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Echmarcach mac Ragnaill

Echmarcach mac Ragnaill (died 1064/1065) was a dominant figure in the eleventh-century Irish Sea region. At his height, he reigned as king over Dublin, the Isles, and perhaps the Rhinns of Galloway. The precise identity of Echmarcach's father, Ragnall, is uncertain. One possibility is that this man was one of two eleventh-century rulers of Waterford. Another possibility is that Echmarcach's father was an early eleventh-century ruler of the Isles. If any of these identifications are correct, Echmarcach may have been a member of the Uí Ímair kindred.

Echmarcach first appears on record in about 1031, when he was one of three kings in northern Britain who submitted to Knútr Sveinnsson, ruler of the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire. Echmarcach is recorded to have ruled over Dublin in 1036–1038 and 1046–1052. After losing Dublin for the final time, he appears to have been seated in the Isles on Mann. In 1061, about a decade after his final defeat in Dublin, Echmarcach appears to have been expelled from the Isles, and may have then fallen back into Galloway.

Echmarcach appears to have forged an alliance with the powerful Uí Briain. A leading member of this kindred, Donnchad mac Briain, King of Munster, was married to Cacht ingen Ragnaill, a woman who could have been closely related to Echmarcach. Certainly, Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, married one of Donnchad's Uí Briain close kinsmen. Echmarcach's violent career brought him into bitter conflict with a particular branch of the Uí Ímair who had held Dublin periodically from the early eleventh century. This branch was supported by the rising Uí Cheinnselaig, an Irish kindred responsible for Echmarcach's final expulsion from Dublin and apparently Mann as well.

In about 1064, having witnessed much of his formerly expansive sea-kingdom fall into the hands of the Uí Cheinnselaig, Echmarcach accompanied Donnchad—a man who was himself deposed—upon a pilgrimage to Rome. Possibly aged about sixty-five at this point in his life, it was here that Echmarcach died, in either 1064 or 1065. In the decades following his demise, the Uí Briain used Echmarcach's descendants as a means to dominate and control Dublin and the Isles. One of his grandsons eventually ruled as king.

Uncertain parentage

Echmarcach was the son of a man named Ragnall. Whilst Echmarcach bore a Gaelic name, the name of his father is ultimately derived from Old Norse, a fact that serves to exemplify the hybrid nature of the eleventh-century Irish Sea region, The identity of Echmarcach's father is uncertain. One possibility is that Ragnall was a member of the dynasty that ruled the Norse-Gaelic enclave of Waterford in tenth- and eleventh centuries. If so, Echmarcach may have been the son of one of two Waterfordian rulers: Ragnall mac Ímair, King of Waterford, or this man's apparent son, Ragnall ua Ímair, King of Waterford. Another possibility is that Echmarcach belonged to a family from the Isles, and that his father was Ragnall mac Gofraid, King of the Isles, son and possible successor of Gofraid mac Arailt, King of the Isles. As a descendant of either of the aforesaid families, Echmarcach would appear to have been a member of the Uí Ímair, a royal dynasty descended from the Scandinavian sea-king Ímar.

Knútr and the three kings

Echmarcach appears to first emerge in the historical record in the first half of the eleventh century, when he was one of the three kings who met with Knútr Sveinnsson, ruler of the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire comprising the kingdoms of Denmark, England, and Norway. The event itself is noted by Knútsdrápa, a contemporary drápa composed by Sigvatr Þórðarson, an eleventh-century Icelandic skald. Although Sigvatr's composition fails to identify the three kings by name, it does reveal that Knútr met them in Fife. The ninth- to twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also notes the meeting. The "D" version of the chronicle records that Knútr went to Rome in 1031, and soon after travelled to Scotland where he received the submission of an unnamed Scottish king. The later "E" version provides more information, stating that, after his return from Rome in 1031, Knútr went to Scotland and received the submission of three kings named: "Mælcolm", "Mælbæþe", and "Iehmarc". The latter name appears to be a phonetic form of the Gaelic Echmarcach, a relatively uncommon name. The three men almost certainly refer to: Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scotland, Mac Bethad mac Findlaích, and Echmarcach himself.

Of the three kings, Máel Coluim appears to have been the most powerful, and it is possible that Mac Bethad and Echmarcach were underkings or clientkings of his. Mac Bethad appears to have become Mormaer of Moray in 1032 after the slaying of his kinsman, Gilla Comgáin mac Máel Brigti, Mormaer of Moray. Previous rulers of Moray are sometimes styled as kings by various Irish annals, a fact which may explain why Mac Bethad was called a king when he met Knútr. Although the apparent date of Mac Bethad's accession to the mormaership (1032) appears to contradict the date of the kings' meeting (1031), this discrepancy can be accounted for in two ways. One possibility is that Gilla Comgáin was actually slain in 1031 but only recorded in 1032. Another possibility is that Knútr merely returned from Rome in 1031, but actually met with the kings in 1032, after Gilla Comgáin's demise and Mac Bethad's accession. There is further evidence that could cast doubt on the date of the meeting. Although the aforesaid versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle date Knútr's pilgrimage to 1031, he is otherwise known to have visited Rome in 1027. Whilst it is possible he undertook two pilgrimages during his career, it is more likely that the chronicle has misdated his journey. In fact, it is possible that the chronicle failed to account for the time in which Knútr spent on the continent and Scandinavia after having visited Rome.

Further confusion about Knútr in Scottish affairs comes from a continental source. At some point before about 1030, the eleventh-century Historiarum libri quinque, by Rodulfus Glaber, records that Knútr fought a long campaign against Máel Coluim, and that hostilities were finally brought to a close by the intervention of Knútr's wife, Emma, and her brother, Richard II, Duke of Normandy. If Rodulfus' account is to be believed, this conflict must have taken place before Richard's death in 1026, and could refer to events surrounding Máel Coluim's violent annexation of Lothian early in Knútr's reign. Despite uncertainties surrounding the reliability of Rodulfus' version of events, unless the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has misdated Knútr's meeting in Scotland, Rodulfus' account could be evidence that Knútr involved himself with Scottish affairs before and after 1026.

The record of Echmarcach in company with Máel Coluim and Mac Bethad could indicate that he was in some sense a 'Scottish' ruler, and that his powerbase was located in the Isles. Such an orientation could add weight to the possibility that Echmarcach was descended from Ragnall mac Gofraid. As for Máel Coluim, his influence in the Isles may be evidenced by the twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchán, which could indicate that he resided or exerted power in the Hebrides, specifically on the Inner Hebridean islands of Arran and Islay. Further evidence of Máel Coluim's influence in the Isles may be preserved by the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster and the fourteenth-century Annals of Tigernach which record the death of a certain Suibne mac Cináeda in 1034. These particular sources style Suibne "ri Gall-Gaidhel" and "rí Gall-Gáedel". The Gaelic Gaidheal (plural Gaidheil) is primarily a linguistic term referring to speakers of Gaelic. The Gaelic term Gall Gaidheil, literally meaning "Stranger-Gaidheil", was attributed to the population of mixed Scandinavian and Gaelic ethnicity in the Hebrides. The fact that Máel Coluim and Suibne died the same year and share patronyms could be evidence that they were brothers. If the two were indeed closely related, Suibne may have been set up by Máel Coluim as a subordinate in an area of Scandinavian settlement. One possibility is that the account of Máel Coluim preserved by the Prophecy of Berchán could be evidence that this region encompassed the lands surrounding Kintyre and the Outer Clyde. This source, combined with the other accounts of Knútr's meeting, could indicate that Máel Coluim was then overlord of the Isles.

Context of the concordat with Knútr

The rationale behind the meeting of the four kings is uncertain. One possibility is that it was related to Máel Coluim's annexation of Lothian, a region that likely encompassed an area roughly similar to the modern boundaries of Berwickshire, East Lothian, and possibly parts of Mid Lothian. The considerable span of years between this conquest and Knútr's meeting, however, could suggest that there were other factors. There appears to be evidence that the violent regime change in Moray (which enabled Mac Bethad to assume the mormaership) prompted Knútr to meet with the kings. Echmarcach and Máel Coluim may thus have been bound to keep the peace with Mac Bethad's troubled lordship. Certainly, the accounts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle record that Knútr met the kings in "Scotland", a region that likely refers to land north of Firth of Forth. Another possibility is that Máel Coluim aimed to gain Knútr's neutrality in a Scottish campaign against Mac Bethad, and sought naval support from Echmarcach himself. The absence of the King of Strathclyde from the assembled kings, and the possibility that Echmarcach's powerbase was situated somewhere in the Isles beyond Kintyre, could indicate that Knútr's main focus was on the troubled region of Moray, and the rulers whose lands it bordered. Another possibility is that the nonappearance of a Strathclyde representative is evidence that this Cumbrian realm had been recently annexed by the Scots which in turn drew a response from Knútr.

