiliya refers to them as Shastr.opajivins (in the expression varta.Shastr.opajivin 11/1/04). The Shastr.opajivins  (varta.Shastr.opajivins) of Kautiliya  correspond to Ayudhajivi Sanghas of  Panini, which were the  same as the Yodhajivas of Pali literature (Ref: India As Known to Panini, p 436; Ancient Kamboja..1981, p 256, 192, 261-64, Dr Kamboj).

Panini refers to Ayudhajivin Sanghas (1) of Vahika country [Ayudhajivi-Samghannyad Vahikeshva.Brahmana.Rajanyat (5.03.114-117)]  and (2) those of   Parvartiyas  or  Highlanders i.e. Parvarta country  [Ayudha.jivi.bhyascha.parvate (4.3.91)].

The region of Vahika Ayudhajivis extended from Sutlej to as far as Indus and that of Parvatiya Ayudhajivis extended from Kashmir to Afghanistan (Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 437, Dr Aggarwala)

The Parvartiya Ayudhajivis mainly comprised the Kambojas, Gandharas and the Daradas.

The Kambojan/Gandharan Parvatiya Ayudhajivis had earlier enlisted themselves in the army of Xerxes and had fought against the Hellas/Greeks (Herodotus;  Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 214-217, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukherjee; Ancient Kamboja People and Country, 1981, p 256, Dr Kamboj). Arrian mentions these Parvatiyas as fighting in the army of Darius against Alexander at Arbela  (Anabasis, III, 8.3-6). It were the same Parvatiya Ayudhajivins who had offered stoutest resistence to Alexander in Bacteria and in Kunar/Swat regions. According to Dr Aggarwala, the Parvatiya Ayudhajivin Sanghas should be sought for in the region of Hindukush (=Rohitgiri) located on both sides of it. (See: India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 437, 49; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, p 192, Dr Kamboj)......which region was undoubtedly a Kamboja region. The Roha of medieval era, Rohitagiri of Panini, Rohitagiriyas of Kashika and the  Mandalas of Lohita  (MBh 2/24/16)  all point to north-eastern parts of Afganistan as the Parvata country, which name survives in modern Koh-i-Stan. These Parvata Sanghas (Sutra 4.3.91)  of  the Parvatiyas i.e. the Highlanders of Afghanistan/Hindukush also included the Ayudhajivis from Daradas. The Parvata Sanghas in the innermost belt were the best organised of all and lived in higher stage of civilization owing to Indo-Aryan contact/proximity, and those in the remote parts were less civilized and  were apparently living  in the Vrata  (i.e elementary) state of Sanghas. (India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 437, Dr Aggarwala).

The Pamirs and Badakshan to north of Hindukush was a pure Kamboja territory. Kapisha was the southern colony of Kambojas with Kapishi  (Begram) as its political headquarters. Kapishi was located 50 miles north of Kabol. The East parts of Kapisha were inhabited by  so-called Vratyas of  Sanskrit literature (the ancient Lohita.Mandala, (MBH 2/24/16) modern Kafirstan/Nuristan and Dir or Dviravatika)  (India as Known to Panini, 1953,  p 38, 49, 71, 437, Dr Aggarwala).

Kamboja settlements south of Hindukush extended as far as to Rajapura/Rajori (MBH 7/4/5).

These Parvartya Sanghas included Aaspasians,  Assakenians and Guraeans who were the bravest fighters of all Parvatiyas. They were strongly entrenched in mountainous fastnesses of Hindukush ranges (Kunar/Swat region) so that Alexander had to personally direct operations against them (India as Known to Panini, p 456-457). They had given stout, robust and determined resistence to Alexander in which even women (Ashvaka) took part to fight the invaders (Ancient India, 2000. p 838, Dr V. D. Mahajan).

The Aspasians (Aaspasios=Ashvakayana of Panini 4.1.99), Assakenians (Assakenois=Ashvakayana of Panini 4.1.99) and Guraeans etc were the sub-clans of the Kambojas located in this country (Dr Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukherjee, Dr E. Lamotte, Dr Buddha Parkash,  Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr  K. P. Jayswal,  J. L.  Kamboj, Dr  S. M. Ali,  J. W. McCrindle etc etc).

These Kamboja clans represented those Iranian Kamboja colonists who had planted colonies from across the Hindukush in Paropamisadean region during Achamenian rule in 6th c BC (Dr Kamboj).

As noted before, ancient Sanskrit scholar Kshmendra from Kashmir has substituted Kapisha for Kamboja in his Ramayan Manjari thus showing that Kapisha and Kamboja both implied Kamboja.

The Kapisha is stated to be etymologically equivalent of Kamboja [See Refs: Indian Antiquary, 203, 1923, p 52, Dr  S. Levi; cf: Geographical and Economical Studies, J.U.P.H.S., Vol XVI, Part II, 1943, pp 48-50, Dr Moti Chandra; The Achamenids and India, p 11, Dr S. Chattopadhyaya; Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol XXV-3, 1949, pp 190-92; Epigraphia Indica, Vol XIX-1, p 11; Afghanistan, Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1967, p 58,  W. K. Fraser Tytler,  M. C. Gillet; The Greeks in Bacteria and India, pp 101, 138, 170, 461, W.W.Taran; op. cit.,  pp 45-46, Dr Kamboj  etc ].

There are still a decadent descedents of ancient Kambojas living in modern Kafirstan/Nuristan, and are variously called Camoje, Caumoje, Camoze, Kam and Kamtoz, belonging to Siyaposh Kafirs group which remind us of ancient Kambojas [ See Refs:  An Account ofingom of Caubol, Vol II, pp 375-77 fn, p 619, M. Elphinstone; Afghanistan, its people, its Society, its culture, by Donald Wilber 1962, p 50; Afghanistan, Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1967, p 58,  W. K. Fraser Tytler,  M. C. Gillet; Bombay Gazatteer, I. 1.498n; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society,  1843, p 140; Journal  and Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1874, n; Vishnu Purana, III, p 292, 299,  H. H. Wilson;  Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 135;  The achamenids and India, p 13, Dr S. Chattopadhyaya; The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, N. L. Dey; op. cit., p 46, 120, 223, Dr Kamboj; cf: The Kafirs of Hindukush, p 71,76-77,  Scott Robertson; These Kamboja People, 1979, p 16, 194, K. S. Dardi; Sidhant Kaumudhi,  Arthaparkashika, 1966, pp 20-22, Acharya, R. R. Pande etc.]

KAMBOJA AS ARAJA.VISHAYA (KINGLESS=REPUBLICAN)  NATION IN MAURYA TIMES:

The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is furthher attested from the Rock Edicts V and XIII of king Ashoka. The Kambojas find a prominent mention as a political unit in Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka (Dr H. C. Raychaudhury). This Rock Edict tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas.

The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja.visaya in Rock Edict XIII (hidh.araja.visyavasi Yone-Kambojesu eti...i.e here in the kingless tract among the Yonas and the Kambojas...). The term araja-vishaya here stands for kingless or non-monarchical nations (Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 130-131, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kambojas, 1981, pp 292-94, Dr Kamboj)

Kambojas of Ashoka's Rock Edicts were non-monarchical or self governing people. (The North-west India, p 42, Dr M. V. Dev Mohan; Ancient India, 2000, pp 839-40, V. D. Mahajan).

This shows that the Kambojas formed self-governing community or nation under Ashoka and were thus a republican people within Maurya Empire. PUGAS, GOSHATAS OF THE KAMBOJAS IN SRI LANKA.

The democratic character of the Kambojas is further attested from another ancient source of 3rd c BC.

