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Isaac the Syrian

Isaac the Syrian (Arabic: إسحاق النينوي Ishaq an-Naynuwī; Ἰσαὰκ Σῦρος; c. 613 – c. 700), also remembered as Saint Isaac the Syrian, Isaac of Nineveh, Abba Isaac, Isaac Syrus and Isaac of Qatar, was a 7th-century Syriac Christian bishop and theologian best remembered for his written works on Christian asceticism. He is regarded as a saint in the Church of the East and in the Eastern Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox traditions. His feast day falls, together with 4th-century theologian and hymnographer St. Ephrem the Syrian, on January 28.

Life
He was born in the region of Beth Qatraye in Eastern Arabia, a mixed Syriac and Arabic speaking region encompassing the south east of Mesopotamia and the north eastern Arabian peninsula. When the Catholicos Giwargis I (661–680) visited Beth Qatraye in 676 to attend a synod, he ordained Isaac bishop of Nineveh far to the north in Assyria.

The administrative duties did not suit his retiring and ascetic bent: he requested to abdicate after only five months, and went south to the wilderness of Mount Matout, a refuge for anchorites. There he lived in solitude for many years, eating only three loaves a week with some uncooked vegetables, a detail that never failed to astonish his hagiographers. Eventually blindness and old age forced him to retire to the Assyrian monastery of Rabban Shabur in Mesopotamia, where he died and was buried. At the time of his death he was nearly blind, a fact that some attribute to his devotion to study.

Legacy
Isaac is remembered for his spiritual homilies on the inner life, which have a human breadth and theological depth that transcends the Christianity of the Church of the East, the Church to which he belonged. They survive in Syriac manuscripts and in later Greek, Arabic, and Georgian translations. From Greek they were translated into Slavonic.

Isaac stands in the tradition of the eastern mystical saints and placed a considerable emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit.

His melancholic style as well as his affinity towards the sick and dying exerted considerable influence on Eastern Orthodoxy. His writings were continuously studied by monastery circles outside his church during the 8th and 9th century. Moreover, Isaac's conviction that the notion of God punishing men endlessly through the mystery of Gehenna (the lake of fire, or hell) is not compatible with his all encompassing love can likely be seen as the central thematic conflict in his second treatise of mystical teachings.

Isaac's writings, strongly influenced by those of Evagrius Ponticus and other earlier Christian writers, offer a rare example of a large corpus of ascetical texts written by an experienced hermit and is thus an important writer when it comes to understanding early Christian asceticism.

Influences
Isaac the Syrian's main influences include Evagrius Ponticus, Pseudo-Dionysius, John the Solitary, Ephrem the Syrian, Narsai, and Theodore of Mopsuestia. In turn, Isaac has influenced later Syriac writers such as John of Dalyatha and Joseph Hazzaya.

Writings
Currently, the known collections of Isaac the Syrian's writings are classified into the First Part, Second Part, Third Part, and more recently a Fifth Part. Many of the texts have been translated into Italian by Sabino Chialà, and into English by Sebastian P. Brock, Mary T. Hansbury, the Holy Transfiguration Monastery, and others. Up until 1983, only the First Part was widely known and disseminated. All of the other parts had been lost for centuries until they were recently re-discovered by Syriacists in various archives.

 * The First Part is the most widely known part. Arent Jan Wensinck (1923) translated the text into English and published it as Mystic Treatises. A critical edition containing an English translation, The Ascetical Homilies of Isaac the Syrian, was published by the Holy Transfiguration Monastery in 1983, while a revised second edition was published in 2011 (with a third printing in 2020). According to Brock (2006), Part 1 has 82 homilies, although the number and order of homilies can vary greatly depending on the manuscript or edition.
 * The Second Part was discovered in April 1983 at the Bodleian Library by Sebastian Brock, who found that MS syr. e. 7, originally donated by the Assyrian priest Yaroo Michael Neesan (1853–1937) to the Bodleian Library in 1898, in fact contained hitherto unknown writings of Isaac the Syrian. After 1983, incomplete manuscripts of Part 2 have been discovered in Cambridge MS Or. 1144, which is a part of Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS syr. 298 (c. 11th-13th century). Chapters 1–3 have been translated into English by Brock (2022) (with Chapters 1–2 previously published in Brock 1997 as well ), while an English translation of chapters 4–41, along with the original Syriac text, can be found in Brock (1995). A complete French translation was published by André Louf (2003), and a partial Greek translation was published by Kavvadas (2006). Selections from Part 2 have been translated into Italian by Bettiolo (1985) and into Catalan by Nin (2005).
 * The Third Part has been translated into English by Mary T. Hansbury (2016), into French by Louf (2009), and into Italian by Chialà (2004, 2011).  It is based on Issayi MS 5, held in Tehran, Iran. The manuscript is a 1903 copy of a 14th-century original manuscript that has now been lost. It was discovered by Monsignor Yuhannan Samaan Issayi, the Chaldean archbishop of Tehran, at an antiquarian Jewish bookshop and was kept in his private library. After his death in 1999, Belgian scholar Michel van Esbroek found the manuscript in Issayi's library in Tehran and announced its discovery to the international scholars. Issayi MS 5 has 133 folios, with 111 folios containing 17 homilies that can be attributed to Isaac. There are 14 homilies not found in other texts that are numbered as 1–13 and 16 within Part 3. The other three texts in Issayi MS 5 can also be found in extant Part 1 and Part 2 manuscripts.
 * Portions of the Fifth Part have been discovered in MS Rahmani 80 (in Sharfet), MS Dawra sir. 694 and MS Dawra sir. 938 (both held in Baghdad), and Vatican MS sir. 592. Hansbury (2016) contains English translations of two discourses from the Fifth Part. Other discourses from Part 5 can be found in Hansbury (2015).

Universal Reconciliation opinions
Some scholars have noted that Brock's translation of the Second Part of Isaac's writings (discovered 1983) appears to confirm claims of earlier universalist historians such as John Wesley Hanson (1899) that Isaac was an advocate of universal reconciliation. In chapter 39 of the Second Part, Isaac writes, "It is not the way of the compassionate Maker to create rational beings in order to deliver them over mercilessly to unending affliction in punishment for things of which He knew even before they were fashioned, aware how they would turn out when He created them, and whom nonetheless He created." Likewise, in the Third Part, chapter 5, Isaac explains, "This is the mystery: that all creation by means of One, has been brought near to God in a mystery; then it is transmitted to all; thus all is united to Him...This action was performed for all of creation; there will, indeed, be a time when no part will fall short of the whole." However the evidence for this could be interpreted as spurious given conflicting exerts from his "Directions on Spiritual Training" where he states, "Do not say that God can grant us purification of soul through grace, even without our keeping the commandments. This is for the Lord to judge and the Church does not direct that we should ask for such a thing." This passage seems to indicate a similar view on salvation which the Orthodox church holds today that this is a mystery of which men cannot know the ultimate answer.