Knútr may have sought the submission of the assembled kings in an attempt to protect his northern borders. Additionally, he may have sought to prevent these kings from allowing military aid to reach potential challengers to his authority. If Echmarcach's father was indeed a son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, it would have meant that he was a nephew of Lagmann mac Gofraid. The latter was closely associated with Óláfr Haraldsson, and together both lent military assistance to Richard II in the early eleventh century. There is also evidence to suggest that the predecessors of Ragnall mac Gofraid and Lagmann possessed connections with the Normans. In consequence, there is reason to suspect that Knútr sought to counter a potential association between Echmarcach and Richard II. Knútr and Óláfr were certainly at odds. In 1028, only a few years before the meeting of kings, Knútr seized control of Norway after defeating Óláfr. Knútr proceeded to appoint his own nephew, Hákon Eiríksson, as regent in Norway. Unfortunately for Knútr, Hákon perished at sea in late 1029 or early 1030. About three years later, Knútr's overlordship in Norway was challenged by a certain Tryggvi Óláfsson. This man seemingly possessed connections with Dublin and the Isles, as saga-tradition appears to reveal that his mother, Gyða, was a daughter of Amlaíb Cuarán. Although Tryggvi apparently enjoyed considerable local support when he landed in Norway in about 1033, he was nonetheless overwhelmed by forces loyal to Knútr and killed. Tryggvi is unlikely to have been Knútr's only challenger, and the episode itself evinces the way in which potential threats to Knútr could emerge from the Scandinavian settlements in Britain and Ireland.

Close connections between the rulers of Orkney and the family of Óláfr may well have posed a potential threat to Knútr. The concordat between Knútr and the three kings could, therefore, have been a calculated attempt to disrupt the spread of Orcadian power, and an attempt to block possible Orcadian intervention into Norway. Specifically, Knútr may have wished to curb the principal Orcadian, Þórfinnr Sigurðarson, Earl of Orkney. In fact, Þórfinnr appears to have been in open conflict with Mac Bethad. This violence may be evidenced by (chronologically suspect) saga-tradition, which appears to indicate that Mac Bethad and his father warred with Orcadian earls. Saga-tradition may also reveal that Echmarcach suffered from Þórfinnr's military advances. For example, the thirteenth-century Orkneyinga saga states that, after Þórfinnr's consolidation of Orkney and Caithness—an action that likely took place after the death of his brother Brúsi—Þórfinnr was active in the Isles, parts of Galloway and Scotland, and even Dublin. The saga also reveals that Brúsi's son, Rǫgnvaldr, arrived in Orkney at a time when Þórfinnr was preoccupied with the after-effects of such campaigns, as it states that he was "much occupied" with men from the Isles and Ireland. Another source, Óláfs saga helga, preserved within the thirteenth-century saga-compilation Heimskringla, claims that Þórfinnr exerted power in Scotland and Ireland, and that he controlled a far-flung lordship which encompassed Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides. Further evidence of Þórfinnr's activities in the region may be preserved by Þórfinnsdrápa, composed by the contemporary Icelandic skald Arnórr Þórðarson, which declares that Þórfinnr raided throughout the Irish Sea region as far south as Dublin.

It is possible that Knútr took other actions to contain Orkney. Evidence that Knútr installed Hákon as overlord of the Isles may be preserved by the twelfth-century Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum. The historicity of this event is uncertain, however, and Hákon's authority in the Isles is not attested by any other source. Be that as it may, this twelfth-century text states that Hákon had been sent into the Isles by Óláfr, and that Hákon ruled the region for the rest of his life. The chronology outlined by this source suggests that Hákon left Norway at about the time Óláfr assumed the kingship in 1016. The former is certainly known to have been in Knútr's service soon afterwards in England. One possibility is that Knútr installed Hákon as overlord of Orkney and the Isles in about 1016/1017, before handing him possession of the Earldom of Worcester in about 1017. If this was the case, Hákon would have been responsible for not only a strategic part of the Anglo-Welsh frontier, but also accountable for the far-reaching sea-lanes that stretched from the Irish Sea region to Norway. It seems likely that Knútr was more concerned about Orkney and the Isles, and the security of the sea-lanes around Scotland, than surviving sources let on. Hákon's death at sea would have certainly been a cause of concern for Knútr's regime, and could have been directly responsible to the meeting between him and the three kings. If Hákon had indeed possessed overlordship of the Isles, his demise could well have paved the way for Echmarcach's own rise to power. Having come to terms with the three kings, it is possible that Knútr relied upon Echmarcach to counter the ambitions of the Orcadians, who could have attempted to seize upon Hákon's fall and renew their influence in the Isles.

Uí Briain alliance and the conquest of Dublin

Following his meeting with Knútr, Echmarcach appears to have allied himself with the Uí Briain, the descendants of Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, High King of Ireland. In 1032, the eleventh- to fourteenth-century Annals of Inisfallen states that Donnchad mac Briain, King of Munster married the daughter of a certain Ragnall, adding: "hence the saying: 'the spring of Ragnall's daughter'". This woman is elsewhere identified as Cacht ingen Ragnaill. Like Echmarcach himself, Cacht's patronym could be evidence that she was a near relation of the Ragnalls who ruled Waterford, or else a descendant of Ragnall mac Gofraid. She could have therefore been a sister or niece of Echmarcach himself.

At about the time of his union with Cacht, Donnchad aspired to become High King of Ireland. With powerful maritime forces at his command, Echmarcach would have certainly been regarded as an important potential ally. Clear evidence of an alliance between Echmarcach and the Uí Briain exists in the record of a marriage between Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, and Toirdelbach Ua Briain's son, Tadc, preserved by the twelfth-century Banshenchas, a text which records the marriage of Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, to Tadc, son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain. Annalistic evidence of such an alliance is found well into the late eleventh century. In fact, kinship between Echmarcach's descendants and the Uí Briain even led to the accession of one of Echmarcach's maternal grandsons, Domnall mac Taidc, to the kingship of the Isles at about the turn of the twelfth century.

If Echmarcach was a son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, this alliance with the Uí Briain would have been a continuation of amiable relations between the two families. For example, the father of Ragnall mac Gofraid appears to have combined forces with Brian Bóruma in 984, and Ragnall mac Gofraid himself is recorded to have died in Munster, the heartland of the Uí Briain. If, on the other hand, Echmarcach and Cacht were descended from the Waterford dynasty, an alliance between the Uí Briain and this family may have been undertaken in the context of a struggle between the Uí Briain and the Uí Cheinnselaig. The contemporary leader of the latter kindred was Donnchad's principal opponent, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, King of Leinster. Whilst the Uí Briain certainly allied themselves to Cacht and Echmarcach, Diarmait appears to have backed the descendants of Amlaíb Cuarán, a man whose family appears to have opposed Echmarcach at a latter date.

In 1036, Echmarcach replaced Amlaíb Cuarán's son, Sitriuc mac Amlaíb, as King of Dublin. The Annals of Tigernach specifies that Sitriuc fled overseas as Echmarcach took control. An alliance with Donnchad could explain Echmarcach's success in seizing the kingship from Sitriuc. Although Donnchad and Sitriuc were maternal half-brothers—as both descended from Gormlaith ingen Murchada —Donnchad's hostility towards Sitriuc is demonstrated by the record of a successful attack he led upon the Dubliners in 1026.

Another factor behind Echmarcach's actions against Sitriuc could concern Knútr. Echmarcach's seizure of Dublin occurred only a year after the latter's death in 1035. There appears to be numismatic evidence, annalistic evidence, and charter evidence indicating that Knútr and Sitriuc had cooperated together in terms of trade and military operations in Wales. In contrast to this apparent congeniality, the relationship between Knútr and Echmarcach appears to have been less amiable. In fact, it is possible that Echmarcach's meeting with Knútr may have bound him from taking action against Sitriuc, and that the confusion caused by Knútr's demise may have enabled Echmarcach to exploit the situation by seizing control of the Irish Sea region.

According to a poetic verse composed by the contemporary Icelandic skald Óttarr svarti, Knútr's subjects included Danes, Englishmen, Irishmen, and Islesmen. These Islanders could refer to either the folk of the Isles or Orkney, whilst the Irish seems to refer to the Dubliners. Although the poet's implication that Knútr possessed authority over Sitriuc is not corroborated by any other source, and may therefore be poetic hyperbole, the fact that Sitriuc had been able to undertake a pilgrimage and return home to an intact kingdom in 1028 may demonstrate the extent of influence that Knútr held over the Irish Sea region. This authority, and Sitriuc's apparent close connections with Knútr, could account for the security Sitriuc enjoyed during Knútr's reign.