Pugas and Goshatas of Kambojas are referred to in ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura/Sri Lanka which attest 'gote' (=gosthi, a corporation) and 'maha-pughiyana' (Sanskrit: maha-pugiyanam) i.e grand Sangha of the Kambojas in Sri Lankan cave inscriptins of 3rd c BC.

Himanshu Prabha Ray writes:
 * Other terms used for guilds are Puka or Púga and Goti (Sanskrit Gosthi), the former often being used in association with either a village (Paranavitana 1970, nos. 135, 138; Dias 1991: no. 5) or community, such as that of the Kambojas'' [Paranavitana 1970, no. 553;  The Merchants Lineage And the Guild, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (Cambridge World Archaeology), 2003, p 194, Himanshu Prabha Ray; cf: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, p 108/09 David Parkin, and  Ruth Barnes].

Inscrptional evidence:

 * Sinhalese Prikrit:
 * Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana Manapadaiane agataanagat-catu-disa-agaia.
 * —   (Inscription no . 553, Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970)

 * English:
 * The cave Manapadassana of the members of the Great Corporations of Kambojiyas, is dedicated to the Saiügha of the four quarters, present and absent.

 * Sinhalese Prikrit:
 * Gota-Kabojhi(ya)na parumaka-Gopalaha bariya upasika-Citaya lepe iagaio.
 * —   (Inscription no. 990,  Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970).

 * English:
 * The cave of the female lay-devotee Citta, wife of Gopala, the chief of the incorporated Goshata of Kambojiyas, is dedicated to the Saiügha.

(Refs: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 124,108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes; see also op cit pp 205/206, Himanshu Prabha Ray)

Panini mentions Puga along with Sangha and Gana in connection with a quorum showing that the method of delibration prevailing in the Puga was similar to well organised Sanghas. (India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 439 Dt Aggarwal), thus attesting the political character of  the Pugas. The Pugas were governed by their council of Elders which was headed by a Gramani (Panini V.3.112)....who was a titular head of the Puga. The Kasika makes Puga a species of Sangha composed of members of different groups without any regular occupation, but probably of  economic character intent on earning money  (nana-jatiya aniyatavavrittayo arthakama-pradhanah Sanghah Pugah:  V.3.112). The economic Pugas (Guilds) of the Kambojas are amply attested in Anuradhapura inscriptions of ancient Sinhala as we have seen above, showing that there must have also been prevalent political Pugas among the Kambojas of Central Asia where the Sinhalese Kambojas had originated from.

The Pugas and Gotas of Sri Lanka refer to the economic Sanghas/Guilds of the Kambojas in Sri Lankas.

PANCA.GANAS (FIVE SANGHAS/HORDES)  IN PURANIC LITERATURE:

The Puranic literature nowhere refers to any kings of Kambojas. There are Puranic references to Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahalvas and Paradas as the invading hordes from the north-west, often penetrating the Indian mainland and wrecking its social, political and economic fabric. Some encounters with these peoples are dramatized in legends like those of King Bahu/Sagara of Ishvaku lineage of Hariscandra, where the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas helped the Haihayas and Talajungas to wrest political control of Ayodhya from the Ishvakus. This group of five tribes is referred to as the "five hordes" (pañca.ganah or ganah.pañcha) in Harivamsa (14/04)

 * Sanskrit:
 * ete hyapi ganah.pañcha haihayarthe parakraman .//04.
 * —    (Harivamsa 14.04)

(See: Myths of the Dog-Man, p 119, The Vortex of Cynanthropy, David Gordon White).

At one place, Mahabharata refers to the Kambojas, Yavanas, Gandharas, Barbaras etc as having increased their military prowess in Tretayuga and consequently started creating anarchy on this earth i.e Indo-Aryan mainland. Their activities were not so blatant in Kritayuga.

Obviously, this alludes to frequent encroachments of these north-west hordes into Indo-Aryan mainland for purpose of plundring and depredation.

 * Sanskrit:
 * uttara pathajanmanah kirtayishyami tanapi. /
 * yauna KambojaGandharah Kirata Barbaraih saha. //43.
 * naite kritayuge tata charanti prithivimimAm /
 * treta prabhriti vartante te jana bharatarshabha. // 45
 * —    (MBH 12/207/43, 45)
 * —    (MBH 12/207/43, 45)

This Bahu-Sagara story of Puanic literature clearly demonstrates the fact that the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlvas, Paradas etc were organised into some kind of military Sanghas or Corporations or Vratas of warriors and lived as Ayudhajivis i.e by warfare.

WERE ANCIENT KAMBOJAS MONARCHICAL OR REPUBLICAN?

Mahabharta addresses prince Sudakshina as a Kamboja-raja (MBH 6/44/63, 6/108/14, 6/110/15 etc).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Sudakshina.n tu rajendra Kambojanammaharatham .//
 * —   (MBH 6/44/63)

 * Kambojarajo balava.nstatah pashchat.Sudakshinah.//
 * —   (MBH 6/108/14)

 * Sudakshino maharaja Kambojah pratyavarayat .//
 * —   (MBH  6/110/15)

as well as a Kambojaraja-putra (MBH 7/92/61, 7/92/72 etc)

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojarajasya putrah shurah Sudakshinah. //
 * —     (MBH 7/92/61)

 * putrah Kambojarajasya parthena vinipatitah //
 * —     (MBH 7/92/72)

Chandravarman Kamboj has also been addressed as raja of Kambojas (MBH 1/67/32 etc)

 * Sanskrit:
 * Chandrastu ditija.shreshtho.loke taaraadhipopamah/
 * Chandravarmetivikhyatah Kambojanam naradhipah//
 * —     (MBH 1//67/32)

At yet another place, there is a reference to another raja of Kambojas called Kamatha (MBH 2/4/23).

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambojarajah Kamathah kampanashcha mahabalah .//
 * —     (MBH 2/4/23)

There is yet another earlier reference to a Kamboja raja who was awarded prized sword by celebrated king Kuvalashava of Ayodhya (MBH 12/66/77)

Thus, all these  references to 'kings of Kambojas' may imply that the ancient Kambojas followed monarchical system of government at the time of Mahabharata.

But the terms like 'Ganah' and 'Shrenii' applied  to the Kambojas in Mahbharata sufficiently attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution as well.

Along with Kamboja monarch Sudakshina commanding one akshauhini army of  Kamboja, Saka, Yavana soldiery and fighting on the side of Duryodhana, Mahabharta simultaneously refers to numerous GANAS  of the Kambojas also fighting  for Duryodhana. These Ganas are stated to consist of very brave and accomplished warriors of the Kambojas  (sangrame shura sammatah),  whom Karana had  earlier fought with and vanquished prior to the Bharata war.

 * Sanskrit:
 * narayanashcha gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye Ganah. //39.
 * Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah. /
 * —   (MBH 7/91/39-40)

Mahabharata (7/4/5) also furnishes powerful evidence that  these Ganas of the Kambojas whom Karana had fought with, were connected with a place name called Rajapura located south-west of Kashmir, on Southern side of Hindukush  (cf: MBH 8/9/33; 8/8/18-20; 8/79/47).