Even in the First Part (Isaac's well-known Ascetical Homilies), however, there are arguably quite a few hints of universalism. For example, see the following quotes and excerpts: "God will not abandon anyone." "There was a time when sin did not exist, and there will be a time when it will not exist." "As a handful of sand thrown into the ocean, so are the sins of all flesh as compared with the mind of God; as a fountain that flows abundantly is not dammed by a handful of earth, so the compassion of the Creator is not overcome by the wickedness of the creatures... If He is compassionate here, we believe that there will be no change in Him; far be it from us that we should wickedly think that God could not possibly be compassionate; God’s properties are not liable to variations as those of mortals... What is hell as compared with the grace of resurrection? Come and let us wonder at the grace of our Creator." Many other relevant passages throughout the corpus of Isaac's writings could be cited in demonstration of his belief in eventual universal salvation.

title: Isaac the Syrian


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Edith of Wilton

Edith of Wilton (c. 961 – c. 984) was an English saint, nun and member of the community at Wilton Abbey, and the daughter of Edgar, King of England (r. 959–975) and Saint Wulfthryth. Edith's parents might have been married and Edgar might have abducted Wulfthryth from Wilton Abbey, but when Edith was an infant, Wulfthryth returned with Edith and their marriage was dissolved. Edith and her mother remained at Wilton for the rest of their lives.

Like her mother, Edith was educated at Wilton. From a young age, Edith chose to enter the religious life, although it is uncertain whether she became a nun or a secular member of the Wilton community. Goscelin, who completed her hagiography around 1080, reports that Edith "always dressed magnificently" because it reflected her status as a member of the royal family and because she was obliged to fulfil certain roles to ensure the continued royal patronage of the Wilton community. Goscelin based his Vita on the oral testimony of the Wilton nuns and their abbess, as well as on existing written sources. The work was dedicated to Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

When she was 15 years old, Edith's father offered her the position of abbess of three convents, but she declined. In 978, after the murder of her half-brother, Edward the Martyr, she may have been offered the English throne, which she also refused.

In 984, Edith constructed a chapel at Wilton Abbey dedicated to St Denys. The chapel was consecrated by St Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who reportedly foretold her imminent death and that the thumb on her right hand would remain uncorrupted. She died three weeks later, at the age of 23, on 16 September 984 and was buried at the chapel she built as she had instructed. Dunstan presided at her translation, which occurred on 3 November 987; her thumb, as Dunstan had foretold, had not decomposed.

Few miracles were attributed to her that supported Edith's canonisation and her cult did not become popular and widespread for 13 years after her death. Many of the miracles that were reported later focused on the protection of Edith's relics and the property owned by the Wilton community, often violently retaliating against those who sought to take or steal them. The support of Edith's elevation to sainthood by both secular and religious authorities was probably politically motivated, in order to establish their power and to connect themselves to King Edgar's descendants. Her feast day is 16 September.

Birth and childhood

Edith was born around 961 at the royal village in Kemsing, in Kent, England. She was the daughter of King Edgar and Wulfthryth, who was of noble birth, received her education at Wilton Abbey, and later became its abbess. Her brothers, Edward the Martyr and Æthelred II, both succeeded their father as king. Barbara Yorke reports that Goscelin, Edith's hagiographer, is unclear regarding the exact date of her birth. Yorke also reports that modern scholars are uncertain regarding Wulfthryth's status. Goscelin states that Wulfthryth was Edgar's wife and Yorke calls Wulfthryth his second wife, but Susan J. Ridyard calls Wulfthryth Edgar's "wife or concubine" and the Oxford Dictionary of Saints calls Wulfthryth his concubine. When Edith was an infant, her parents' marriage was dissolved, in either 963 or 964, which allowed Edgar to remarry and allowed Wulfthryth to become abbess of Wilton shortly after Edith's birth. Goscelin calls Wulfthryth "a sister who had once been [Edgar's] wife".

Edith was dedicated to entering the religious life at Wilton at the age of two. Goscelin describes a ceremony, which Yorke calls "a major state occasion", attended by her father and other royal officials. Stephanie Hollis believes that Edith remained a lay member of the community, although Hollis suggests that Edith's status as a member of the Wilton community was "ambiguous". According to Goscelin, when Edith was two years old, her father visited her at Wilton and presented her with the finest of clothes and jewellery worn by royalty, while her mother placed before her religious objects. Goscelin relates that Edith chose what her mother offered her. Ridyard considers Goscelin's story about Edith similar to many stories told by hagiographers, told to emphasise both the royal status of many saints and their choice to renounce it for the religious life. Ridyard states that Goscelin emphasises this incident, along later stories with her concern and service to criminals, the sick, and the destitute, to demonstrate Edith's humility. Edgar arranged for Edith the best possible education at Wilton by employing "two foreign chaplains", Radbod of Rheims and Benno of Trier.

Dress and response to criticism
According to Goscelin, Edith's rich and elaborate wardrobe was vindicated when a candle was accidentally dropped into a chest that stored her clothes; the chest was burnt but her clothes remained untouched and the chest remained in the convent as a reminder of the miracle. When researching Vita Edithe, his hagiography about Edith, Goscelin viewed her possessions, including "a sumptuous linen alb" she had designed and embroidered, a skill aristocratic women educated in convents like Wilton learned along with literacy, languages, and the arts. Edith wore the garment on special occasions like the reception of royalty or bishops and on high feast days.

According to Hollis, Goscelin reports that Edith was obliged to wear fine clothing due to her high status and in order to maintain the court's patronage of Wilton, which Hollis states "might have rivalled a royal court in its display of affluence". Other displays of Edith's status and affluence were her design and creation of ecclesiastical vestments, "a metal casket for heating her bath water", her possession of a menagerie of exotic native and imported animals placed at the north wall of the convent, and her mother's rebuilding of the convent, which included a chapel built and designed by Edith. Yorke insists, however, that it appeared that "to all outward appearances she dressed as befitted a princess rather than a specialist in humility". Yorke states that despite Goscelin's claims that Edith and Wulfthryth renounced their wealth and status, they gave up neither. They instead retained their private wealth, a common practice of royals who resided in monasteries and convents, with which they could purchase relics and fund expensive building programmes.

Katie Ann-Marie Bugyis reports that according to Goscelin, Edith copied a manual of prayers used at Wilton Abbey, which the nuns there, along with her relics, preserved. Goscelin praised Edith for her many talents, which included music, embroidery, calligraphy, painting, writing, composing, praying, as well as "a blazing intellect in reading". Hollis calls Edith's manner of dress "evidently habitual", relating Goscelin's story about Edith assisting the workmen who built her chapel by carrying stones in her sleeves. Goscelin insists that her fine clothing, her involvement in royal politics, and her periodic visits to her father's court did not make her less approachable to "the common people".

Political and religious influence
Histories of the politics of the period only mention Edith in passing, but Yorke argues that claims made by Goscelin in his Vita of Edith that she and her mother played an important role in the intrigues concerning the succession to Edgar should be taken seriously. According to Goscelin, the English nobility and kings from other countries and their ambassadors held her in high regard and "sought her favour by letters and gifts, and high-ranking ecclesiastics sought her intercession". Goscelin states that Edith was able to convince Edgar to overturn court judgements or procure gifts for churches, "with the result that she was besieged by petitioners from all strata of society who hoped she could intervene with the king on their behalf", and that officials from Rome, France, and Germany would visit Edith if they wanted favours from Edgar, often with an addition to her zoo.