If Echmarcach was a member of the Waterford dynasty, his action against Sitriuc may have been undertaken in the context of continuous dynastic strife between Dublin and Waterford in the tenth- and eleventh centuries. This could mean that Echmarcach's expulsion of Sitriuc was a direct act of vengeance for the latter's slaying of Ragnall ua Ímair (then King of Waterford) the year before.

Little is known of Echmarcach's short reign in Dublin other than an attack on Skryne and Duleek, recorded by the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters in 1037. This strike could have been undertaken in the context of the Dubliner's gradual loss of power in Brega, and an attempt to regain authority of Skryne. Although there is no direct evidence that Echmarcach controlled Mann at this point in his career, Sitriuc does not appear to have taken refuge on the island after his expulsion from Dublin. This seems to suggest that the island was outside Sitriuc's possession, and may indicate that Mann had fallen into the hands of Echmarcach sometime before. In fact, it is possible that Echmarcach may have used the island to launch his takeover of Dublin.

Strife in the Isles, Ireland, and Wales

The evidence of Þórfinnr's power in the Isles could suggest that he possessed an active interest in the ongoing struggle over the Dublin kingship. Þórfinnr's predatory operations in the Irish Sea region may have contributed to Echmarcach's loss of Dublin in 1038. Just as Echmarcach may have seized upon Knútr's demise to expand, it is possible that the vacuum caused by Knútr's death allowed Þórfinnr to prey upon the Irish Sea region. Certainly, the corresponding annal-entry of the Annals of Tigernach—stating that Ímar mac Arailt succeeded Echmarcach as King of Dublin that year—appears to indicate that Echmarcach had been forced from the kingship. Ímar appears have been a descendant (possibly a grandson) of Amlaíb Cuarán, and thus a close relative of the latter's son, Sitriuc, whom Echmarcach drove from the kingship only two years before. It is possible that Ímar received some form of support from Knútr's son and successor in England, Haraldr Knútsson, King of England. The latter was certainly in power when Ímar replaced Echmarcach, and an association between Ímar and Haraldr Knútsson could explain why the Annals of Ulster reports the latter's death two years later. The fact that Ímar proceeded to campaign in the North Channel could indicate that Echmarcach had held power in this region before his acquisition of Mann and Dublin. Whatever the case, Ímar's reign lasted only eight years. In 1046, the Annals of the Four Masters records that he was expelled by Echmarcach, who was then elected king by the Dubliners. The Annals of Tigernach, on the other-hand, simply state that Echmarcach succeeded Ímar.

Echmarcach may well have controlled Mann throughout his second reign in Dublin. Silver hoards uncovered on Mann, dated by their coins to the years 1030s–1050s, may well be the by-product of the intense conflict over control of the island. There is evidence indicating that, at some point in the early eleventh century —perhaps in the 1020s–1030s—a mint may have developed and functioned on Mann. Coins that appear to have been minted on the island roughly coincide with Echmarcach's rule. These coins are very similar to those produced in Dublin, and may be evidence that Echmarcach attempted to harmonise the coinage utilised within his realm. The production of coins on Mann appears to be evidence of a sophisticated economy in the Isles. In fact, the wealth and sophistication of commerce in Echmarcach's realm could in part explain why the constant struggle for control of Dublin and the Isles was so bitter, and could account for Þórfinnr's apparent presence in the region.

During his second reign, Echmarcach may have been involved in military activities in Wales with Gruffudd ap Rhydderch. For instance in the year 1049, English and Welsh sources record that Norse-Gaelic forces were utilised by Gruffudd ap Rhydderch against his Welsh rivals and English neighbours. Specifically, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brut y Tywysogyon, and the twelfth-century Chronicon ex chronicis record that a Norse-Gaelic fleet sailed up the River Usk, and ravaged the surrounding region. These sources further reveal that Gruffudd ap Rhydderch and his Norse-Gaelic allies later surprised and routed the English forces of Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester.

Since Echmarcach's extensive imperium appears to have spanned the Irish Sea region, it is possible that he was regarded as a threat by Siward, Earl of Northumbria. There is reason to suspect that, by the mid-eleventh century, this Anglo-Danish magnate extended his authority into what had previously been the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Echmarcach's apparent descent from the Uí Ímair—a dynasty that once reigned over York as kings—combined with Echmarcach's accumulation of power after Knútr's demise, could well have been a cause of concern to the York-based earl. Such unease could partly account for Siward's extension of power into the Solway region, a sphere of insecure territory which may have been regarded as vulnerable by Echmarcach.

Downfall in Dublin and Mann

In 1052, Diarmait drove Echmarcach from Dublin. The event is documented by the Annals of the Four Masters, the Annals of Tigernach, the Annals of Ulster, and Chronicon Scotorum. These annalistic accounts indicate that, although Diarmait's conquest evidently began with a mere raid upon Fine Gall, this action further escalated into the seizure of Dublin itself. Following several skirmishes fought around the town's central fortress, the aforesaid accounts report that Echmarcach fled overseas, whereupon Diarmait assumed the kingship. With Diarmait's conquest, Norse-Gaelic Dublin ceased to be an independent power in Ireland; and when Diarmait and his son, Murchad, died about twenty years later, Irish rule had been exercised over Fine Gall and Dublin in a degree unheard of before. In consequence of Echmarcach's expulsion, Dublin effectively became the provincial capital of Leinster, with the town's remarkable wealth and military power at Diarmait's disposal.

The fact that in 1054, Ímar mac Arailt is styled on his death "rí Gall", a title meaning "king of the foreigners", could indicate that Diarmait reinserted him as King of Dublin after Echmarcach's expulsion. Murchad appears to have been granted the kingship by 1059, as evidenced by the title tigherna Gall, meaning "lord of the foreigners", accorded to him that year. Murchad was evidently an energetic figure, and in 1061 he launched a successful seaborne invasion of Mann. The Annals of the Four Masters, and the Annals of Tigernach further reveal that Murchad extracted a tax from Mann, and that the son of a certain Ragnall (literally "mac Raghnaill" and "mac Ragnaill") was driven from the island. The gathering of cáin or tribute was a mediaeval right of kingship in Ireland. In fact, Murchad's collection of such tribute from the Manx could be evidence that, as the King of Dublin, Murchad regarded himself as the rightful overlord of Mann. If the vanquished son of Ragnall was Echmarcach himself, as seems most likely, the record of Murchad's actions against him would appear to indicate that Echmarcach had seated himself on the island after his expulsion from Dublin. Another possibility is that Echmarcach had only been reestablished himself as king in the Isles after Ímar mac Arailt's death in 1054.

Magnús Haraldsson and Ælfgar Leofricson

In 1055, after being outlawed for treason in the course of a comital power-struggle, English nobleman Ælfgar Leofricson fled from England to Ireland. Ælfgar evidently received considerable military aid from the Irish to form a fleet of eighteen ships, and together with Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, King of Gwynedd and Deheubarth invaded Herefordshire.

Although this campaign ultimately secured Ælfgar's reinstatement, Ælfgar (then Earl of Mercia) was again exiled from England in 1058, and proceeded to ally himself with Gruffudd ap Llywelyn and a Norse fleet. Notwithstanding the fact that Scandinavian sources fail to report this operation, the Annals of Tigernach reveals that the leader of the fleet was Magnús, son of Haraldr Sigurðarson, King of Norway, and further reports that Magnús' forces were composed of Orcadians, Islesmen, and Dubliners.

Exactly who Ælfgar received aid from in the Irish Sea region is uncertain. It is conceivable that, after his flight from England in 1055, Ælfgar was outfitted in Dublin, then ruled by Murchad (with Diarmait as overlord). Likewise, since Diarmait's forces had previously driven Echmarcach from Dublin in 1052, and apparently from Mann in 1061, the joint campaign of Ælfgar and Magnús in 1058—which utilised Islesmen and Dubliners—could well have involved Diarmait's cooperation as well. That being said, there are several reasons to doubt a part played by Diarmait in Ælfgar's military undertakings. For instance, Diarmait seems to have lent assistance to Ælfgar's enemies—the Godwinsons—in the 1050s and 1060s. Diarmait also appears to have previously backed Cynan ab Iago, a man who was a bitter rival and seemingly the eventual slayer of Ælfgar's ally and son-in-law, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn.

Ælfgar's Irish confederate of 1055 is not identified in any source, and it is not clear that Diarmait had a part to play in the aforesaid events of that year. In fact, it is possible that Ælfgar received aid not from Diarmait, but from Donnchad—Diarmait's enemy and Echmarcach's associate—a man who then controlled the Norse-Gaelic enclaves of Limerick and possibly Waterford. Furthermore, although Diarmait appears to have gained overlordship of Mann by 1061, Echmarcach presumably enjoyed overlordship of at least part of the Hebrides in 1058. Since Magnús utilised Islesmen during his English campaign of that year, it is conceivable that Echmarcach may have played a prominent part in these operations. If Echmarcach was indeed involved in the campaign, the enmity between him and Diarmait could indicate that these two were unlikely to have cooperated as allies.