 * Sanskrit
 * svabahubalaviryena dhartarashtra priyaishina.
 * Karna Rajapura.n gatva Kamboja nihatastvaya .//5.
 * — (MBH 7/4/5)

This Rajapura has been identified with Rajori-Poonch of South-West Kashmir (Watters, Yuan Chwang, Vol I,  p 284; Ancient Geography of India, p 148, A. Cunnungham). And there is sufficient linguistic as well as other evidence that these Ganas of Kambojas were spread as far as to Kapisha or Kafirstan in the west and  roughly covered Paropamisadai (Ref: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 135,  Dr Raychaudhury: see commentary:  pp 601, 610, Dr B. N. Mukherjee; Ashoka, pp 28-29, Dr D. R. Bhandarkar; Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 236, Dr B. C. Law; Geographical Data in Early Purana, 1972, pp 167, Dr M. R. Singh;  Ancient India, 1956, p 97, Dr Radha K. Mukerjee etc)

Thus, Mahabharata's simultaneous reference to Kamboja monarchy/Kamboja kings as well as numerous Ganas (Sanghas) of  the Kambojas  may suggest that either the term  Raja in respect of Kambojas was just a title/appellation or else there simultaneously existed some Kamboja republics along with a Kamboja monarchy at the time of Mahabharata war. We have already seen (see Location of Kamboja) that Mahabharata powerfully attests simultaneous existence of TWO KAMBOJAS...one in trans-Hindukush (Parama Kamboja...MBH II/27/25) and the other in cis-trans-Hindukush region ( The Kamboja...MBH II/27/23)

It is thus perfectly possible that  some settlements of  Kambojas may have switced to Gana/Sangha polity while the others  may have followed monarchical polity at the time of Mahabharata.

cf: ''The two systems, republican and monarchical, were not mutually exclusives and a change from one to another was not unheard of. Kamboja for example changed from monarchy to republic'' (A History of Ancient India, Part I, p 53, Dr R Thapar; cf: Lord Mahavira and His Times, p 213, K. Jain;  also Political History of Ancient India, p 135, Dr R. C.  Raychaudhury;  also History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 15, Dr Law, Editors Dr Pusalkar, Dr Majumdar)

Panini (5th c BC) refers to Kamboja as one of the fifteen prominent Kshatriya monarchies of his times (Ashtadhyayi 4/1/168-177).

Very interestingly, Panini also gives a special rule (sutra 4.1.175:....Kambojal-Luk) to denote the king of Kambojas and the descendents of  Kamboja Kshatriyas  i.e citizens of the Kamboja Janapada  (Dr Kamboj; cf: Dr Aggarwala, Dr Jayswal).

Panini's exceptional rule for the Kambojas  (and only Kambojas), raises a doubt as to whether the Kambojas were indeed ruled by kings or else, like  the Raja.shabd.opajivin Sanghas of Kautiliya's Arthashastra (11/1/04-05), this  term 'Raja' was nominally used for the army Chiefs/Generals of the Confederation of the Kambojas.

In view of Panini's special rule for the Kambojas, Dr Kamboj has raised a doubt on the prevalence of monarchic system among the Kambojas. He feels that the title 'raja' among the Kamboja may have different connotations than usually understood...it may have been  a mere  'title' and may have been applied  indiscriminately by the epic writers to the military chiefs of the Kamboja Confedrations  (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 260,  264).

There seems to be a good deal of truth in above observations of Dr Kamboj.

Dr Jayswal also observes: "Panini gives a rule for the derivative to denote the king of Kambojas. This would indicate that Panini is referring to a monarchy, but the special rule and exceptional form the derivation raise a doubt as to wether the raja of the Kambojas was a king or a consul. In time of Kautiliya, their constitution certainly did not admit of even a titular king" (Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 52).

It is most likely that the Kambojas may have been originally a monarchical nation in Vedic times. But later, as the monarchies gave place to republics in post-vedic times, especially those located in trans-Himalaya/Central Asia, the neighboring Kambojas may also have changed to 'Vairajya' or 'republic' constitution as is indirectly attested by Aitareya Brahamana.

The Post-epic creation Aitareya Brahmana (8-9th c BC) mentions Vairajya as a national constitution prevalent among the Janapadas of the north i.e those located beyond Himalayas (Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr S. Misra, Dr Kamboj)

 * Sanskrit:
 * tasmad atasyam udichya dishi ye ke ca pren himvantam janapada uttarakurva uttaramadra
 * iti vairajyaya te.abhishichyante
 * —    (Aitareya Brahamana, VIII/14).

The Vairajya constitution has been interpretted as kingless i.e republic constitution (Aitareya Brahmana, Vol II, p 518n, M. Haug) where whole Janapada took the consecration of rulership and it was a real democratic constitution.

Vairajya certainly denoted to pre-Kautiliya authorities a form of government dependent on popular will as the expression 'prikritichitgrihanapekshi' implies and its defence by authorities on the ground that it is, in truth, enjoyed by everybody (yatha sthith.mnyairbhujyate) shows its democatic character.(cf: Kautiliya Arthashastra on forms of Government, I.H.Q., XIV-2, 1938, p 370, Dr H. K. Deb).

Aitareya Brahmana only quotes Uttaramadra and the Uttarakuru as example of Vairajya constitution obtaining in the trans-Himalaya area. This means that they were not the only Janapadas in the north following the Vairajya or republican constitutions.

We know that the Kambojas were located in eastern parts of Oxus country as neigbors to the Iranian settlements of Bahlika-Uttaramadras (Przyluski, Keith, Macdonnel, Zimmer, Aggarwala, Singh,  Kamboj etc) who were located in Bahlika country i.e western parts of Oxus country (see: Location of Kamboja).

The Uttarakurus of Aitareya Brahmana were located on north of Pamirs (Dr Aggarwala, op cit p 63).

Kambojas are not specifically referred to in the Aitareya Brahmana, but then the Aitareya Brahmana quotes Uttarakuru/Uttaramadra only as an example of Vairajya constitution prevalent among the Northern  states and  does not give us the complete list of the Vairajya nations (Ref: Hindu Polity, I & II, p 78, Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 266).

It, therefore, goes without saying that the Kambojas who were very neighbors to both the Uattarakurus (north off Pamirs) and the Uttaramadras (western Oxus country) must have also followed some kind of Vairajya or republican constitution, especially a 'king consul' type, where the king was only a titular head of the governing assembly made up of the wisemen and the elders. Their constitution may indeed have been Raja.shabd.opajivin .. which type has been attested by Kautiliya later for some non-Kamboja Sanghas of 4th c BC.

The Kamboja Mahjanapada of the Buddhist literature (7th-6th c BC), to all probability, was a 'grand confederation' of the Kambojas following a king-consul type republican constitution with raja being only a title/appellation for a military chief of the Confederation of  Kamboja Samghas. At Panini's times (5th c BC), this constitution of the Kambojas must have differed from each of the other fourteen Kshatriya monarchies listed in the Ashtadhyayi (4.1.168-175) so that Panini had to introduce a special rule for the derivative to denote the king of Kambojas who may have been a military head of the 'confederated Sanghas or Corporations' of the Kambojas.

After Panini, the Kamboja constitution had undegone some evolutionary changes. Necessitated by the conditions of times, the character of the Kamboja republics had changed from 'king consul' to a fully democratic i.e 'king-less' constitution. It had also broadened the franchisement to give representation to trade and industrial groups etc. As a result, the Kamboja constitution had changed from raja-shabd.opajivin to varta-shastr.opajivin constitution (Kautiliya Arathashastra 11/1/4). This change surely represented more viable nations, from political, economic and military standpoint. The administrative Sanghas of the Kambojas which formerly consisted of militarist groups only now comprised trader's guilds and other economic groups as well. And instead of being headed by a military chief or a king-consul, these Sanghas now had become kingless i.e truly democratic in character.