According to Goscelin, when Edith was fifteen years old, her father appointed her abbess of three convents, but Sarah Foot describes the appointments as "somewhat implausible" and suggests that Goscelin confused Edith of Wilton with other women named Edith. Ridyard also doubts the veracity of Goscelin and others' claim that Edith was made abbess of any convent. Goscelin claimed that Edith initially refused the positions, preferring instead, as David Hugh Farmer states in the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, "the obscurity of the cloister". Goscelin also stated that Edith insisted on staying under the authority of her mother not because she felt incompetent, but "by an overabundance of humility". According to Goscelin, Edith was an effective abbess of the communities despite her distance and that she visited them often. Very little is known about Edith's governance of the three convents outside of Goscelin's works about her. Both Edith and St Eadburgh of Winchester were praised by William of Malmesbury for their prayers and intercessions on behalf of their respective communities, as well as their members' "unfailing obedience" and devotion to their leaders and teachers.

Goscelin relates that in 978, after the murder of Edward the Martyr, Edith's half-brother, she was offered the throne by opponents of Æthelred II, which she also refused. Edith also had a dream about losing her right eye, which Edith believed foretold her brother's imminent death, which Ridyard calls "highly improbable" and "the creation of an eleventh-century hagiographic imagination which found in the story of Edith's rejection of the earthly a poignant illustration of her devotion to the heavenly". Hollis that it probably occurred because it was an attempt to legitimise the succession of Æthelred and because it was consistent with Edith's manner of dress and her close involvement in royal politics. Ridyard argues that Goscelin relates both stories in order to emphasise "the saint's extreme reluctance to accept a position of authority and influence". The claim that Edith was offered the throne is generally dismissed by historians as a "hagiographic invention", but Yorke argues that it may not have been as far-fetched as it seems, stating that it was "a possibility that Edith would leave Wilton to be married if circumstances dictated" and that her upbringing and education at Wilton, as it was for other well-born Anglo-Saxon women educated there, was to prepare her for a future public role.

A seal was created during Edith's lifetime; later members of Wilton Abbey adopted and used it as its official emblem until the abbey was dissolved in 1539. The seal demonstrates the Wilton community's "confidence in its ability to represent their patron saint as the guarantor of their documents' authenticity and in her guarantee's enduring significance to those in and out of the community". Bugyis states that it "figures her in half-length, frontal view, raising her right hand in a sign of benediction and holding up a book, perhaps the manual of prayers she copied, with her left hand". She is described as a "royal sister" on the seal. According to Alison Hudson, an archivist at the British Library, Edith's seal gives "a rare contemporary insight into the priorities, identities and possibly even the jewellery of a young princess in late tenth century England". Yorke states that Edith's seal was another indication of her status and independent wealth, as well as her affirmation of her status as Edgar's daughter.

According to Bugyis, Edith was not recorded as a former abbess in Nunnaminster sources, but claims that Goscelin described what he regarded as two relics of Edith's rule over Nunnaminster, both of which he considered full of mystical significance and were still used by the community when he wrote about them. One relic was an alb (mentioned above) and the other was a flowering rod, which also according to Bugyis, Goscelin stated had continued to grow even after Edith's death and was reminiscent of Aaron's rod, symbolising her innocence. According to Bugyis, Edith's alb reflected her identification with Mary Magdalene's need to be forgiven of her sins and be remembered for her faith, devotion, and piety, as well as Edith's view of her office as abbess. As Bugyis claims, the alb "reflected the virtue she prized most in a monastic leader—humility", a duty the Benedictine Rule required from its monastic leaders, washing the feet in humble service for members of their communities, as Christ washed his disciples' feet and the woman (often conflated with Mary Magdalene) washed Christ's feet in the Gospel of John. Also according to Bugyis, Edith might have placed herself as Magdalene on her alb in order to represent her commitment to serve the poor and the outcast. Bugyis speculates that Edith's choice of the costly gems, golden thread, and pearls might have also demonstrated the conflict between her roles as abbess and as the king's daughter, as well as a way to inspire her sisters and to provide them with a model of her kind of service and leadership to the community. The alb also demonstrated, as Bugyis claims, that "the liturgical and pastoral ministries of medieval monastic leaders were often inextricably entwined".

Death
In c. 984, shortly before her death, Edith used her own funds to build a chapel at Wilton Abbey dedicated to St Denys. Yorke states that its construction was an indication of her status and wealth; it was made from wood, but had "lavish fittings of gold and semiprecious stones and decorated with a cycle of wall-paintings". According to Ridyard, Goscelin's account of the chapel's dedication "is skilfully juxtaposed with an account of Edith's rejection of an earthly kingdom and is intended to be a final and dramatic illustration of her commitment to the heavenly". It also supports his themes in her Vita about how King Edgar's patronage of the abbey served "the purposes of the heavenly kingdom". Ridyard called the construction of the chapel "Edith's last and most spectacular act of patronage". Goscelin states that the chapel was dedicated by St Dunstan, who towards the end of the ceremony, foretold that she would die in three weeks. According to Goscelin, Dustan, who was impressed by the way she made the sign of the cross, clasped her right hand, and weeping, said, "Never shall this thumb which makes the sign of our salvation see corruption".

According to Hollis, Goscelin reports that at the moment of Edith's death, a nun went to the door of the abbey's church, and looking in, she saw "angels standing in ranks and singing sweetly", One angel with a shining face then approached the nun and told her, "Go back; the angels await the good maiden". Edith was buried at St Denys' chapel according to her instructions. Ridyard relates Goscelin's account that after Edith's death, the nuns at Wilton, including her mother, experienced strange events at her tomb. Goscelin also reports that Dunstan, who might have been her spiritual mentor, was present at Edith's deathbed and presided at her burial. Her funeral and burial was "a state occasion attended by the great and good of the kingdom". Thirty days after her death, Ridyard reports that Edith appeared to Wulfthryth in a vision, assuring her that "she had been well received by her king in eternal grace". Dustan presided at her translation, which occurred on 3 November 987. Hollis reports that Edith's thumb, as Dunstan had foretold, had not decomposed.

Edith's feast, 16 September, is recorded in five 10th- and 11th-century calendars. The feast of her translation, 3 November, is recorded in two calendars of the period.

Legacy

Yorke argues that Edith had a more interesting career after her death, both for the royal house and for her convent. Ridyard characterises Goscelin's Vita Edithe, which was written between 1078 and 1087 and is considered the main source for Edith's life, as "a vocation narrative" and as one of the "defensive hagiographies" written during the period "to vindicate not only the status of a saint but also the history, the traditions and the political status of a religious community with which that saint was associated" and "an act of monastic propaganda on a grand scale". Goscelin, who had a long-standing association with Wilton, may have been for some time chaplain to the nuns, and he seems to have had a personal devotion to Edith. He wrote poems dedicated to her which were published in a later revision of her Vita. Hollis, however, considers the Vita one of the "only surviving near-contemporary accounts of female communities in the late Anglo-Saxon period", an important historical document, and the earliest and most important source about Edith's legend and cult.

The Vita was completed several generations after the events it describes and was "firmly grounded in the traditions current at Wilton in the final quarter of the eleventh century"; it demonstrates Goscelin's familiarity with and affection for the abbey. He states that he wrote the Vita at the request of both the Wilton community and his patron, Bishop Herman of Salisbury. He draws on the oral testimony of the Wilton nuns and their abbess, as well as "from existing books", as his sources. The Vita was dedicated to Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Goscelin may have written another volume about the Wilton community, the Wilton Chronicle, which also included stories about Edith.