The prime motivation behind Magnús' cooperation with Ælfgar is uncertain. One possibility is that he was attempting to establish Norwegian authority in the west as a means to prepare an invasion of England. In so doing, Magnús may have backed the cause of a local faction that opposed Echmarcach. Certainly, the thirteenth- to fourteenth-century Chronicle of Mann records that Ímar's apparent son, Gofraid Crobán—a future ruler of Dublin and the Isles—backed the Norwegian invasion of England led by Magnús' father in 1066.

Pilgrimage and death in Rome

In 1064, Echmarcach seems to have been accompanied by Donnchad upon a pilgrimage to Rome. By this time the two may well have been of an advanced age, and both appear to have died in the city soon afterwards. Surviving sources give conflicting dates for Echmarcach's passing, and it is uncertain whether he died in 1064 or 1065. The Annals of Inisfallen, the Annals of Loch Cé, and the Annals of Ulster indicate that he died in 1064. The eleventh-century Chronicon of Marianus Scotus records that Echmarcach died in 1065, in a statement which implies that Echmarcach and Donnchad travelled to Rome together. Donnchad himself seems to have died in 1064, as a multitude of sources report his pilgrimage to Rome and demise that year. Several of these sources appear to indicate that Donnchad died at Santo Stefano Rotondo, an ancient basilica on the Caelian Hill. This building was an important place of pilgrimage to contemporaries, and apparently housed both Echmarcach and Donnchad before they died. Pilgrimages such as those of Echmarcach and Donnchad were not unheard of amongst high-ranking Gaelic and Norse-Gaelic contemporaries, and several such high-status figures are known to have perished undertaking pilgrimages of their own to Rome. If Echmarcach's father was indeed Ragnall mac Gofraid, and if Echmarcach had been born only a few years before his father's death, Echmarcach would have thus been about sixty-five when he himself was laid to rest.

Marianus Scotus' account of Echmarcach accords him the Latin title "rex Innarenn". On one hand, this may be a garbled form of the Latin "rex insularum", meaning "King of the Isles". If so, the titles "ri Gall" and "rí Gall" accorded to him by the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Inisfallen in 1064 could indicate that he was still regarded as ruler of Mann. On the other hand, "rex Innarenn" could instead mean "King of the Rhinns", in reference to the Rhinns of Galloway. During Echmarcach's floruit, the Rhinns appear to have also included what is today known as the Machars. The entire region would have thus stretched from the North Channel to Wigtown Bay, and would have likely encompassed an area similar to the modern boundaries of Wigtownshire. Earlier in the century, the entire region may have formed part of Sitriuc's realm, and various Irish and Welsh sources indicate that it may have been held by one of the latter's two sons named Amlaíb.

If Echmarcach was indeed the son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, and succeeded his father sometime in the 1030s, Echmarcach may well have first gained control of the Rhinns when he apparently began his domination of the Irish Sea region in 1036 (the year he first seized Dublin). Even if such a chronology is correct it does not necessarily mean that Echmarcach owed his rule in the Rhinns to ancestral connections in the Isles—it could have instead derived from his new-found position in Dublin. Although in practice, the collection of cáin could be undertaken without the displacement of an underking, if "rex Innarenn" indeed refers to the Rhinns it could reveal that, after having been defeated by Murchad on Mann, the defeated Echmarcach fled to this mainland region. Furthermore, if Echmarcach was a native of what is today the south-west of Scotland, the title could be evidence that, on the collapse of Echmarcach's once expansive kingdom, Echmarcach proceeded to entrench himself in the protection of his native home.

Margaðr and Guthormr Gunnhildarson

Echmarcach has sometimes been identified as a certain Margaðr who appears in various mediaeval sources documenting the contemporary Irish Sea adventures of Margaðr and Guthormr Gunnhildarson. One such source is Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar, within Heimskringla. According to this source, Margaðr was King of Dublin, and a close friend of Guthormr, an accomplished man who was a nephew of the Norwegian kings Óláfr and Haraldr Sigurðarson. Late one summer, the saga relates that Margaðr and Guthormr took part in a particularly successful raid in Wales. As their loot of silver was being assessed, Margaðr demanded Guthormr's share, forcing the latter to fight for his portion of the plunder. Although outnumbered sixteen ships to five, the saga relates that, through the miraculous intervention of God and Guthormr's saintly uncle (Óláfr), Guthormr was able to defeat and slay Margaðr and all his followers in the ensuing battle.

The fateful encounter between Margaðr and Guthormr is sometimes dated to 1052 on the presumption that Margaðr is identical to Echmarcach, and that the event must have taken place at the conclusion of Echmarcach's second reign in Dublin. In fact, the Old Norse personal name Margaðr is a form of the Gaelic personal name Murchad, and the aforesaid accounts of Margaðr likely refer to Echmarcach's nemesis Murchad, rather than Echmarcach himself. Although the saga claims that a thankful Guthormr donated a portion of his looted silver to the shrine of his saintly uncle at Niðaróss, it is unlikely that any church would have accepted property known to have been looted from Christians. Instead, it is possible that Guthormr's hoard of silver was actually the tax that Murchad had collected from Mann in 1061 during the expulsion of Echmarcach. Such a date corresponds to the implied date of about 1061 given by Heimskringla.

title: Echmarcach mac Ragnaill


text:
Shahnaz Pahlavi

Shahnaz Pahlavi (, born 27 October 1940) is the first child of the former Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and his first wife, Princess Fawzia of Egypt.

Early life and education
Shahnaz Pahlavi was born in Tehran on 27 October 1940. She is the only child of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his first wife Princess Fawzia. Shahnaz is the half-sister of Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi, Princess Farahnaz Pahlavi, Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi II and Princess Leila Pahlavi – the four children of the Shah by his third wife, Farah Pahlavi. Her maternal grandparents were King Fuad I and Queen Nazli of Egypt; and her paternal grandparents were Reza Shah and Queen Tadj ol-Molouk of Iran. She is also the niece of King Farouk I of Egypt and thus a cousin of the last Egyptian king, Fuad II.

Shahnaz Pahlavi was educated in a Belgian boarding school, the Lycée Léonie de Waha, in Liège and then in Switzerland.

Personal life
Her father had plans for Shahnaz's marriage with King Faisal of Iraq which did not materialize due to her unwillingness. Her first marriage, at age sixteen, was to Ardeshir Zahedi on 11 October 1957, at Golestan Palace in Tehran. He was one-time Iranian foreign minister and twice Iranian ambassador to the United States (1957–64 and 1972–79). She and Zahedi first met in Germany in 1955. The couple have one daughter, Princess (styled "Vala Gohari") Mahnaz Zahedi (born 2 December 1958). They divorced in 1964.

Shahnaz later married Khosrow Jahanbani in February 1971 at the Iranian Embassy, Paris. Their marriage lasted until Jahanbani's death on 13 April 2014. They have one son, Keykhosrow (born 20 November 1971), and one daughter, Fawzia (born 1973).

During her father's reign, Shahnaz had investments in agricultural enterprises and assembly plants of Honda bicycles and motorcycles.

Later years
Since the Iranian Revolution, Shahnaz Pahlavi has lived in Switzerland. She has Swiss citizenship. In December 2013 Shahnaz Pahlavi was granted Egyptian citizenship by the Egyptian government.

Honours

 * Imperial Iran: Grand Cross of the Order of Aryamehr
 * Imperial Iran: Grand Cross of the Order of the Pleiades, 1st class
 * Imperial Iran: 25th Anniversary medal
 * Imperial Iran: 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Shahnaz Pahlavi


text:
Region Zealand

Region Zealand (Region Sjælland) is the southernmost administrative region of Denmark, established on 1 January 2007 as part of the 2007 Danish Municipal Reform, which abolished the traditional counties ("amter") and set up five larger regions. Zealand Region has 17 municipalities.

Geography
Zealand Region consists of the former counties of Roskilde, Storstrøm, and Vestsjælland. The region is named after the island of Sjælland (Zealand), which it shares with the neighbouring Danish Capital Region. Region Zealand (Region Sjælland) also includes the adjacent islands of Lolland, Falster, and Møn.

Municipalities
The region is subdivided into 17 municipalities:
 * Faxe
 * Greve
 * Guldborgsund
 * Holbæk
 * Kalundborg
 * Køge
 * Lejre
 * Lolland
 * Næstved
 * Odsherred
 * Ringsted
 * Roskilde
 * Slagelse
 * Solrød
 * Sorø
 * Stevns
 * Vordingborg

Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was almost €31 billion in 2019, accounting for around 10% of Denmark's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 37,000 € or 89% of the EU27 average in the same year.