According to scholars, the military training was mendatory in these 'varta-shastr.opajivin' states, but after the training was over, the individual was free to adopt the profession of his choice. At the time of emergency, any numbers of army depending upon situation could be summoned in a moment's notice. The whole citizenry was its army and thus was immeasurably superior to the hired levies of monarchies or of the king-consul (or Raja-shabd.opajivin) States of Kautiliya. Bravery was a point of ambition and honour amongst the citzens. And when these nations formed offensive or defensive league, they were regarded as invincible. Each State was a nation-in-arms... martial and industrial, in the same breadth. The hand which weilded sword successfully was also accustomed to use scyth with equal facility. According to Buddhist documents and Arthashastra, they were agricultural and industrial. Hence, they were found rich and strong (cf: MBH 7/23/42 Kambojah....yama vaishravan.opamah..i.e. extremely rich Kambojas;  also cf: the mounds of tunga.draviynah.rashyah or immense treasure of Kambojas as referred to in Raghuvamsa 4/70;  also cf: parchurratano hi ca desha iti i.e the country of Kambojas having abundance of ratanas/gems...Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Nirukuta II/2)

[Hindu Polity, p 51-52, 103-107, 163-64, Dr Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 268-69, Dr Kamboj).

It appears that at the time of Kautiliya, each of the Kamboja Sanghas/Corporations maintained its own individual existence but at the time of war or emergency, these Sanghas/Corporations entered into a confederation with other Sanghas which tremendously increased their military strength.

Mahabharata attests that it is almost impossible for an enemy to crush the confedrated Ganas or republics (MBH 12/107/31).

Alliance with the Ganas was always eagerly courted by outsiders and they (Ganas) took special delight in reducing their foes and saw to it their own prosperity. (MBH 12/107/15)

Buddha himself gave his opinion to Chancelleor of Magadha that confederated Vajis (a republican people) could not be conquered by Magadha king.

Kautiliya's Arathashastra emphatically states that the confederated Sanghas are virtually invincible  (Kautiliya Arthashastra, 11/1/02).

ON THE INVINCIBILITY OF CONFEDERATED SANGHAS/CORPORATIONS:

 * Sanskrit:
 * samgha.laabho danda.mitra.laabhaanaam uttamah //
 * samghaa hi samhatatvaad adhrsyaah paresaam //
 * taan anugunaan bhujjiita saama.daanaabhyaam, viguNaan bheda.dandaabhyaam //
 * Kaamboja.Suraastra.ksatriya.zreny.aadayo vaartta.zastra.upajiivinan //
 * Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Paajcaala.aadayo raaja.zabda.upajiivinah //
 * —    (Arthashastra 11/1/01-05)

The acquisition (conquest) of a Samgha is more desirable than an alliance of good will or military aid. Those (Samghas) which are united (in league) should be treated with the policy of subsidy and peace, for they are invincible. Those which are not united should be conquered by army and disunion (Hindu Polity, 1978, p 115, Dr K. P. Jayswal). The corporations of warriors (kshattriya-srení) of Kámbhoja, and Suráshtra and other countries live by agriculture, trade and wielding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája.

Migration to India and Beyond
Other references to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-European tribes with both Persian and Indic affinities from their homeland in the Afganisthan-Turkistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia.

In their advance from their original home in Central Asia during 2nd/1st c BC, one stream of the Kambojas, in accompaniment with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded  to Sindhu, Sovira and Surashtra; while the other stream moved to Panjab and UP.

There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the mlechcha kings of Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlika etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga, which is too clear a statement to be ignored (Dr Raychaudhury).

 * Sanskrit:
 * viparite tada loke purvarupa.n kshayasya tat.28
 * bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa.
 * mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah. 29.
 * Andhrah ShakAh Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah.
 * Kamboja Aurnikah Shudrastathabhira narottama. 30.
 * — (MBH 23/187/28-30)

This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, obviously alludes to historical situation (second/first c BC downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India. The Saka, Yavana, Kamboja, Pahlava, Abhira invading hordes from north-west had entered Panjab, UP, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/pricipalities in the sacred land of the Indo-Aryans. This chaotic situation of Arya India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika invading hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BC) and the establishment of Vikram era:

 * Sanskrit:
 * ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah/
 * mlechchana kamboja.yavanan neechan hunan sabarbran//
 * tushara.parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan/
 * hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate//
 * — (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra)

Kambojas in Mathura
Sufficient evidence exists that around Christian era, Yavanas, Kambojas and the Sakas had occupied the heartland of India, i.e.  the  modern state of Uttar Pradesh

Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana refers to the invasion of Panchaala, Mathura, Saketa and Pataliputra by the Yavanas (Ref: Brhatsamhita, Bibilotheca Indica, 1965, Intro., pp 37-38, Kern; Greeks in Bacteria and India, 1951, W. W. Taran, Apprendix) Though the Kambojas are not specifically mentioned in this passage, it goes without saying that the term Yavanas in Yuga-Purana defintely included the Kambojas and probably also the Sakas.

It is notable that after massive intrusion of  India by  Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas  around Christian era,  the term Yavana  had also become synonymous with Mlechcha and was  a common designation  for  all  foreign tribes irrespective of whether they  were Yavanas, Sakas,  Kambojas or others (See: Hellinsm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Williams-Monier Sanskrit-English Dictionary).

Passages exist in the Mahabharata, Vayu Purana (I/58/81-83, II/37/106-09) and Matasya Purana (144/51-58) which include the Kambojas among the Yavanas and designate both as Yavanas.

There is another reason for this too. The culture of the Kambojas had been substantively altered due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both people are attested to follow common culture, social customs and mannerism like supporting short cropped hair, non-entertainment of Brahmanas and observing two varna (Arya and Dasa) social  system  instead of  chatur-varna  observed by the Indo-Aryans etc. The Yonakambojesu expression in Ashoka's R.E XIII as well as  in the Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3) powerfully attest very close relations of the Kambojas with the Yavanas.

Thus, it is not unusual that the Kambojas have sometimes been indiscriminately included among the Yavanas and addressed as such, in the later Sanskrit literature.

According to Dr Buddha Parkash: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Satrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura " (India and the World, p 154,  Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee).

Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal).

The following verse from Mahabharata composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests the Kambojas and Yavanas in control of Mathura.
 * tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./
 * ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah.//5
 * — (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)

The Mathura Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshthi characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaostas Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuiá, the chief queen of the Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars.

According to Dr Konow's findings, Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi Kamuiá who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a Kamuia.

By rigorous linguistic analysis, Dr Konow has also established that name Kamuia/Kamuio of Lion Capitol Inscriptions is the Khroshthised form of Sanskrit Kamboja, Kambojaka, or Kambuja (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum II, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi and p 36, Dr S. Konow)

Thus, there is both literary as well as inscriptional evidence which amply attests the presence of ancient Kambojas in Mathura.

King Maues: a Kamboj king
Further, the scholars have also identified Yuvaraja Kharaostas of the Lion Capitol inscriptions with Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been examined by Rapson and Luders. Kshatrapa Kharaostas (Khroshtha) was son of Arta as is clear from his coins i.e Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putras. Arta (or Orta) is stated to be brother of king Moga (or Maues).

Thus, according to Dr Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Arta, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Khroshtha) Kamuio, and queen Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the Kamuiá or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja clan.

However, some scholars insist that Moga was of Saka extractions, but there is no conclusive evidence to link Moga to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas simply based on his Maues, Muki or Mevake names which are said to be variants of Scythian name 'Mauekes' (Dr Raychaudhary). This is not a very convincing reasoning to identify him as of Saka extractions.

As is well known, during few centuries preceding the Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas.. such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc (Dr D. C. Sircar, Dr J. L. Kamboj). This extensive social and cultural admixing due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among these frontier people of north-west.

Thus, the identification based merely on so-called Saka-sounding names is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain surname Kamuia used after the names of king Moga's family members? Is Kamuia also attested as a clan name among the ancient Sakas/Scythians anywhere? The answer is no.