Eve of Wilton, the Benedictine nun, anchoress, and later abbess of Wilton, about whom Goscelin also wrote a hagiography, had a devotion to Edith. According to Hollis, the community began to increase their devotion to Edith and experience more visions of her during Eve's tenure. A later Wilton abbess, Godiva, commissioned Goscelin to write Vita Edithe in 1080 because Wilton "needed the assistance of a powerful supporter". Hollis states that because of Edith's lack of popularity at Wilton and promotion of her cult in the decades following her death, the memories of the nuns who lived there were not subject to what Hollis calls "hagiolatrous transformations and inventions". Much of the information Goscelin gathered about Edith came from Brihtgifu (d. 1065), the daughter of noble parents, who came to the abbey as a child during Wulfthryth's lifetime and later became abbess in the years immediately before the Norman Conquest (c. 1040–1065). Goscelin states that Brihtgifu received her call to religious life from Edith, who was to be Brihtgifu's godmother, but died 30 days before her birth, and during Brihtgifu's baptism at Winchester Cathedral by Æfheah, who became bishop in 984, Edith appeared and helped the infant grasp her baptismal candle; the bishop instructed Brihtgifu's parents to send her to Wilton to be raised and educated. Bugyis considered Edith's choice to serve as a godparent an important part of Edith's role as a spiritual mother and as a part of her duties as abbess, even though monks and nuns were forbidden to serve as godparents beginning in the sixth century.

According to Ridyard, Edith "lived on in the memory of the Wilton nuns", although Hollis reports that there were few miracles supporting Edith's sainthood in the years following her death. Edith's mother, Wulfthryth, expressed her grief through commemorative masses and by building an almshouse in Edith's memory, but she resisted making public the only miracle reported immediately after Edith's death, Edith's retaliation against a young woman, not identified as a nun, who attempted to steal one of Edith's relics. Goscelin writes that after Edith's death, a group of foreign clerks were unable to remove Edith's relics from Wilton because the relics became too heavy to move, which according to Ridyard, is a common theme in hagiographic literature, in which the saint expresses their preferences about their tomb and relics.

There are two churches dedicated to Edith of Wilton. St Edith's Church in Bishop Wilton, a small village in Yorkshire, continues the tradition of celebrating its village feast on the same day as the saint's feast day, which for Edith, is 16 September. St Editha's Church in Baverstock, a small village four miles from Wilton, is also dedicated to Edith. A third church in Limpley Stoke near Bath was dedicated to Edith for 500 years, but its dedication was changed to St Mary in the 16th century.

In 2023, a pastoral area of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Clifton was named in honour of Edith.

Canonisation and miracles
Edith was elevated to sainthood by her brother King Æthelred II, with the support of Dunstan and other ecclesiastical support, thirteen years after her death. Her status as a saint is supported by the listing of her tomb at Wilton in On the Resting-Places of the Saints (the Secgan). Ridyard explains the interval between her death and the development of her cult, despite the favourable circumstances, by stating that her promotion to sainthood was removed from the control of the Wilton nuns and taken over by "a number of prominent individuals", all of whom received visions of Edith urging them to elevate her remains. She appeared to Æthelred, to an official with a rank second to the king, to an "unnamed secular magnate", and to Dunstan. According to Goscelin, Dustan was reminded of his prophecy about her incorruption and was ordered to travel to Wilton, "where he would find the body not only incorrupt but also raised up, as though already prepared to leave the tomb". Dunstan received another vision of St Denys, who directed him to perform Edith's translation, which occurred c. 997 and solidified the development of her cult. Ridyard states that both Æthelred and Cnut supported the promotion of her cult to establish their legitimacy as rulers and to connect themselves to the lineage of Edgar's children. Cnut, for example, may have viewed his support of Edith's elevation to sainthood as a way to solidify his connection to West Saxon royalty, which began with his marriage to Æthelred's widow. Goscelin compares Cnut's connection to Edith, especially her piety and miracles, to her familial affections. The Wilton nuns were probably aware of Edith's familial awareness, as well as their "political implications and of their potential usefulness". David Rollason states that the promotion of Edith's sainthood, along with that of Edward, was "a contribution to the prestige and status of the English kings" and that their cults, along with cults of Eadburg of Winchester and Ælfgifu, "were bolstering the ambition and pretension of the English kings".

Shortly after her translation, there were reports of two attempts to steal Edith's relics. According to Goscelin, one involved a Wilton nun who tried to steal Edith's headband but was stopped when Edith's own head was "menacingly raised against her". The other attempt involved a monk from Glastonbury, horrified when he tried to remove a fragment of Edith's clothing from her grave and his knife slipped and touched her body; "a wave of blood gushed forth, as if drawn from a living vein". Cnut, who became king of England in 1016, had a devotion to Edith after she interceded on his behalf and saved him from a sea storm. His experience, along with wanting to associate himself with Æthelred and his family, inspired him to build a golden shrine to store Edith's relics. Cnut, "through divine intervention on Edith's behalf", was able to punish some craftsmen who attempted to steal gold from the shrine and as Ridyard puts it, "Divine vengeance followed quickly" when the workmen were struck blind. Edith performed few miracles between her translation and Cnut's death in 1035, including two healings of Wilton nuns. Both Hollis and Ridyard relate the popular story about a nobleman named Agamund who in the late 1030s, had stolen Wilton properties and had a vision of Edith on his deathbed. She tormented him by preventing him from dying in peace and entering heaven until he returned what he had stolen; Hollis states this story "testifies to fear of Edith among the laity". As Bugyis put it, Edith's had dominion over both the condemnation and salvation of individual souls and demonstrated both her power of judgment and forgiveness, especially as it related to the violation of her community's spiritual and temporal possessions.

According to Ridyard and as reported by Goscelin, Edith "terrorized those who were foolish enough to invade the lands of her church and instilled fear in the hearts of those who might be tempted to emulate those invaders". For example, when a man named Brexius seized land owned by the abbey and refused to make amends on his deathbed, one of his relatives who was also a nun at Wilton, reported having a vision in which she witnessed "the rough treatment" at the hands of Edith. Also according to Ridyard and reported by Goscelin, not only did Edith protect the convent's properties, but she also protected, at times violently, "one further possession which was essential to its prestige, its prosperity and even its identity—the body of St Edith herself". According to William of Malmesbury, on a visit to Wilton King Cnut started jeering at Edith, declaring that he did not believe in the sanctity of a daughter of King Edgar, "an especial slave to lust, and more tyrant than king". When Æthelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, defended her, Cnut ordered her tomb to be broken open so that she could prove her sanctity. William claims that Edith emerged from her tomb and launched herself at Cnut, upon which he fainted with fright. On coming to he repented his scepticism and as a result Edith's feast day was widely kept. In Yorke's view, the story was intended to highlight Edgar's reputation for womanising.

Prophecies and dreams
Edith's cult did not seem to have been established in the Wilton community until c. 1040, when she appeared in almost identical dreams to Ælfgifu, the wife of Æthelred II (who promoted Edith's cult) and Ælfflæd, wife of King Edward the Elder. Ælfgifu's devotion to Edith began after claiming that Edith had healed Ælfgifu of an eye disease and prophesised her promotion to abbess at Wilton during a dream vision. According to the claim, Edith's prophesy came true, but Ælfgifu's tenure was short (c. 1065–1067) also as Edith had predicted. Goscelin writes that Edith chose Ælfgifu to be her successor through a vision received by Ælfgifu and her mentor, Ælfhild, during the tenure of Edith's godchild Brihtgifu as abbess. Goscelin reports that Edith emerged from her tomb and appeared to Ælfgifu while she was praying before another abbess' tomb. Edith bestowed symbols of convent authority upon Ælfgifu, which Bugyis argues justified and endorsed the community's choice of their abbesses during a time when such decisions were made by kings and nobles. Edith's bestowal of the objects to Ælfgifu was also viewed as a sacramental act usually performed by a bishop.