Regional Council
The five regions of Denmark each have a regional council of 41 members. These are elected every four years, during the local elections.

title: Region Zealand


text:
Nedbank

Nedbank Group is a financial services group in South Africa offering wholesale and retail banking services as well as insurance, asset management, and wealth management. Nedbank Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Nedbank Group.

Nedbank's primary market is South Africa. Nedbank also operates in five other countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), through subsidiaries and banks in Eswatini, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia and Zimbabwe, as well as offices in Ghana and Kenya. Outside Africa, Nedbank provide international financial services in the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates.

Nedbank is headquartered in Sandton, north of Johannesburg.

History
The bank was founded in 1888, in Amsterdam as the Nederlandsche Bank en Credietvereeniging voor Zuid-Afrika ("Dutch Bank and Credit Union for South Africa"). In August that year, the bank opened an agency in Church Street, Pretoria, South Africa with its mission being to provide credit and banking in and with South Africa.

In 1903, the company was renamed to Nederlandsche Bank voor Zuid-Afrika ("Dutch Bank for South Africa"). In 1906, the bank expanded and an office in London was opened. In 1925, NBvZA merged with the Transvaalsche Handelsbank.

In May 1940, Germany invaded and occupied the Netherlands, and this impacted the management of the South African agency from latter country. The South African head office and its branch in London had sufficient assets in sterling, dollars and gold to cover its liabilities. As it was an agency and with its Dutch head office no longer in control, the South African government appoint a controller to run the bank until 1945. Its share of the South African banking market in 1945 stood between 2 and 3 percent.

The banks split on 15 January 1951, renaming its South African counterpart as Nederlandse Bank in Suid-Afrika/Netherlands Bank of South Africa (NBSA) with the Dutch bank (NBvZA) holding a 75% share in the new company. On 1 October 1954, the Nederlandsche Bank en Credietvereeniging voor Zuid-Afrika (NBvZA) merged with Amsterdamnsche Goederen Bank becoming Nederlandse Overzee Bank (NOB). In a NBSA shares issue in 1957, NOB maintained its shareholding at 75% but in December 1961, a new share issue by NBSA was not taken up by NOB and so the latter's shareholding dropped to 49 percent. On 1 July 1964, NOB sold some of its shareholding in NBSA to the South African public which saw its holding of the latter drop to 25 percent. NOB merged with Bankierscompagnie NV in 1968 and by the 1971 was called Bank Mees and Hope. After a further share issue in 1968, the Mees en Hope's share in NBSA dropped to 20 percent.

In July 1969, a decision to sell the remaining 20 percent was agreed too and the company became 100% South African-owned after the Mees en Hope Groep NV received payment for its remaining shares between August 1969 and 1 June 1970. The South African counterpart was completely independent. The Dutch counterpart of the bank no longer exists. Syfrets SA and Boland Bank listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange in 1969. In 1971, NBSA changed its name to Nedbank.

Nedbank Group formed from the merger of Syfrets SA, Union Acceptances and Nedbank in 1973. In 1986, Old Mutual became the major shareholder (53%) of Nedbank.

In 1992, Syfrets, UAL Merchant Bank, and Nedbank Investment Bank Division merged to become Nedcor Investment Bank (NIB). Old Mutual, Nedcor's holding company, was demutualised and listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1999.

The new Nedcor Group was formed on 1 January 2003, combining Nedcor, BoE, Nedcor Investment Bank, and Cape of Good Hope Bank into one legal entity. The Nedcor Group was renamed the Nedbank Group on 6 May 2005. In August 2009, Nedbank acquired the 49.9% of Imperial Bank South Africa that it did not own, so Imperial Bank South Africa is wholly owned by Nedbank. In October 2014, Nedbank acquired a 20% stake in Ecobank, converting its $285 million claim in Ecobank into equity.

Nedbank Group
Nedbank Group is the holding company of all Nedbank's businesses, subsidiaries, associates and affiliates. The Nedbank Group's major subsidiary and associate companies include the following:

Local subsidiaries

 * Nedbank Limited
 * Syfrets Securities Limited
 * Nedgroup Investments Proprietary Limited
 * Nedgroup Private Wealth Stockbrokers Proprietary Limited
 * Nedgroup Collective Investments (RF) Proprietary Limited
 * Nedgroup Securities Proprietary Limited
 * Nedgroup Private Wealth Proprietary Limited
 * Nedbank Group Insurance Holdings Limited
 * The Board of Executors
 * Dr Holsboer Benefit Fund

Foreign subsidiaries and associates

 * Ecobank Transnational Incorporated
 * MBCA Bank Limited (Zimbabwe)
 * Nedbank (Eswatini)
 * Nedbank (Lesotho)
 * Nedbank Namibia Limited
 * Nedbank Limited (Malawi) – Until December 2019
 * Nedbank (Mozambique)
 * Nedbank Private Wealth Limited (Isle of Man)
 * NedEurope Limited (Isle of Man)
 * Nedgroup International Holdings Limited
 * Nedgroup Investments Africa (Mauritius)

Ownership
Nedbank shares are traded on the JSE under the share code NED and on the Namibian Stock Exchange under the share code NBK. As at 18 January 2019, the shareholding in the group's stock consisting of 497,053,536 issued shares rounded to the nearest digit was:

title: Nedbank


text: Talk:Eskenazi Museum of Art

title: Talk:Eskenazi Museum of Art


text:
User talk:Corge

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Proposed deletion of Schumacher Menace

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title: User talk:Corge


text:
Justice (organisation)

Justice (stylised "JUSTICE") is a human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. It is the British section of the International Commission of Jurists, the international human rights organisation of lawyers devoted to the legal protection of human rights worldwide. Members of Justice are predominantly barristers and solicitors, judges, legal academics, and law students.

Justice is independent and all-party, having representatives of the three major political parties on its ruling Council. It is a registered charity under English law.

Justice's chief executive is Fiona Rutherford, and the chair of the JUSTICE Council is Baroness Kennedy of the Shaws QC.

1957–2000
Justice was founded in 1957, following the visit of a group of British lawyers to observe the treason trials of members of the African National Congress (ANC) in apartheid South Africa and the show-trials in communist Hungary. Its first chairman was Hartley Shawcross, the chief British prosecutor at Nuremberg. Other founding members included Sir John Galway Foster QC, and Peter Benenson who later established Amnesty International. Indeed, when AI first started in 1961, it shared its offices with JUSTICE.

In 1958, it became the British section of the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ). The original terms of Justice's constitution committed it "to uphold and strengthen the principles of the Rule of Law in the territories for which the British Parliament is directly or ultimately responsible: in particular, to assist in the administration of justice and in the preservation of the fundamental liberties of the individual". Indeed, JUSTICE itself gave rise to a number of subordinate branches in what were then still British colonies and dependent territories. As each of these countries moved towards independence in the 1960s, the branches reconstituted themselves as national sections of the ICJ. This, in turn, shifted the emphasis of Justice's own work towards the UK itself.

Thus, although founded with an international orientation, Justice quickly established a specific focus on the rule of law and protection of fundamental rights in the UK. Through the work of its first secretary, Tom Sargant OBE, Justice rapidly developed expertise in cases involving miscarriages of justice, and secured the release of many prisoners who had been wrongly imprisoned. Sargant was instrumental in the establishment of the BBC series Rough Justice, which led to the release from prison of eighteen victims of miscarriages of justice.

At the same time Justice developed as a policy organisation, producing reports that helped establish the UK's ombudsman system, the Criminal Injuries Compensation Board, the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974, the Data Protection Act 1998, and the Criminal Cases Review Commission. Similarly, many of the measures contained in the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 were previously put forward by JUSTICE. Through the 1990s it established and developed programmes on human rights legislation, criminal justice, asylum and immigration, discrimination and privacy. It campaigned for the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law by way of the Human Rights Act 1998.

Since 2000
In October 2009, it became the first NGO to intervene in a case before the UK Supreme Court in the case of HM Treasury v Ahmed.

Following Justice's intervention in Cadder v HM Advocate, JUSTICE Scotland was launched in July 2012. The first JUSTICE Scotland working party report, looking at legal assistance in police stations, was published in July 2018.

Following the suspension of all new trials due to the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic, Justice led a series of mock virtual trials to examine viability and safety.

Leadership
Previous directors of Justice include Dame Anne Owers CBE, Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Prisons, Leah Levin OBE, a founder and trustee of Redress, and Andrea Coomber QC (Hon), chief executive of the Howard League for Penal Reform. Previous chairs of Justice include Lord Alexander of Weedon QC, Lord Goodhart QC, Paul Seighart, and Lord Steyn, a former Law Lord.