As a matter-of-fact, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family.

Scholars like Dr V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king (The early History of India, p 242). Others say that he was Saka king. Latest, Dr S. Konow and many scholars following him say that he was Kamboja king.

According to Dr Thomas, the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capitol exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature. This tells us that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharoshtha Kamuia were from the Persian denominations hence more likely from Kamboja ethnicity.

Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities (Dr Thomas).

Thus, the ethnic surnames Kamuia/Kamuio used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas in Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions should give enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or Kamboja/Kambuja clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become some what Scythianised in social customs, culture and mannerism due to extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which followed Scythian culture. Under such a scenario, it is absolutely not unusual for the Kamboja family of king Moga to have borne names which may sound somewhat Scythian or mixture of Scythian and Parthian.

Probably, this is the clue to king Moga's ethnic identity.

Therefore, King Maues or Moga and his family were from Kamboja rather than Scythian lineage.

There are some European scholars who consider the Kambojas to be a clan of the Sakas. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But originally, the Kambojas were Aryan not Scythian, in culture.

Kambojas in West/Southwest India
Dr S. K. Aiyangar places his Kamboja in modern Sindh and Gujarat with Dvaraka as its Capital (Ancient India, p 7, Dr S. K. Aiyangar). Dr P. N. Banerjee, in his 'Public Administration in Ancient India' too, assigns Kamboja to a region near Sindh with its Capital at Dvarka. (Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, Dr P. N. Banerjee).

Nagendra Nath Vasu asserts that Kambhey in Surashtra is a corruption of Sanskrit Kamboja (Vanger Jatya Itihass (Bangla) Rajnyakanda, Jogendra Ghosh).

Dr Jogindra Chandra Ghose also connects Kambhey with the Kambojas (Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, pp 45-46).

Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira (6th century AD) locates one Kamboja settlement specifically in the South-west (nairrtyam dizi) of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida. e.g.

 * sanskrit:
 * nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja SindhuSauvirah/
 * hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surASTra Badara Dravidah/
 * —  ( Brhatsamhita 14/17-19).

Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India. e.g.

 * sanskrit:
 * sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha:
 * —   (Rajbilaas 1/122).

Very interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in Indian mainland.... Kambhoja in south-west India and Kamboja in southern parts of India (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305, Dr Kamboj)..

Markendya Purana also locates a Kamboja settlement in the south-west India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (Surashtra) countries (Markandya Purana, 55/30-33).

Arathshastra of Brahspati, refers to Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to Dasrana country, south-east of Gujarata (Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXVI-2, 1950, p 127).

Vishnu Dharmottari also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India (Verse I.9.6) (Ref: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206, Dr M. R. Singh)

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) e.g.

 * sanskrit:
 * pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah:
 * carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah:
 * —  (Garuda Purana 1/15/13).

Pt. Avadh Bihari Lal Avasthi comments on the above references as follows: 'We find Kambhi, Kamma, Kumbhi etc castes in South India. There is also a famous city Koimb-toor. Possibly, there has also been a Kamboja country in Southern India' (See Garuda Purana, Aik Adhyan p 28).

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly substantiate the historical fact that some sections of Central Asian Kambojas had also joined the Saka and Pahlava movements from Central Asia in the wake of events of second/first c BC and had accordingly spread and settled into northern and south-western parts of India.

The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and  from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c AD).

A inscription of 1050 c AD from Mysore Tract (EC, VII SK 118) attests Trading Corporations of Nanadesa Tisaiya Yirattu Ainnurruvar which traded, among other commodities, in elephants, horses, sapphires, moonstones, pearls, rubies & other gems. The countries of trade are mostly located in middle to southern India. These corporations are stated to have trading links, among others, with the Kambhojas and Parsas/Pahlavas (Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy (ARSIE 342 of 1912); History & Culture of Indian People Vol V, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar etc p 527).

The Kambhoja of the above references, said to be contiguous to Saurashtra, Dhanustra, Lata etc is obviously located somewhere in south-west India. The Parsa (Pahlava) is also in the countries list. The Parsa/Pahlava here also probably refers to their south-western settlement (ref to nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja.... a Brhatsamhita evidence for the Kamboja/Pahlava settlements in south-west India).

It is due to this numerous literary/inscriptional evidence as presented above that some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc tend to locate their Kamboja in Sindhu/Gujarat. ''Obviously, their Kamboja relates to the post-Christian settlements of migrant Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not to the original Kamboja of the ancient Sanskrit/Pali literature and Ashoka's Edicts.

Some historians have invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity  (Ancient India, Vol III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah)

Kambhoja Raja Kathalu ( story of king of Kambhojas/Kambojas)  is still very popular in Andhra traditions which treats of the militaristic exploits of some fierce, daring-do and adventuours king of Kambojas. The story probably refers to some historical brush of the Kamboja hordes with the people of Andhra around Christian era.

The Kamboja hordes of second/1ist c BC have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western india. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh ( Sind,  p 44,  M. R. Lamrick) remind us of  Sanskrit Kamboja  (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 305/306, Dr J. L. Kamboj). The Kamboi (ancient town/port), Kambhey (port), Gambhu, Kumbarivaji in Surashtra and an ancient town named Kumbhoj/Kambhoj in Kohlapur, in Maharashtra, as also the Koimb-toor city of Caranatica in southern India bear witness to their probable connections with the migrant Kambojas. There is a  Kambhe Kshatriya caste in Gujarat. There is also a Kambhoja caste living near Nanded,  in  Maharashtra. They are probably a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 304-05, Dr J. L. Kamboj)

Kambojas in Bengal
A third branch of these Central Asian Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-ji/Kam-po-ce) and Nepal (Kambojadesa). Brahma Purana (53/16) mentions Kambojas with Pragjyotisas and Tamraliptikas. Sasanavmsa (P.T.S., pp 64-65, 83 etc) attests the Kambojas in Burma also. They were probably a section of those Kambojas who figure in history of Bengal. They had made an unsuccesful bid to conquer Gauda during the reign of king Devapala. A latter attempt of Kambojas was crowned with success and they deprived the Palas of the suzerainty over Gauda and set up one of their chiefs as king (History of India, p 399, Dr V. A. Smith; Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 251, Dr B. C. Law; Vangalar Itihaas p 182, 184, R. D. Banerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 310-340, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

The Kambojas rule in Bengal lasted until they were desposed by resurgent Palas in 980 AD.

Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Gaudapati, also known as Kunjarghatavarshayan, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-west Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-west Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 and edited and published by Dr N. G. Majumdar in 1934.

Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who calls himself as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family (Indian Antiquary, Vol I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227 ff; Journal of Royal Society of Bengal, Vol II, 1911, pp 615-19). In the inscription, he is addressed as Kunjarghataversheyan, which may be his nick-name. Irda-Tamrapatra inscription details generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala  ( Epigaphia Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-58, Dr N. G. Majumdar)

Kambojas in Sri Lanka
An earlier section of the north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Surashtra, several centuries before Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social and economical lives of its people. This is evident from six or seven ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which powerfully attest the existence of Kamboja Goshatha/Sangha (gote Kabojhiana...Archaological Survey of Ceylon, Inscription Register No 316) and the grand Kamboja Guild (Kabojiya mahapughyana.....op. cit. Inscription Register No 1118) in ancient Sinhala. These Inscriptions are said to belong to 3rd c BC (Dr S. Paranavitana).