In another vision, Ælfgifu made a deathbed request for Edith's relics and intercession; as she lay dying, Edith told an unnamed nun through a verbal communication in the nun's sleep that the Virgin Mary, through Edith's intercession, "was waiting with a choir of virgin saints to receive her soul". After Ælfgifu's burial, Edith another unnamed nun during a dream vision that the community should pray for Ælfgifu because Edith "had obtained forgiveness from the Lord for all but one of Ælfgifu's offenses, and that she would not cease to intercede for Ælfgifu until she obtained pardon for this offense". As Ridyard put it, "The purposes of the monastic patron, however, were not served exclusively by dire threats and dreadful punishments". For instance, after King Cnut was seemingly saved from a sea storm through Edith's intercession, he expressed his gratitude by endowing gifts to the Wilton convent, including a golden shrine for Edith's body, which was decorated with scenes from the New Testament. Ridyard considers this miracle an example of the connection between Edith's "performance of conventional curative miracles" and the popular and widespread recognition of her cult.

Hollis states that the Wilton community's faith in Edith had diminished after the Norman Conquest because she had failed to help them recover some lost land and fortune and to protect them from a plague. Up to that point, Edith was remembered more for her wardrobe, her private zoo, her political influence, her artistic and literary talents, and the church she built and decorated, than for her holy life and miraculous powers. As both Hollis and Ridyard point out, the Wilton nuns saw Edith as indifferent to the interests of her own convent, even when the nuns there were stricken by illness; as Hollis put it, "It wasn't that she couldn't help them, apparently, but that she wouldn't; either that or she was the laziest saint in England". Edith countered their expectations of her by communicating in "an unattributed dream vision" describing her duties as a universal saint and that it was her duty to assist everyone who asked for her help because she saw no one as an outsider. Edith also affirmed her special relationship with Wilton, but reminded them that they had to "accept their temporal sufferings as a means of becoming spotless brides of the Lord". Ridyard reports that Goscelin attributes to both Edith and Wulfthryth "a number of domestic cures".

Goscelin reports that Edith performed miracles that demonstrated her concern for prisoners and sinners. For example, after a pilgrim from Saxony, along with his twelve companions, were sentenced to being shackled together for a year, which resulted in perpetual movement that did not stop when they were released. The pilgrims travelled to Wilton, slept before Edith's tomb for three days, and woke up to find himself healed, thus releasing him from judgment of his crimes. Goscelin compared this miracle and others to the binding and loosing as described in the Gospel of Matthew, stating that "it superseded the power that was given to the apostles' priestly successors—whatever they bound as punishment for sin, she could ultimately loose".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edith of Wilton


text:
Talk:Milwaukee Ballet

Excessive Details Removed
I removed a fair amount of content from the article for a couple of reasons and just wanted to leave my reasoning here. First, there was a staff listing from multiple years ago that is now outdated. Second, the amount of detail for such a staff listing was excessive for Wikipedia, turning the article into more of a directory, which is not really the purpose. A list of personnel or former personnel who are notable enough to have their own Wikipedia articles would be fine, if someone wants to add something like that.

Also, I would like to note that one of the previous editors is someone who, on their user page, indicates that they are affiliated with the organization, a definite conflict of interest (COI).

Lastly, I also removed a mention of the organization's sponsors, as that blurs the line of appropriateness, considering that the reference for the claim was from the Ballet itself. To me that's using Wikipedia as a way to give free publicity rather than to merely inform. Wantonlife (talk) 17:21, 7 September 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Milwaukee Ballet


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Wikipedia:Peer review/Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport/archive1

Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport
This article is about the transport and electricity company synonymous with the city of Mumbai (Bombay). Would like to know if there is any angle not covered. (PS At this moment, I've not added the references, will do so. Kindly ignore). Will also add some images soon. =Nichalp  «Talk»=  15:28, 25 August, 2005 (UTC)


text:
Luca Pitti

Luca Pitti (1398–1472) was a Florentine banker during the period of the republic presided over by Cosimo de' Medici. He was awarded a knighthood, and received lavish presents from both the Signory of Firenze and the Medici family as a reward for helping maintain the government during the last years of Cosimo's rule when Cosimo was too old and feeble to maintain power alone.

As the head magistrate of Florence, known as "The Gonfalonier of Justice," he wielded great power and influence. In August, 1458, he staged a coup to seize control of Florentine government in the name of its existing ruler, the elderly and now frail Cosimo de' Medici. In effect he wished to strengthen the existing government, as a result many leading citizens were banished, and many other citizens were driven from power. The newly formed government was to last eight years with Cosimo as its figurehead, the reality being he was too frail to maintain power alone. Pitti's chief opponent at this time was Girolamo Machiavelli who was banished. However, he travelled the neighbouring principalities whipping up opposition to the new Florentine government. He was consequently declared a rebel, betrayed and returned to Florence where he mysteriously died in prison.

Pitti was then ennobled and very wealthy indeed, Niccolò Machiavelli in his History of Florence estimates no less a sum than twenty thousand ducats was presented to him.

It was then that he sought to rival the glory, if not power, of the Medici and began construction of the Palazzo Pitti intended to rival the palazzo of the Medici. He also began work on a villa at Rusciano. For the Palazzo Pitti, legend has it he "decided to employ the most brilliant architect of the times, whom he ordered to make the windows as big as the doors of the Medici residence and create an internal courtyard that was large enough to contain the whole of the Medici's palace on the Via Larga". This is almost certainly apocryphal as the architect Brunelleschi often credited with the design had been dead since twelve years. The true architect, often thought to be Luca Fancelli, was less well known at the time and the new palazzo, while awe inspiring, was not a true rival to the magnificence of the Medici residences. Machiavelli also states that Pitti would give sanctuary to any criminal within his walls if they could be of use in their building or decoration. Machiavelli also hints that Pitti's wealth was further increased by bribes and presents in return for favours. These allegations may or may not be true, one should remember that Machiavelli was not only opposed to the Medici himself, but also a kinsman of Pitti's arch enemy Girolamo Machiavelli who had been most likely murdered by the government which in effect Pitti controlled.

It has been said that Pitti wished to become first citizen and dictator himself. After the death of Cosimo in 1464, he conspired to overthrow and murder Piero di Cosimo de' Medici. He was pardoned by Piero after the failure of the plot and thereafter supported him.

Pitti's prosperity declined from 1464, following the death of Cosimo, his patron. Pitti died in 1472, work on his grand palazzo had stopped in 1465, and he was not to see it completed. However the family survived the upheaval following the overthrow of the Medici's power in 1494, and the tyrannical and puritanical rule of Girolamo Savonarola. Retaining some limited power and influence the family continued to reside at the Palazzo Pitti until finally in 1549 failing fortunes compelled Pitti's descendant Buonaccorso Pitti to sell the palazzo to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Eleanor, wife of Grand Duke Cosimo I who re-enforced, the restored but hitherto wavering, power of the Medici in Florence in 1537.

title: Luca Pitti


text:
Talk:Charles Brooks Jr.