Current work
The main areas of Justice's work are:

Justice's focus is on UK law but its work involves highlighting the importance of international human rights law as well as bringing to bear the insights of comparative analysis of other jurisdictions. European law plays an increasingly large role in this work. It works primarily by briefing parliamentarians and policy-makers on the human rights implications of legislation. As a policy organisation it is less involved in overt campaigning and individual casework and more on providing independent, expert legal analysis on matters of fundamental rights. It also works at the European and international levels, lobbying the European Union institutions, the Council of Europe and the various United Nations treaty bodies.
 * Human rights
 * Criminal justice
 * EU law
 * The rule of law

Each of Justice's areas of work in turn covers a broad range of issues, including asylum and immigration, counter-terrorism, equality and discrimination, privacy, EU Freedom Justice and Security issues, legal aid and access to justice, as well as constitutional issues tied to the role of the judiciary and parliamentary scrutiny of legislation.

Justice also has a long history of intervening in cases of public importance involving the protection of fundamental rights. To this end, it has intervened before in cases before the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords, the Privy Council, the European Court of Human Rights, and the European Court of Justice.

title: Justice (organisation)


text:
Pelly Crossing

Pelly Crossing is a community in Yukon, Canada. It lies where the Klondike Highway crosses the Pelly River.

It is the home of the Selkirk First Nation, and home to the Northern Tutchone culture. Cultural displays and artifacts are housed in a replica of Big Jonathan House. Visitors can make the journey from Minto by boat to visit the original structure down the Yukon River at Fort Selkirk, an important historic and cultural site for the Northern Tutchone people.

History
The Selkirk First Nation community was established as a ferry crossing and a highway construction camp when the Klondike Highway from Whitehorse to Dawson City was built in 1950. With the completion of the Pelly River bridge and the road to Dawson City, sternwheeler traffic on the Yukon River came to a halt. Fort Selkirk, located near the confluence of Pelly and Yukon Rivers, was virtually abandoned. The Government of Canada forced members of Selkirk First Nation to move from Fort Selkirk to Minto Landing before settling at Pelly Crossing. Today, the restored Fort Selkirk is a common stop for Yukon River travelers.

Geography
Pelly Crossing is located on the Pelly River, 155 miles south of Dawson City on the Klondike Highway.

Climate
Pelly Crossing has a severely continental subarctic climate (Dfc) with short but warm summers, but with the vast majority of the year being dominated by the bitterly cold winters. During cold snaps temperatures approaching -60 C has been recorded. The weather is rather dry and summer nights remain cool.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Pelly Crossing had a population of $316$ living in $139$ of its $159$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $353$. With a land area of 32.28 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Attractions
The local community is based on hunting, trapping, fishing and guiding. There is a school, curling rink, baseball field, swimming pool, and youth centre.

Sports
Every February, Pelly Crossing hosts a checkpoint for the long-distance Yukon Quest sled dog race.

title: Pelly Crossing


text:
User talk:Mslai608

It seems like you've been here for a few months, but nonetheless:

Welcome!

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Image Tagging Image:Nov93HK.jpg
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title: User talk:Mslai608


text:
Hague Service Convention

The Convention on the Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters, more commonly called the Hague Service Convention, is a multilateral treaty that was adopted in The Hague, The Netherlands, on 15 November 1965 by member states of the Hague Conference on Private International Law. It came into existence to give litigants a reliable and efficient means of serving the documents on parties living, operating or based in another country. The provisions of the convention apply to service of process in civil and commercial matters but not criminal matters. Also, Article 1 states that the Convention shall not apply if the address of the person to be served with the document is not known.

Diplomatic service via letters rogatory
For states that are not party to the Hague Service Convention, diplomatic channels are generally used for the service of legal documents. It is generally effected by a letter rogatory, which is a formal request to issue a judicial order from a court in the state where proceedings are underway to a court in another state. This procedure generally requires transmission of the document to be served from the originating court to the foreign ministry in the state of origin. The foreign ministry in the state of origin forwards the request to the foreign ministry in the destination state. The foreign ministry then forwards the documents to the local court. The local court then makes an order to allow for the service. Once service is made, a certificate of service would then pass through the same channels in reverse. Under a somewhat more streamlined procedure, courts can sometimes forward service requests to the foreign ministry or the foreign court directly, cutting out one or more steps in the process.

Procedure
The Hague Service Convention established a more simplified means for parties to effect service in other contracting states. Under the convention, each contracting state is required to designate a central authority to accept incoming requests for service. A judicial officer who is competent to serve process in the state of origin is permitted to send request for service directly to the central authority of the state where service is to be made. Upon receiving the request, the central authority in the receiving state arranges for service in a manner permitted within the receiving state, typically through a local court. Once service is effected, the central authority sends a certificate of service to the judicial officer who made the request. Parties are required to use three standardized forms: a request for service, a summary of the proceedings (similar to a summons), and a certificate of service.

The main benefits of the Hague Service Convention over letters rogatory is that it is faster (requests generally take two to four months rather than six months to one year), it uses standardized forms that should be recognized by authorities in other states, and it is cheaper (in most cases) because service can be effected by a local attorney without hiring a foreign attorney to advise on foreign service procedures.

The Hague Service Convention does not prohibit a receiving state from permitting international service by methods otherwise authorized by domestic law. For example, a state could allow for service directly by mail or by personal service. States that permit parties to use these alternative means of service make a separate designation in the documents they file upon ratifying or acceding to the Convention.

Alternate methods of service
The Hague Convention provides various modes of process service of documents such as by postal channel or by diplomatic/consular agents, judicial officers, officials or other competent persons. These provisions are covered under Articles 8 to 10 and may or not be allowed by member countries as a valid mode of serving the documents in their territory. The method of serving the documents through a central agency (Article 5) is not optional but is binding on all the member countries. Service through a central agency usually takes a long time: 4 to 12 months. The convention gives relief to the litigants if they have not received certificate of service or delivery from the central agency even after waiting for six months. In such cases, the court may, if it considers that a reasonable time has elapsed, give its judgment. Also, in case of urgency, the court may issue a provisional order or protective measure even before six-month waiting period.

Central authority
Although the service is free, it may take 4 to 12 months for the central authority to process. The central authority decides which method is to be used. In many cases, a bailiff will be assigned by a local court to serve the documents and mail back the proof of service, but service by mail is also possible.

Service by mail
Service by mail is possible only in states that have not objected to that method under Article 10(a) of the convention and if the jurisdiction where the court case takes place allows it under its applicable law. It is therefore possible in France and the Netherlands but not in Germany, Switzerland, and South Korea, where incoming service is to be effected exclusively through the state's central authority.

In the United States, the interpretation of a provision in Article 10(a) has long been controversial, as the judiciary in some of its jurisdictions contended that service by mail was impossible because the word "send" rather than "serve" was used in the English-language version of the convention. The matter was finally resolved in May 2017 by the US Supreme Court in Water Splash, Inc. v. Menon, bringing the interpretation in line with parties in other US jurisdictions and the rest of the world.

Relation with other instruments
Under the convention, states may conclude different agreements between them that take precedence over the convention. Thus, in the European Union (except for Denmark) other rules are applied instead of the Convention.

State parties
, 82 states are contracting parties of the Hague Service Convention.

title: Hague Service Convention


text:
Talk:The Lizard

I have edited this stub to provide an outline on the history of this piece of England, based on plaques, leaflets and other information seen whilst on holiday. Most items appear on several web pages and have been cut down to the simplest of sentences.

I have not included many cross references to other Wikipedia pages, nor checked what information exists on those pages. Joe1011010 18:42, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

I've added another image of Lizard Point, which is a bit clearer (?), but black and white. Not sure, really. I will bow to the opinions of others. shellac 23:58, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

The Lizard
There is also a village called the Lizard on the peninsular. Needs an article. 82.152.199.165 (talk) 23:03, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

Dimensions of The Lizard
The article informs the reader that the peninsula is 14 miles (23 km) x 14 miles (23 km). However, it's not footnoted and I can't find any evidence for this statement with a quick search using Google. (The only places that contain this information appear to be mirror sites.) Is there any better evidence for this statement? Michael Glass (talk) 06:35, 13 March 2010 (UTC)

Solar eclipse departed the UK mainland from the Lizard?
"In 1999, the Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999 departed the UK mainland from the Lizard." Surely, this is not true? - see http://www.eclipse.org.uk/old/eclipse_from_uk.htm The northern limit of totality left the UK south of Exeter. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Teleprinter Sleuth (talk • contribs) 02:18, 3 July 2011 (UTC)

Peninsula
Looking at the map, I wouldn't classify Lizard as a peninsula at all, at least no more than any other protuberance of land such as the one containing the town of St Mawes, just to the east! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.6.191.45 (talk) 09:15, 6 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Official sources would disagree with you. For example, http:www.the-lizard.org is a partnership between Natural England, the National Trust, Cornwall Wildlife Trust, NFU and Exeter/Falmouth Universities. It features multiple uses of the word "peninsula". On Wikipedia, facts trump opinions every time. --Bob Re-born (talk) 14:21, 6 May 2013 (UTC)

Use as longitudal reference (?)
I coincidentally stumbled over depicting the Galapagos islands, and noticed that the longitude grid is labeled "Longitude West from the Lizard". The file description mentions that "[t]he map continues to use longitude reckoned from The Lizard, a cape in western Cornwall, rather than the Greenwich Observatory". When considering that this map is a revised version of a map by W. A. Cowley by John Russel, I presume that 'continues' in this context could mean that the use of The Lizard as a reference of longitude was common in Cowley's time and/or that he was customary to using it so. Maybe some research into that topic could find interesting results. --15000 Röntgen (talk) 19:18, 27 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Lizard


text:
Watskeburt?!