David Parkin and Ruth Barnes write:

ARCHAOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON SHIPPING COMMUNITIES:

These inscriptions indicate that the Kambojas had organised themselves into corporations and were certainly engaged in trade. The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century (on page 109) attests that a group of people called the Kambojas were in Rohana. In the third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, we are informed that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni. The Kambojas are often mentioned together with Yonas (Yavanas), Gandharas and Sakas. The Kambojas were a native population of Arachosia in the extreme west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin (See: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes).

Himanshu Prabha Ray writes:

THE MERCHANT LINEAGE AND THE GUILD:

It is significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. The inscriptions referring to the Kabojha or Kambojas are found in ancient Rohana and associate the region with the gamika or village functionary (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 622, 623, 625), there are references to the Guild of the Kabojhiyas and its chief (Kabojhiya-maha-pugiyana, no. 553; parumaka or chief of the gota (Sanskrit gostha) Kabojikana, no. 990). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of the fourth century, refers to a village of the Kambojas in Rohana.(Kamboja-gama) (See: The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge World Archaeology, 2003, p 206, Himanshu Prabha Ray).

These archaological and literary references powerfully demonstrate that the Kambojas had formed an important section of ancient Sinhala society starting many centuries prior to Christian era (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 341-355; cf: History of Ceylon, Vol I, part I, p 88-92, Dr S. Paranavitana)

Mahavamsa traditions tell us that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions.. the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan speaking population of Sri Lanka, originally belonged to some 'Simhapura' region in Jambudvipa (Mahavamsa, 6/34). Interestingly, the ancient Brahmanical and Buddhist texts as well as Chinese travelographer Hiuen Tsiang (7th c AD) attests one Simhapura near Jammu, contiguous to ancient Kamboja/Gandhara. Further, Sinhala as a personal name, is also attested from two Kharoshati inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Takshila in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Inscriptions, pp 87, 110, Dr. S Konow).

It is also interesting to notice that the ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura/Sri Lanka make no reference to any other Aryan community of north India excepting the Kambojas as living in the island in pre-Christian times. Besides Aryan speaking Kambojas, another dominant community referenced in the inscriptions is Dameda or Tamil from the Dravidian group. The Kamboja, as an ethnic name, occurs in six or seven inscriptions, whereas the term 'Sinhala' is not attested at all. These inscriptions specifically attest 'Grand Kamboja Guilds' and also one 'Kamboja Sangha' located in ancient Sri Lanka.

Archaological finds of lapis lazuli in Sri Lanka conclusively connects it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli. The most famous locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times has been in Badakshan, Afghanistan, which has been mined for over 6000 years ( G. Hermann; Lapis Lazuli, The Early Phases of its trade, Iraq 30, part 1, p 21-57; also Dr Michael Witzel, Early Eastern Iran and the Atharveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 102, fn 3 ). The best lapis lazuli is still quarried from Badakshan as it was when Macro Polo visited the quarry in AD 1271. And Badakshan undoubtedly formed part of ancient Kamboja as we have already discussed above.

The Simhapura of Vijay, the supposed ancestor of Sinhalas, may have been the Simhapura located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara District), near the Gandhara/Kamboja group.

This north-west 'Simhapura' as neighbor to Urga/Ursa (modern Hazara/Kashmir), Bahlika (north-west Panjab) as well as to the Kambojas and Daradas on upper Indus north/west of Kashmir is attested in the Mahabharata (II.27.18-23), which name is reflected in Arjuna's Digvijay expedition into the north-west.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Uragavasina.n chaiva rochamAna.n rane.ajayat ..18.//
 * tatah Sinhapura.n ramya.n chitrayudhasurakshitam/.
 * DaradansahaKambojairajayatpakashAsanih .. 22.//
 * —     (MBH 2/27/18-22)

Chetya Jataka also locates one Simhapura in the west (Jataka Trans III, p 275).

More importantly, Hiuen Tsiang, a seventh century Chinese visitor to India also attests one Simhapura principality on east bank of river Indus, and localizes it in upper Jhelum/Chenab doab, about 115 miles east of Taxila (Ref: Hiuen Tsiang  Sang-ho-pu-lo (=Sinhapura),  Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I. Translated by Samuel Beal. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1906,  pp142-150; History and culture of Indian People, Vol IV, p 33 ).

In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a Sarthavaha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are travelling in a caravan.

Hence it is possible that Vijay Simha, the supposed ancestor of the Sinhalas was one such Sarthavaha from this Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay Simha and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BC, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west via ancient Kamboja-Dvarka trade Route followed by the west-coast sea-route from Bharukachcha onwards.

The appellative terms such as Gamika (=Gamini=Gramini) and Parumaka (=Pramukha) as also the corporational terms such as Puga (=Guild/Sangha) and Gote (=Goshati=corporation) etc used specifically in reference to the Kambojas in ancient Sinhalese inscriptions are powerful indicators that Vijay and his 700 companions may have been from the Kamboja/Gandhara trade group. These republican/corporational terms having common usage in political, military as well as commercial sphere were prevalent among the republican Kambojas of the north-west around 4th c BC, as Kautiliya's Arthashastra also witnesses for us.

The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboj may have had allurement for these specific products (cf: Kamboja= Kamniya.bhoja....the Kambojas as enjoyers/or fond of pleasant or beautiful things...Yasaka Nirukuta (II/2), commented by Acharya Durga; cf: tunga.draviynah.rashyah of Kambojas attested by Raghuvamsa (4.69-70); cf: Kambojah...yama.vaishravan.opamah..MBH (7/23/42) implyng enormous riches of ancient Kambojas. All these references imply opulence and luxurious lives of ancient Kambojas which they must have achieved by way of trade/business)

[Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 341-355, Dr Kamboj].

Kambojas in Indo-China
It is perfectly conceivable that some ambitious families from these adventurous Sinhalese Kambojas had ventured to Indo-China around third or fouth c AD, originally as merchants/traders later joined by some Kshatriya Kamboja chieftain and had managed to found a Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under Varman kings. If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in India in 17/18th C, the Kamboja adventurers located in Gujarat/Surashtra or more probably from Srilanka could have done it too, in 5/6th c in nearby Indo-China. The Kambojas as traders and as community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archaological evidence presented above. And it was just one little step farward, and they were in Indo-China. At least, the early kings of Kambuja indeed belonged to these Indo-Iranian Kambojas. The learned king Kambu (from Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of the Kamboja line of kings in Cambodia must have come from these Gujarati or Sri Lankan Kambojas. The traditions of north-Indian Kambojas lend adequate credibility to this view. Several noted scholars like Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, Bombay Gezetteer, Dr J. L. Kamboj and several others have accepted a direct historical and political link between the Indian Kambojas and Kambodia. G. Coedes, an authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection (Indianized States of South-East 1964, page 47).

One school of scholars including Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Joveau Dubreuil, Dr V. Venkayya, Dr B. L. Rice, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi/Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas (cf: G. Coedes, The Indianised States of South-East Asia, 1967, p 47. See also references quoted by Coedes in the index). The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era (Ref Brahata Samhita of Varahamihira (14/17) may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambuja dynasty of Cambodia respectively.

Ancient Kamboja-Dvarvati Caravan Route
Ankuravathu section of Petavathu Jataka (verses 257-258) attests the existance of a carvan route from ancient Kamboja to Dvarvati.

 * Pali:
 * Yassa atthaya gacchama Kambojam dhana-haraka /
 * ayam kamdado yakkho imam yakkham nyamase //
 * imam yakkham gahetvaana sadhuken pasaham va/
 * yanam aropayitvana khippam gacchama Dvarakam//.
 * — (Ankuravathu section of Petavathu Jataka, verses 257-258)

 * English:
 * we go to Kamboja with a desire to harvest wealth,
 * here is more wish-fulfilling Yakkha,
 * we want to carry this Yakkha forward,
 * We want to seize this Yakkha, in the good one or by force,
 * put it on the carts and go (return) fast to Dváraka.