Page won't post on Facebook
Note that this Wikipedia page won't post properly on Facebook because it has a period at the end of it. "Jr." 50.54.236.155 (talk) 17:36, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

Lourdes or Loudres?
I changed "Woody Lourdes" back to "Woody Loudres". The sources are in some disagreement as to which is the correct spelling, but both the offender information and the Supreme Court ruling use "Loudres", while only the Appeals Court ruling mentions "Lourdes". Those were the only sources I could readily find. Blurble 15:31, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I probably copied it wrong from the offender information. Evil Monkey∴Hello 21:16, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Execution diagram
I don't know the source, but I found http://clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/USmugshots/006zbrooks.jpg WhisperToMe (talk) 06:18, 4 March 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Charles Brooks Jr.


text:
Talk:Isaac the Syrian

Cleanup
This article lacks citations and also treats unverifiable "facts" as truth. It is also clear that it was written by someone who has not studied Isaac extensively. When I get the chance, I'll edit/rewrite the article.Grailknighthero (talk) 14:14, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

Bet Qatraye is a region which includes Bahrain, Qatar, and portions of Eastern Arabia.Grailknighthero (talk) 02:13, 7 April 2010 (UTC)
 * I added or Bahrain to a possible location of birth. For more information, see Hansbury, Mary. St. Isaac of Nineveh on the Ascetical Life.  St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1989.

 * Can anybody confirm whether or not this guy was sainted? Some of the google hits call him "St. Isaac of Nineveh", but Brittanica refers to him as Isaac of Nineveh. Given the sources, I deferred to Britannica when I wrote this stub, but it really isn't my area of expertise. --Scimitar parley 15:31, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * He is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. I am not sure about the Assyrian Church of the East Grailknighthero (talk) 05:03, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

The Catholic Encyclopedia calls him "Isaac of Nineveh" where he was bishop for some months. An inappropriate descriptor. Everyone else calls him Isaac the Syrian don't they? --Wetman 20:45, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

 * It is not an inappropriate descriptor. Not everyone calls him by Isaac the Syrian.  It is common among scholarly circles to call him Isaac of Nineveh because he was bishop of Nineveh.  One is named after their bishopric. Grailknighthero (talk) 05:03, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I just was given an icon made at "St. Isaac of Syria Skete". I'm guessing he's a saint in the Assyrian Church of the East in the same way that Pontius Pilate is in the Oriental Orthodox Churches or Charles I is in the Anglican Communion. Carolynparrishfan 02:11, 16 April 2006 (UTC)
 * He appears to be an Orthodox saint. Check out the skete's website at . Carolynparrishfan 02:14, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

 * St. Isaac of Syrian Skete is an Eastern Orthodox Monastery in Boscobell, Wisconsin. It is not Assyrian Church of the East.Grailknighthero (talk) 05:03, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

?
St. Isaac THE SYRIAN is venerated in all Eastern Orthodox Churches. We never refer to him as "of Nineveh" - Also, there is no source provided, nor none I can find in any materials related to this saint which even remotely suggest that he was Nestorian, so unless you can source it, that language that weasel-words him in to "maybe" "possibly" being nestorian should be removed. A Nestorian wouldn't be venerated by all The Orthodox (& Roman Catholic) churches. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.51.138.62 (talk) 03:50, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

 * You are wrong when you say that the Orthodox never refer to him as "of Nineveh." True, in the Calendar of Saints he is listed as Isaac the Syrian and he is usually called Isaac the Syrian in other places, but some Orthodox scholars acknowledge that He is also called "of Nineveh."  Proof?  See above, Mary Hansbury's book is published by SVS Press.  Yes, Nestorian should be removed because Isaac and the Church of the East were not Nestorian.  As Sebastian Brock suggests, the Church of the East should be labeled as "Theodoran."  But there is one chapter within the Second Part, Chapter 11, in which Isaac's Christology is definitely expressed in Theodoran/East Syrian terms.  But as far as I know, this is the ONLY chapter within Part I and II in which Isaac's Christology is not compatible with Orthodox Chalcedonian Christology.Grailknighthero (talk) 05:12, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

Bahrain and Qatar
I've removed a bunch of Bahrain and Qatar cats. Being possibly born in that region more that a thousand years ago doesn't imply that he can be considered Bahraini. --  R a f y  talk 08:08, 8 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Saying that Isaac was Bahrani is as anachronic as claiming that Jesus was Palestinian of that Muhammad was Saudi. Please Ashraf discus you're rationale before including the cat.--  R a f y  talk 11:50, 26 May 2012 (UTC)

Birth and death
As of now, Isaac's exact date of birth and death are unknown. His birth place is known, but I could find only two references stating his date of birth - one states it as 613, and the other states it as 640. I am in a conundrum as to which of them should be included, or if any of them should be included at all. Furthermore, his date of death seems to be a wild guess - but I was able to find multiple (at least 3) notable sources stating his date of death as 700, so it seems to be a generally accepted date.

On another note, his place of death appears to somewhere in Iran. The Quotable Saint and The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature - Volume 2 states it as Rabban Shabur. This makes me wonder why it is currently listed as Nineveh. Elspamo4 (talk) 12:46, 17 July 2014 (UTC)

Requested move 27 March 2023

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Isaac of Nineveh → Isaac the Syrian – While Isaac is known with both the titles "of Nineveh" and "the Syrian", he is better known as "The Syrian" both in old and modern times. There is no one place I can cite for this, but any small amount of research into him will make this obvious. Swehlam (talk) 01:15, 27 March 2023 (UTC) — Relisting.  ❯❯❯  Raydann  (Talk)   09:37, 3 April 2023 (UTC)  — Relisting.  –Zfish118⋉talk 13:09, 3 April 2023 (UTC)

 * GEDSH prefer "of Nineveh". Srnec (talk) 13:24, 28 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Note: WikiProject Biography has been notified of this discussion.  ❯❯❯  Raydann  (Talk)   09:37, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Note: WikiProject Christianity has been notified of this discussion.  ❯❯❯  Raydann  (Talk)   09:37, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Note: WikiProject Western Asia has been notified of this discussion.  ❯❯❯  Raydann  (Talk)   09:37, 3 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Comment: A preponderance of reliable sources should be provided to substantiate the current or proposed name (ie, a brief list of the name each sources uses, if there is no source that directly states the most common or appropriate description). –Zfish118⋉talk 13:13, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Move: per sources found in article already. ~ Pbritti (talk) 14:56, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Move per existing sources, as Pbritti notes.  Arbitrarily0   ( talk ) 14:23, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Article name
I've missed the name change conversation, but it'll be worth bearing in mind should it come up for discussion again that (a) Isaac is more commonly referred to as 'Isaac of Nineveh' than 'Isaac the Syrian' in academic literature, especially in the literature on him that's begun to proliferate since the 1980s (e.g. books by Sebastian Brock (1995 and 2022), Sabino Chialà (2002, in Italian), Patrik Hagman (2010), Nestor Kavvadas (2015, in German), Jason Scully (2017), Benedict Vesa (2018), and Valentina Duca (2023); counterexamples such as Hilarion Alfeyev (2015, ed.) and Mary Hansbury (2016) are overall fewer); and (b) 'Isaac the Syrian' is more ambiguous than 'Isaac of Nineveh', since there are at least two other Isaacs who are sometimes referred to as 'Isaac the Syrian', namely Isaac of Antioch (e.g. by Brian Daley, The Hope of the Early Church (1991) p. 174) and Isaac of Spoleto. 131.111.5.135 (talk) 15:01, 31 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isaac the Syrian


text:
Aphelia

Aphelia may refer to:

 * Aphelia (moth), a genus of moths in the Tortricidae
 * Aphelia (plant), a genus of plants in the Centrolepidaceae
 * Aphelia, a character in The Fatal Contract, a play by William Heminges
 * Aphelia, an album by German rock band Scream Silence
 * Aphelia (rhetoric), the plainness in writing or speech
 * the plural of aphelion, the point in a solar orbit most distant from the sun

title: Aphelia


text:
User:Blurble

At least now my name isn't red... .