Watskeburt?! is a song by the Dutch hip hop group De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig. "Watskeburt" is a contraction of the Dutch sentence "Wat is er gebeurd?" ("What happened?", in the sense of "What's happening?"/"What's up?").

The song was released as a single on 16 May 2005. At first, the song was not very successful, until several radio stations picked it up. The song entered the Dutch Top 40 on 4 June at #8, and the next week rose to #1, where it remained for three weeks. The song was a hit in Belgium as well, peaking at #15 on the Belgium Singles Top 50.

The beat of "Watskeburt?!" was created by Bas Bron, the group's producer. The first verse is done by Vieze Fur, and the second by P. Fabergé.

The single was also released in England. The British DJ Pete Tong played this song on his radio show on 23 January. After that, the management of De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig decided to release it in the UK and Germany.

title: Watskeburt?!


text:
Mount Evelyn Aqueduct Walk

The Mount Evelyn Aqueduct Walk uses part of the Mount Evelyn Aqueduct which once cut the town of Mount Evelyn, Victoria, Australia, in two. The Aqueduct was decommissioned on 7 February 1972, but the high costs of purchase and filling caused Lillydale Council to repeatedly defer negotiations to purchase the land from the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW).

History
In 1974–75, the Shire of Lillydale offered to buy land for a central park in Mount Evelyn for a low price ($10,000) on the grounds that the people of Mount Evelyn had been disadvantaged in the past by the aqueduct splitting the town and residents being unable to connect to the water supply, but the Board was unresponsive. In 1974, the Board sold a portion of the land at the junction of the old O'Shannassy Aqueduct and the Silvan Outlet channel for the Melba Centre, but the $120,000 price set for the whole Aqueduct was too high for Council.

In May 1979, a series of chance encounters alerted David and Jean Edwards to the possibility that the aqueduct land might be sold off for development or to adjacent landowners. The Property Officer of the Board of Works confirmed that offers had been invited from adjoining landowners in the "rural" section (from Hazel Street to Hunter Road), with replies due 10–16 July. Enquiries to the Lillydale Council indicated that the Board had applied for re-zoning, but response from the Shire was extremely guarded.

A stay of action was sought after volunteers took a hurriedly framed petition to the Shopping Centre and schools, and presented 230 signatures to A. R. Patterson, the Board member representing eastern municipalities. At the Board meeting, immediate sales proposals were stalled, but the real work of raising the level of awareness of the aqueduct land as potential linear parkland had only begun. Many newcomers to Mount Evelyn were unaware that the aqueduct existed.

Protection association
The Mount Evelyn Environment Protection and Progress Association (MEEPPA) held a Public Meeting at Morrison House chaired by John Muys. Those residents from the Hazel Street/Priestly Crescent section were reassured that their properties (bisected by pipeline) would not be included in the Aqueduct Park.

Meanwhile, East Riding resident and MEEPPA Vice-President Neil Pope was elected to the Lillydale Shire Council, giving the aqueduct park a voice inside Council, and a petition was presented to the Legislative Assembly with 1500 signatures asking for a full-scale investigation of the proposal for a linear park.

During 1979–80, the Board of Works continued breaking up the concrete lining of the channel and filling with clay dug to install the sewer in Mount Evelyn. Only the section beyond Nekla Street still possesses the original open channel. In early 1980 the Council recommended subdividing or transferring to adjacent landowners most of the aqueduct reserve. From Wedderburn Crescent to York Road was to be retained by Council as "linear reserve", that opposite the Clegg Road intersection was proposed for "an institutional purpose or transferred to Council as a public reserve or site for municipal development" and the section south of Priestley Crescent was to be public open space, but not by managed by Council.

MEEPPA members, especially Vin Mishkinis and Jan Simmons, doorknocked homes in all streets close to the aqueduct, informing people of the threat, and inviting them to join the "Friends of the Aqueduct Park". Of the 359 who joined, 222 lived in Mount Evelyn and 128 offered to attend working bees.

In addition to copies of the 359 "Friends" forms, 37 submissions, plus 19 signatures on joint letters or petitions, were made to the Council. Approximately 5 of these supported private use of the land. The remainder supported retaining the aqueduct as a linear park. The decision in open Council, moved by Graham Colling, to purchase three kilometres "in principle", satisfied nobody.

The Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) then announced that their price was $261,000. Lillydale Shire, divided into four ridings with the aqueduct in East Riding, had East Riding Councillors Colling and Gersch in favour of selling the land. State politics came into play with the 1982 State election. Neil Pope and Bill Borthwick, opposing candidates, both supported the linear park proposal. Pope, now the member for Monbulk, Victoria, addressed Parliament in May 1982. Considerable efforts were made to resolve the ownership, financial and management issues. In 1983–84, Lillydale Shire Council built the Joy Avenue kindergarten on aqueduct land which it did not own.

Largely through the efforts of Pope, negotiations on a price of $80,000 between the Shire and the MMBW began in 1984. By 1989 the issue of sale was "clarified by the restriction that the majority of the land had to be purchased as a whole by a public authority, and not sold off privately".

Partnership
The Friends of the Mount Evelyn Aqueduct works in partnership with the Shire to fulfill the details of the Management Plan prepared in 1991 by Green and Dale.

Information from Tracks to Trails, a history of Mt Evelyn, by Newton, Herlihy and Leadbeater Phillips, described on the MEEPPA website.

The maps for the Olinda Creek Walking Track and the Silvan Reservoir Park show the Hunter Road, Mt Evelyn Forest end of the Mount Evelyn Aqueduct Walk.

title: Mount Evelyn Aqueduct Walk


text:
Talk:Little 500

Untitled
My comment about the police probably warrants a citation, but I wasn't sure how to cite it. The information came from personal communication with the head of the Bloomington Police Department's records division. --Captaindan 09:30, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

More than likely, but that's fairly easily fixed. If you know a lot about the race, please check my page for Women's Little 500 for accuracy. Thanks! 156.56.161.8 17:06, 12 April 2006 (UTC)

Proposed merger from Women's Little 500
I think it is a great idea to merge the two articles. When you hear articles about the race, it doesn't say the men's race and then the women's (except when telling the date & time of the races) it says the Indiana University Little 500. The women's race was created well after the men's race, and it shares many of the same traditions. I disagree with the comment that the history and identity would be lost because this is a simple copy and paste job. However, the Women's race should have just as much separate information as the men's race.

I'm not sure if the two events are separate enough to be individual articles, or if the Women's race article should be merged into the main article. --Christopherlin 21:43, 21 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree that there is a substantial copy and paste job because I am the one that did most of that copy and pasting. I wrote the women's article first and then I felt that the men's article had insufficient information, so I copied and pasted over from there and changed all of the pronoun genders. I do have major concerns with merging the articles because I am afraid that the history of the women's race will be lost. The two races were started for different reasons. I think that this is important to know. We can merge, but it will be sticky... Bleach Babe 01:45, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

 * also there are a few rule differences that need to be taken into account.