Dr Sircar writes: This Ankuravathu section of the Petavathu (verse 257-58) suggests that there was a direct caravan route between Davarka (Dvarvati) in Kathiwar and the country of Kambojas in Kandhar/Afghanistan (The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 254. Dr D. C. Sircar)

Dr Aggarwala comments: 'In the Petvathu commentary, there is a reference to a long trade-route called Davarvati-Kamboja route.....this route has been existing from the times of the Indus va''lley. From what we know of these ancient routes, it is clear that the hub for the branching of various routes was Bahlika (modern Balkh). Here the Uttarapatha-route from Tamralipiti-Patliputra-Varanasi-Kausambi-Mathura-Sakali-Takshila-Pushkaravati-Kapisi terminated; so also the Davaravati-Kamboja route ended here, and both of these northern and Southern routes from India restarted towards Kamboja in (Pamir Badakshan) to pick up with the silk-routes from China' (Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, Identification of Kamboja, page 359, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; also ref: Ancient Indian Geography).

[See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 251-252, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Delhi Univ; The Bhakti Cult and Ancient Indian Geography, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, [Ed] Dr D. C. Sircar, p 141ff; A History of India, Vol I, pp 105-108, Dr Romila Thapar].

According to D.P.P.N. also, the country (Kamboja) was evidently on one of the great caravan routes and there was a road direct from Dváraka to Kamboja (see: Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol I, 1960, G. P. Malalasekera, p 526; also Pv.p.23).

Kautiliya Arathashastra (11/1/4) lists Kamboja with Surashtra and informs us that same form of politico-economic system (varta-shastropajivin) prevailed in these two ancient martial republics. It attests the Kambojas and Surashtrians as living by agriculture, trade and by weilding weapons.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Kambhoja-Surashtra kshatriya shrenadyo varta-shasteropajivin/
 * — (Kautiliya Arthashastra, 11/1/4)

Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira (5/35) also notes the Kambojas as living by trade, agriculture and warfare.

 * Sanskrit:
 * Pancala Kalinga Surasenah Kamboja Udra Kirata shastra varttah/
 * —  (Brhatsamhita 5/36)

The same characteristics of the Kambojas are attested in the Mahabharata (Kambojah........yama.vaishravanopamah, MBH 7/23/42).

There is sufficient evidence to show that ancient Kambojas had been in direct economic and political intercourse with western India including Surashtra/Gujarat since ancient times (Bahu/Sagara vs Haihayas, Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas battles per Puranic legends etc). And there was a regular traffic of men and merchandise occurring between north-west and western India.

It is likely that this regular traffic in trade and commerce between Kamboja and Surashtra may have led to their adoption of identical kind of socio-political constitutions also.

Once the traders/merchants from Kamboja/Gandhara/Bahlika had reached Surashtra/Gujarat, several important sea ports like Barbaricum, Bharukaccha (present-day Bharoch) and Soparaka Pattana (present-day Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) also became accessible to them for sea-trade with western world on one hand and with southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Suvarna-Bhumi and beyond to Indo-China on the other.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a marine guidebook of 1st century A.D. by an anonymous Graeco-Egyptian merchant makes mention of several ports beginning with Barbaricum at the mouth of  Indus followed by  Barygaza ( modern Bhroach), Sopara (near Bombay), Calliena and Muziris (Kerala)  etc located along  the west coast of India downwards. From China, says the author of  The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea raw silk and silk yarn and silk cloth are brought on foot through Bactria to Barygaza  (Wheeler, M., Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers,  p. 156). The numerous valuable objects discovered in course of excavations at Taxila and Begram (Kapisha/Kamboja) bear evidence of this close trade-relationship of Bahlika/Kamboja/Gandhara (Afghanistan)  with western world.

The commerce of the Western Indian coast was so lucrative that Bhroach and Sopara had trade settlements or stations in the Gulf, the presence of foreign citizens, being of course entrepreneurial in nature. It is also indicated by the fact that these merchants were able to pay extremely high rates of interest (25%), as evidenced by the Vienna Papyrus (Reade, J., The Indian Ocean in Antiquity, p. 295, Ray, H. P., A Resurvey of Roman Contacts with the West, a paper in Athens, Aden, Arikamedu, ed. By Baussac and Salles, p. 103) of mid-second century A.D., undoubtedly by reaping enormous profits from the Indo-Roman trade.

Within the subcontinent also, overland and maritime trade with the South (Dakshinapatha) was being explored. It was specially with the growth of land-borne trade, that the caravan-merchants or the Sarthavahas (Pali Sathavaha) came into existence and eventually occupied a pre-eminent position in society (Epigraphia Indica, XIX, p. 66; X. Nos. 1062, 1065, 1066). The inland traders covered long distances, for example between Takshasila and Varanasi (Chhatopadhyay, B., Kishana State and Indian Society, p. 191; Mahavastu, II.). There was regular trade between Sávatthi and Uttarápatha (Petavatthu Commentary (P.T.S.), 100). The chief divisions included in Uttarapatha are mentioned in the Páli literature as Kasmíra-Gandhára and Kamboja (Online Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names...see entry under Uttarapatha). This region was famous from very early times for its horses and horse-dealers (See, e.g., Vinaya Pitaka, Vol III, 6, ed. Oldenberg (Williams and Norgate) ; Samantapásádiká, I. (P.T.B.), 175), and horses were brought down for sale from there to such cities as Benares (Játaka, ed. Fausboll, Vol II, 287; Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, p 138, Dr Buddha Parkash).

In Jain canonical text also, Bharukachcha is quoted as 'donamukha' where goods were carried by land and water routes (Life in ancient India as depicted in Jain canons, p 273, J. C. Jain). Besides Periplus, Ptolemy (Geography, P 33) also mentions Barygaza (Bharukachha) as a great commercial center situated at the estuary of Narbada. Soparka (Sopara) is stated to be a great commercial center and residence of traders (Brhatkalpa Bhashya, I, 2506)

Báhiya Dárucíriya an arahant born in in Bhárukaccha (Apadána (Pali Text Series), II. 476) had engaged himself in trade, voyaging in a ship. Seven times he had sailed from upper Indus downwards and across the sea and returned safely home. This Buddhist evidence shows that besides Kamboja-Dravati land route, the river Indus was also used as a water-route from upper Indus/Kamboj down to Sea.

Archaological evidence reveals the existence of many land-locked ports including the one called Kamboi in Surashtra (See: Ancient Ports of Gujarat, A.R. Dasgupta, Deputy Director, SIIPA, SAC, Ahmedabad, M. H. Raval Ex. Director, Directorate of Archeaology, Ahmedabad).

This modern Kamboi is attested as Kamboika in 10th c AD records (G. Buhler, Indian Antiquary, VI, 1877, pp 191-92). Kamboika is corruption of Kambojika (Dr J. L Kamboj) which is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja.

There is also an evidence of ancient Gandhara port in Surashtra.

Further, the ancient Buddhist texts reveal that there was regular trade between Bharukaccha, Suppáraka and Suvannabhumi (See, e.g., Jataka Fausboll, ..iii.188;  Apadána.ii.476 (vs.13f.)(Pali  Text Series);  Manorathapúraní, Anguttara Commentary, I.156, (S.H.B.)

The distance between Ceylon and Suvannabhúmi was seven hundred leagues, and with a favourable wind could be covered in seven days and nights (Manorathapúraní, Anguttara Commentary, I.265,  (S.H.B.)