/BMCS

title: User:Blurble


text:
User talk:199.20.31.52

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title: User talk:199.20.31.52


text:
Talk:J. A. Prestwich Industries

Untitled
Wouldn't this be better under something like JAP (engine manufacturer) or similar. I don't ever recall it being spelt J.A.P. with full stops. This is of some interest to me since I'd like to link, eg, Cooper-JAP cars from the hillclimbing articles. Loganberry (Talk) 15:34, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * A valid idea right up the point I added extra info about the cinema side of things, just link to JAP#motorcycles for the moment, any name change will pick up the redirect. GraemeLeggett 15:49, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Or rather, J.A.P.#motorcycles; those full stops were rather the point! ;) Loganberry (Talk) 15:51, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

J.A.P. Engines
I am pasting this back here for discusion.. "JA Prestwich Industries Ltd, founded by the engineer John Alfred Prestwich (hence J.A.P), produced internal combustion engines and other examples of precision engineering. " The letters J.A.P. appeared on a chain coverplate between the engine and the magneto on the single cylinder JAP engine fitted to the Howard Rotovator Gem. That is the only JAP engine I have ever seen personally.. Gregorydavid 07:03, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your comments. See the updates and references I have inserted into the article - you will see that they did much more than just engines, and Villiers used them as a specilaist engineering concern in their latter days. I think a better debate is what the artcile is filed as - JAP (with or without dots), JA Prestwich Industries, etc. Rgds, - Trident13 11:56, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I would say JAP engines and similar redirected to article.. (on engines) Gregorydavid 15:59, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I think I would probably agree - what do the Google rankings say? I had a debate a week ago with a guy on encyclopedic correctness versus SEO optimisation. As Wiki is subscription funded, and in light of the previous debate, I would probably agree to reduce the encyclopedia correctness and move to that which is most SEO'd - Rgds, - Trident13 16:52, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Being New to Wikipedia Can I ask about JAP outboard motors? I see no reference to such on these pages. Williamette Steam (talk) 00:15, 22 March 2023 (UTC)

J.A.P MOTORS - 1944
I left school age 14 in 1944 - attended Culvert Road School, Tottenham. My very first job, and I suppose I was lucky was at JAP Motors, Tariff Road. I must have been considered quite a bright lad, as I was found myself operating a huge capstan lathe turning out parts for aircraft, ammunition, etc I lived in Pelham Road, Tottenham and had to clock in sharp at 8.00 a.m   There would be mile long queues at the bus stop to catch the trolley-bus to Northumberland Park. If you were three minutes late, you lost 15 mins. pay. God, the noise in that huge machine shop from the belts operating the lathes. Had some wonderful times, met some great people, canteen food was great (spam and chips) and occasional lunch-time concerts. I had a terrible shock when it was announced over the intercom that a V2 rocket had landed in Pelham Road. I lived in Pelham Road Tottenham, but it happened to be Pelham Road, Wood Green. Rubbed shoulders with some very skilled engineers, and the foreman was very strict. One guy I loved, Jack I think, had an artificial leg, and a super tool setter. Anybody around from those days - would love to hear from you, especially Jim a guy from Edmonton had a good looking sister,  a bit older than me, worked on drilling section, devil of a lad. I now live in Enfield, age 78, but spent most of my life in Tottenham, going to Spurs (sharing ground with Arsenal), Royal dancing, and all local cinemas our escape from war. John Harvey, Bush Hill Park. Tel.020 8360 3329 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.65.114.72 (talk) 01:37, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

Company history
I have made a number of correction to errors in the company history. See my book which I have referenced for more detail if anybody want to add it in. I have also added mention of the archive at the Bruce Castle Museum.Tsrwright (talk) 12:52, 23 December 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20071013173758/http://nla.gov.au/nla.cs-pa-HTTP%3A%2F%2FLIBAPP.SL.NSW.GOV.AU%2FCGI-BIN%2FSPYDUS%2FENQ%2FPM%2FFULL1%3F8407%2CI to http://nla.gov.au/nla.cs-pa-HTTP%253A%252F%252FLIBAPP.SL.NSW.GOV.AU%252FCGI-BIN%252FSPYDUS%252FENQ%252FPM%252FFULL1%253F8407%252CI

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090520013755/http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/Transport/Motorcycles/ajs4.htm to http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/Transport/Motorcycles/ajs4.htm
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051215174918/http://www.auav.org/atwf/engines.htm to http://www.auav.org/atwf/engines.htm

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External links modified (January 2018)
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060502233559/http://www.500race.org/Marques/JAP.htm to http://www.500race.org/Marques/JAP.htm

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title: Talk:J. A. Prestwich Industries


text:
El General

Edgardo Armando Franco (born 27 September 1969), better known as El General, is a Panamanian former reggae artist considered by some to be one of the fathers of reggae en Español and a precursor to reggaetón.

During the early 1990s, he was one of the artists who initiated the Spanish-language dancehall variety of reggae music. Early examples of this were the international and somewhat mainstream songs, "Te Ves Buena" and "Tu Pum Pum". “Tu Pum Pum" emerged after a friend of El General invited him to collaborate with a Jamaican producer that was searching for a “different sound in Panama." Both songs, performed in Spanish deejaying style, were very successful in North America. After getting his foot in the door of the commercial market, many other Spanish-language dancehall reggae artists became famous in the mainstream as well. He has a unique, easy to listen to style of dance music and has produced many well-known songs all over Latin America.

El General retired from music in 2004 and became a Jehovah's Witness.

Early history
El General began singing and composing songs at the age of 12 in his home in Río Abajo, Panama. El General is of Jamaican descent.

Jamaicans, Bajans, Trinidadians and other West Indians moved to Panama to fill the need of labor for the construction of the Panama Canal. As laborers on the Canal they were met with harsh conditions like low wages and terrible living conditions. Black Panamanians of Caribbean descent (antillanos) were also mistreated and segregated based on their Caribbean ancestry and were unable to assimilate to national Panamanian culture.

While El General was growing up Spanish Reggae as a genre began to rise in Panama. In the 1980s, Spanish Reggae in Panama was the use of riddims that were popular in Jamaica and the rapping/singing of direct translations on the same beat. As Panamaians of Caribbean descent the use of Jamaican riddims was anti-establishment and enforced what Wayne Marshall says, “ ‘provides a telling set of examples of how the meanings of Jamaican reggae continue to resonate in Panama, even after translation into Spanish’ ” The use of Caribbean sounds in Spanish Reggae made the genre anti-establishment and a form of resistance to a country that denied Panamanians of Caribbean descent.