I don't think the two articles should be merged. The Women's race has its own unique history and identity, some of that would be lost if it were merged with the Little 500 article. --149.159.1.177 12:52, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

If we're going to merge these articles, how would we go about doing that? Bleach Babe 07:04, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

 * While there is much in common in the two events, they are distinct entities and different races. Merging them would be akin to merging two similar NASCAR races, or merging two navy ships of the same class; they may be similar, even significantly so, but their traditions, history, results, etc. are different. --Durin 13:22, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Past results
The IUSF website has completely dropped the ball. They used to have all historical results posted, but apparently they no longer find that necessary. Does anyone know of any sites that still display old results. If show, it should be added to the "External Links" section. M. Frederick (talk) 18:33, 14 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Nevermind. It was sort of hidden, but I tracked it down and posted it. M. Frederick (talk) 18:44, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

List of Winners
The years are wrong because the 2023 race is live at this moment, 4/22/23 at 2:50PM. Was a year skipped totally because of covid? 808IUFan (talk) 18:49, 22 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Little 500


text:
User talk:J.Sagnella

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Unonym
(Copied from the VfD listing) There's nothing wrong with making an article about a rare but existing word. However, I find no evidence that this word exists at all. Not in dictionaries, and not a single English-language Google hit. Provide a good citation and I'm sure it'll be kept. Also, please sign your comments with ~. — Lomn | Talk 20:24:47, 2005-08-23 (UTC)

A point about signatures
We're asking you to use  ~ , rather than a manual sig, as it inserts a link back to here as well as a timestamp, greatly aiding communication. Just an FYI as to why we request that rather than something like (Lomn) -- see? — Lomn | Talk 21:18:06, 2005-08-23 (UTC)

Regarding Article Control
WP is set up to avoid rapid deletes where possible to prevent unnecessary culling -- that's why the VfD process lasts about a week and why the content is still visible the whole time. If you do find sources to cite validating unonym before the VfD process ends, great! I'll remove my delete vote, as will many others. There may, though, still be a strong feeling towards moving the content to Wiktionary -- an attempt is made to distinguish between word articles of encyclopedic content and word articles that are dictionary definitions (often abbreviated dicdefs).

Anyway, the real point I wanted to mention was to reference the policy on ownership of articles -- specifically, that your article submissions aren't really "yours" any longer. While nothing worthy of official attention has happened, it's inappropriate to post an all-caps "kill this page now" comment in the article proper (that's what the Talk page is for). The article is meant to stand, or to be edited via traditional means, until the VfD is resolved. As much as anything, this ensures that VfD voters, and particularly the admin who ultimately makes the call, see an objective version of what's being voted on. Also, as noted above, when you find a source, it means less work for you to get the article back into shape. — Lomn | Talk 00:17:33, 2005-08-24 (UTC)

title: User talk:J.Sagnella


text:
WERU-FM

WERU-FM (89.9 MHz) is a noncommercial, listener-sponsored community radio station licensed to the town of Blue Hill, Maine. It is owned by the Salt Pond Community Broadcasting Company. WERU-FM has studios in East Orland and its transmitter is on Blue Hill Mountain off Mountain Road.

The station has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 12,000 watts, using a tower at 261 meters (856 feet) in height above average terrain (HAAT). The primary signal stretches from Bangor to Rockland to Bar Harbor in Down East Maine. In July 2004, the station began streaming online, and in April 2006, started providing podcasts of its spoken word programming. It holds periodic on-air fundraisers to support the station.

History
WERU-FM signed on the air on May 1, 1988. The original studios and offices were known as "The Henhouse" in Blue Hill Falls. From its inception, WERU-FM has been a grassroots, nonprofit organization, volunteer-powered and listener-supported community radio service. Paul Stookey, of the pop group Peter, Paul and Mary, was the station's first benefactor. A woman, Molly Stauffer, was the first administrative director.

In 1997, the station moved its studios to the current location on U.S. Route 1 in East Orland. In 2005, WERU-FM formed a partnership with Radio Sumpul in Chalatenango, El Salvador, a community radio station started after the Salvadoran Civil War.

Music programming is diverse and includes genres such as folk, Americana, blues, rock, jazz, and reggae.

WERU-FM is a member of the National Federation of Community Broadcasters, World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters, Maine Association of Broadcasters, and Maine Association of Nonprofits. The station is also a founding member of the Grassroots Radio Coalition.

title: WERU-FM


text:
Talk:Palliser's Triangle

Untitled
Dates: The date of the expedition is incorrectly given as 1863. It was 1857 - 1859 see Canadian Plains Research Centre (2005) Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. Regina: Canadian Plains... pp. 677-678

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): FrancoSaxonJackson.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:03, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Map?
This article desperately needs a map. -- Geo Swan 21:58, 2005 Jun 25 (UTC)

Equivalent US region
It's not like clamatic and soil conditions stop at the 49th Parallel....what's the equivalent US region, if there's anything so-designated?Skookum1 (talk) 03:08, 16 March 2009 (UTC)

There is a region in Montana with similar conditions known as the Golden Triangle where about 45% of Montana's wheat crop is grown. I'm not sure how to go about making this page without confusing it with all the other 'golden triangles'. If someone could start the page and work out the disambiguation I might fill in some detail. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 153.90.151.76 (talk) 17:13, 16 June 2010 (UTC)

Fertile Belt
Should have some discussion on the the fertile belt that he believed was above the triangle

HillaryViolet (talk) 20:28, 2 February 2015 (UTC)

Information on the fertile belt would be useful to this article. As well as adding information as to why this would be significant to people intending to move westward. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MeganMcIlvenna (talk • contribs) 02:42, 3 February 2015 (UTC)

Fertile Belt Added
Well thought out article on Palliser's Triangle. I added a subheading that discusses the Fertile Belt. StanLeehen|talk — Preceding undated comment added 16:10, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

Sources for an Update of this Article?
As a student working under the WikiEdu system on this article, I would like to list sources I have found that may be of use to myself in working to improve it.

Potential Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4015056/

This link leads to an article on the Dust Bowl, a period very relevant to the history of Palliser's Triangle. The broad analysis of the period as a whole has the potential to provide much of the more esoteric, scientific, or political material that may be relevant to an accurate and detailed article on the subject.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1790499?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=ti:&searchText=%22Palliser%22&searchText=OR&searchText=tb:&searchText=%22Palliser%22&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3Fgroup%3Dnone%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3BQuery%3Dti%253A%2522Palliser%2522%2B&refreqid=search%3A884caaf1f6c352cb16bf3fa96a47bd5c&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

This link, already sourced in the article in question, is a book written on John Palliser's exploration of Western Canada. This will be a vital source in terms of historical context and the history of the region.

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/drought-in-pallisers-triangle-feature/

This article, from The Canadian Encyclopedia, provides a concise and detailed account on how the Dust Bowl period (or the Dirty Thirties) affected Palliser's Triangle. I will look into the reputability of the source in question, though I do have reason to believe that The Canadian Encyclopedia can be trusted.

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prairie-dry-belt-disaster/

This article looks into the various droughts in of the Prairie Belt, of which Palliser's Triangle is a part of,between initial settlement and the Dirty Thirties. This is an aspect of life and agriculture in the Prairies that goes largely neglected as it stands.

FrancoSaxonJackson (talk) 00:01, 25 January 2018 (UTC)

Editing Suggestions: Peer Assessment (HIST 3758)
Hello!

Looks like you’ve started to add some good information to to this article. The farming section an the history section both have small, but solid bases.

However, there are many sections you can and should expand on. A few topics to consider looking further into.

- The Palliser expedition itself. Granted, there is supposed to be a whole article on this, but more background on the origins of the deemed “unfarmable” land would be helpful. - Henry Hind and the fertile belt surrounding the region’s history. - Original assessment of land (what would it be used for? who would settle there and why?). - More info on Macoun. He was a botanist and had a fascination with the land’s potential. - Agricultural expansionist views on the land and its possible uses. - If you’re willing to go into the later years, there was a massive drought in that area that has lots of information recorded about it. - What the discovery of the triangle meant for the Canadian expansion West, and the trading companies there.

Most importantly, get the “History” section filled up.

If you haven’t already seen them, here’s a couple of sources to consider when expanding your research.

Last, William M. "Paleohydrology of playas in the northern Great Plains: perspectives from Palliser's Triangle." SPECIAL PAPERS-GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA(1994): 69-69.

Wolfe, S. A., C. H. Hugenholtz, and Olav B. Lian. "Palliser’s Triangle: Reconstructing the ‘central desert’of the southwestern Canadian prairies during the late 1850s." The Holocene 23, no. 5 (2013): 699-707.

Vance, R. E., and W. M. Last. "Paleolimnology and global change on the southern Canadian prairies1." INTERIOR PLAINS AND ARCTIC CANADA (1994).

Good Luck! — Preceding unsigned comment added by SamanthaLeigh (talk • contribs) 02:11, 16 February 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Palliser's Triangle


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Trains/Todo/Disambig

Table format
As the data in the table grows, I'm not too pleased with the way the text wraps in some instances. I've tried adding column widths to the first three columns, but it still doesn't quite look right. Is there a symbol we can use for the "What links here" link and move it into the first column (so it would look something like " Southern Railway ( X )")? Maybe the ← or → character? Hmmm... let's try that... slambo 18:44, August 23, 2005 (UTC)

Amtrack
I changed Amtrack from a redirect to a disambiguation page to allow for the military sense of amphibious tank. Cheers, Bovlb 17:11:44, 2005-08-28 (UTC)

Parallel maintenance system
This WikiProject is free to maintain its own team of dab-fixers, but it may wish to know that there's already a very large such team at Disambiguation pages with links. --Smack (talk) 04:32, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I left a note on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Disambiguation yesterday mentioning this page there. Slambo (Speak) 11:32, 14 February 2007 (UTC)