All these ancient Buddhist references show that nations from north-west including the Kamboja, Gandhara, Kashmira, Sindhu, Sovira etc were in trade loop with western Indian sea ports and huge trade ships regularily plied between western Indian ports and Southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Suvarnabhumi and Indo-China peninsula. (cf: All Gratitude To Myanmar, S. N. Goenka, Vipassana Newsletter Vol. 7, No. 10 Dec 97).

No doubt, we find powerful signatures of the Kambojas in Sri Lanka, Bengal, Burma and to all probability in Cambodia also.

The chief export products from Kamboja were horses, ponies, blankets embroidered with threads of gold, kambu/kambuka silver, zinc, mashapurni, hingpurni, somvalak/Punga, walnuts, almonds, raisin and precious stones including lapis lazuli, emerald, amethyst etc.

Kambojas and Kambohs
The Kambohs or Kambojs living in upper India are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Mohamdans, Buddhists and Jains as well.

It is very interesting to observe that modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, trade, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago, as powerfully attested by Kautiliya in his Arathashastra (11/1/04), as also in the Brahata Samhita of Varahamihira (5/35).

Besides in Panjab, the Kambojs are also found living in Delhi, UP and in Maharashtra. An ancient town 'Kamboi' in Surashtra (History and Culture of Indian People, The Delhi Sultanate, p 155, Dr Majumdar, Dr Pusalkar) and 'Kambhoj' in District Kohlapur/Maharashtra remind us of the Kamboja foot prints left in western India. The Kamboh Darwaza in Meerut in UP is named after them (Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, Dr M. R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj). There are numerous place names in north-western India which carry unmistakeable relics of Sanskrit name Kamboja.

The Tajiks, Siyaposh Kaffirs (Kam/Kamoz/Kamtoz/Katir), the Aspins, Yashkuns and Yusufzais ( from Ispzai/Aspzai....see The Pathans by Caroe Olaf) of eastern Afghanistan are considered by various scholars as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. (Ancient Kamboja, people and the Country, 1981, Dr Kamboj, p 165, 248; Comprehensive History India, Vol II, p 118, Dr N. K. Shastri; Bharatbhumi aur unke Nivasi, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, p 313-14 ; Political History of Ancient India, Dr Raychaudhury, 1996, p 133 etc)

The modern Kambohs/Kambojs are said to be ancient inhabitants of Persia (Panjab Castes, Denzil Ibbetson, p 148;  Glossary of Tribes, H. A. Rose, p 443; Jatt Tribes of Zira, 1992, p 137, S. S. Gill;  Tarikh-i-Kambohan, p 302, Chouhdri Wahhab ud-Din).

Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan.(The Sikh, A. H. Bingley, p 57; Encylopedia of Sikh Religion & Culture, 1997, p 24, Dr Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Romesh Chander Dogra).

The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala/Jullundur, Panjab claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradtion that their ancestors came from Kashmir (op cit, H. A. Rose, p 443; Panjab Castes, p 148, Denzil Ibbetson; Sidhaant Kaumudi, 1966, p 22, Acharya R. R. Pandey).

The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from Garh-Gazni (Afganistan). Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the phera during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home:

 * Garh Gazni Nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas.

 * Translation:

Originated from the fort of Gazni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (Panjab).

 * —  [cf: Glossary of Castes, H. A. Rose, p 444; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 119, 306; op cit.p 22, R. R. Pandey].

The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true (op. cit, H. A. Rose, p 443; op. cit. p 148, Denzil; op cit., pp 22, R. R. Pandey).

Mohammdan Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Panjab (Op cit., p 24, Dr Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Romesh Chander Dogra; Glossary of tribes, H. A. Rose, p 443, 444; op cit, 57, A. H. Bingley; Supplementary Glossary, H. M. Elliot, pp 304/305 etc etc). Kai-Khusro (=Koresh), Kai Cam-buksh (=Cambyses or Kambujiya) are said to have been great kings from Kai/Achemenean line of the Persians    (Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol I, 65, Col James Todd).

Mohamadan Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. Shahbaz Khan Kamboh was the most trusted general of Akbar (The Sikhs, p 57, A. H. Bingley). Sheikh Gadai Kamboh was the Sadar-i-Jahan of Emperor    (Akbar Nama, by Abu L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122). The Sayyids and the Kambohs from among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule (The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali; cf: Cultural History of India,  1999,  p 261, A. L.  Basham)

The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position (Glossary of Tribes, p 443, H. A. Rose; Panjab Castes, p 148, Denzil Ibbetson).

Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India (A. H. Bingley; Denzil Ibbetson; H. A. Rose, Kulwant Singh Virk; M. S. Randhawa, Vice Chancellor, Agriculture Univ Ludhiana, Principal Sewa Singh etc). In his Glossary of Tribes, Rose remarks that the Kambohs and Ahirs agriculturists are the first rank husbandmen and he places them above the Jatts (Glossary of Tribes, Vol II, pp 6, 442). Col Lal Singh Kamboj, landlord from Uttar Pardesh was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam-Shri award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. According to Dr M. S. Randhawa ICS, (ex-Vice Chancellor, Agri Univ Ludhiana), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity (Out of Ashes, p 60). According to Principal Sewa Singh: "....The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists" (Orgin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004, Principal Sewa Singh).

Several observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race of people (A. H Bingley, H. A. Rose).

Some British ethnologists have described the Kambojs to be ethnically more akin to the Afghans than any of the Hindu races among which they have now settled for generations [The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57).

There is a medieval era Persian proverb current in north-west which conveys that the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues (op cit, p 443/444, H. A. Rose):

 * Agar kuht-ul-riajl uftad, azeshan uns kam geeri,
 * Eke Afghan, doum Kamboh, seum badzat Kashmiri'.
 * —  (Persian proverb)

This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris had been living pretty much as neighbores and were, therefore, an inter-related racial group.

As against above comments from H. A. Rose with reference to the Kambojs, an another scholar, Sardar Gurdial Singh, notes that, during the reign of terror, it was the Kambojs/Kambohs only who were trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs. (Glossaray of Tribes, Rose, p 444). The Kambohs are divided into 52 and 84 gotra divisions. 52 gotras are stated to be descendents of Cadet branch and 84 from elder Branch. This is explained as referring to the young and elder military divisons under which they had fought the Bharata war.

The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting.

'They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible stretegy of war' (The Sikhs and the Wars: Reginald Holder..From Panjab Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, April 1970, S.No 7, Edited by Dr Ganda Singh)

The modern Kamboj are generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, generally very fair (gaura varna) race having brown, some times redish hair, and brown or sometimes gray eye color and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are also noted for their beauty.

In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as very handsome race (parbhadra.kastu Kambojah: Mahabharata 7/23/43). Kamboja princes are noted as tall (pramshu.n 8/56/113), exceedingly handsome (sudarshanya, 7/92/74, priyadarshanam, 8/56/113), of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like full moon (purnachandrabhavaktra.n, 8/56/113), lotus eyed (kamalapatraksamatyartham 8/56/113), handsome like the lord-moon among the stars (taaraa.adhipa.upamah, MBH 1/67/31). Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas as 'ravisanibha' i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun (Ramayana verse 1/55/2).

Ancient Kamboja ladies were also noted for their beauty (Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; MBH 11/25/1-8)

The total population of this people, still calling themselves as Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) is said to be around 1.5 million, rest of their population, over the time, having submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the subcontinent.

Numerous of their clan names over-lap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.(cf: Glossary of Tribes and Castes, p 444, fn. iii, H. A. Rose).

The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue( Jatt Tribes of Zira, p138, S. S. Gill; Glossary of Tribes and Castes, H. A. Rose, p 444)

title: Talk:Kambojas/removed