Describing himself as a “restless child,” El General would use different objects such as buckets, flutes, and anything in front of him to serve as an instrument. Musically influenced by Bob Marley and Burro Banton growing up, El General recounts in an interview his love for reggae. When he was younger, he was a part of a group called Renato and the Four Stars, which is when he got his nickname, “El General,” where they would sing reggae in Spanish.

He then received a scholarship, the young artist moved to the United States to study business administration, and became a professional accountant. While studying, he was also an MC for parties and opened up for dancehall and hip-hop musical acts. His connection to Black diasporic communities in New York both influenced his music and led to his music being spread across the Americas including the US, Panama, and Puerto Rico. This led to extreme popularity in the 90s with his first song “Tu Pum Pum,”

Career and influence
His breakout performance came in 1994, when he was featured on the song "Robi-Rob's Boriqua Anthem" from C+C Music Factory's album Anything Goes. During this time, he started working with Chino Rodriguez, an entrepreneur in the Latin music industry, who convinced Franco a.k.a. El General (as his close friends and family would call him), to perform a salsa song before his performance of "Robi-Rob's Boriqua Anthem". The performance was at the Madison Square Garden produced by Ralph Mercado (owner of RMM Records and who always produced large Latino events in New York). The fans were surprised that El General (Franco) sang a salsa song. Ralph Mercado gave El General more time in the tight schedule of stage allotment to do the salsa song before the scheduled performance of "Boriqua Anthem". Chino Rodriguez was able to convince Ralph Mercado to allow more time so that El General could surprise his fans.

He started his musical career when he was 19 years old, and for 17 years, his albums achieved gold status 32 times and platinum 17 times. Popular reggae in Spanish music in Panama was (and is still) called plena. Songs like "Muevelo" (1991), "Tu Pum Pum" (1991), "Rica y Apretadita" and "Te Ves Buena" are among his greatest hits. In 1992, El General received an MTV award for Best Latin Video with the great success of "Muevelo" produced by Pablo "Pabanor" Ortiz and Erick "More" Morillo. In 1993, El General won the Rap Artist of the Year Award at the Lo Nuestro Awards.

When asked in an interview about reggae and its true roots, El General responded with the history of the construction of the Panama Canal and migration of Jamaican folks into Panama. He shared that his musicality had been influenced by Burro Banton and Bob Marley, and how he had hoped to gain musical acceptance in Jamaica out of respect for reggae native home: Jamaica. He also shared that reggae transitioned into a meaningful form of protest and a means of sharing information regarding everyday life, the news, or corruption in the government.

The Panama Canal connects Atlantic and Pacific trade routes and the descendants of the Black workers brought over “dancehall—an updated version of Jamaican reggae—into Panamanian sound system parties,” Panama, as a result, became a “multicultural melting pot” in which folks from Jamaica and Barbados were entering Panamanian spaces. Many reggaeton songs use dembow as their underlying basis for rhythm.

The relationship between labor of Black, low-income folks in Panama City and reggaeton music has been their usage of reggae music as a form of protest. Afro-Panamanian artist Renato expressed that it was through singing reggaeton that financially struggling Black folks could protest the government and police brutality. This could be seen in the music of El General's former band partner Renato, whose 1987 Spanish Reggae song “Lo que el D.E.N.I. puede hacer”, based on Lloyd Lovindeer's Jamaican hit "Babylon Boops", recounts a case of police brutality in response to a domestic violence incident.

In addition to reggae anti-policing history, themes regarding the commercialization of reggaeton, sexism, homophobia, and colorism emerged. In the podcast Loud hosted by Puerto Rican and reggaeton artist Ivy Queen, Ivy Queen shared her concerns regarding the role that commercialization of the genre plays in potentially silencing the rebellious fundamental themes in the music. The pushing away of Black roots can be detrimental to the very history that is reggaeton.

El General's success has been tremendous and influential to the genre of Reggaeton today. After gaining international notoriety in the early 1990s, his style of Spanish Reggae influenced “Underground” which would birth what is now considered Reggaetón in Puerto Rico, establishing the popularity of Spanish-language reggae rap in Latin America and the Caribbean. El General's success also serves as a way of understanding how important the connection between Black communities in Panama, the Caribbean (Jaimaica, Barbados, etc.), and the Caribbean-American communities in New York. The influence of El General and Panamanian Spanish Regé artists,  has been noted by popular reggae artists like Maicol Superstar

Retirement
In 2004, El General went on a farewell tour, announcing his retirement to focus on producing. However, after a few years, he seemed to have disappeared completely. A video that surfaced in 2008 features Franco explaining his return to the Jehovah's Witness faith and his leave from the music scene. Franco describes his time making music as a dark era and refers to his platinum records and accolades as “trophies from the devil”. Franco is part of a wave of Latin artists (like Héctor el Father and Farruko) who have left Reggaeton for religious reasons. Gata, a cultural critic and Reggaeton artist, links the trend of these artists to notions of patriarchy and machismo and feeling guilty over sexual explicit lyrics.

Discography

 * Pu tun tun (1990)
 * Estás Buena (1990)
 * Muevelo Con el General (1991)
 * "Son Bow" (1990)
 * "No Más Guerra" (1991)
 * El Poder del General (1992)
 * Es Mundial (1994)
 * Clubb 555 (1995)
 * Rapa Pan Pan (1997)
 * Move It Up (1998)
 * Grandes Éxitos (1998)
 * Colección Original (1998)
 * Serie 2000 (2000)
 * Back to the Original (2001)
 * IS BACK (2001)
 * General De Fiesta (2002)
 * El General: The Hits (2003)
 * To' Rap-Eao (2003)
 * La Ficha Clave (2004)

title: El General


text:
Portal:Poland/Polish music

Bogurodzica (The Mother of God) is the oldest Polish hymn. It was written in the 10th-13th century, although its origin is not clear.

Polish knights sang it as an anthem before the Battle of Grunwald and during the battle with the Turkish army at Varna in 1444. Bogurodzica accompanied also the coronation ceremonies of the first Jagiellonian kings.

See also:

 * Gaude mater Polonia [[Image:ltspkr.png]] listen

 * Fryderyk Chopin: Nocturne, Op. 55, No. 1 [[Image:ltspkr.png]] listen (Provided courtesy of In the Hands)

Polish music...
 * Józef Wybicki: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego [[Image:ltspkr.png]] listen

title: Portal:Poland/Polish music


text:
Ka-Bala

Ka-Bala was a talking board game manufactured and released by Transogram in 1967. It was marketed under the slogan, "The Mysterious Game that Tells the Future."

The game was molded out of green plastic that glowed in the dark. It sat upon a hemispherical rocker, and was operated by the players touching the "solary projectors", which were handles on either side of the game. Unlike most talking boards which are activated by a planchette, Ka-Bala used a large black marble as an indicator; the marble ran around a circular track on the surface of the game. In addition to indicating the letters and numbers printed around the track, the marble could also be used to select one of twenty-two Major Arcana cards of occult tarot supplied with the game. Each tarot card had the fortune it predicted printed on the back. The game also had the twelve zodiac signs marked along the track; these could be used to generate a simple horoscope. In the center of the rocking board, the "Eye of Zohar" was mounted; this plastic eyeball would spin as the board was agitated by the players.

The name "Ka-Bala" and the reference to the Zohar indicate that the game was supposedly related to Kabbalah, an esoteric school of thought in Jewish mysticism. As they operated the game, the players were instructed to chant Pax, sax, sarax; hola, noa, nostra!

title: Ka-Bala


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