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User:Davidgothberg/Encrypted connections negotiation

This page is for David's testing of Wikipedia editing. David's personal sandbox so to speak.

Encrypted connections negotiation
This is a list of different cases of what a client and a server node knows and what then is the best possible encrypted negotiation and connection they can do.

"Stealth" means that someone scanning your ports and not even an eavesdropper should be able to detect what protocol you are using.

"Forward secure" means that even if the client's and/or server's keys later on get compromised old messages still can not be read by an attacker. This is usually done by also using some kind of temporary asymmetric keys that both nodes delete after the session ends. Thus those temporary keys can never be compromised.

For most methods below:
 * If possible the client should talk first and the server should only respond after the client told what protocol it wants to talk and only if the server supports the protocol the client wants to use. This is part of stealth and makes it harder for automatic port scanning tools to determine what kind of server you are running.
 * IVs should be sent in both directions to prevent replay attacks and man-in-the-middle attacks. Note that for stealth reasons the server in most cases should not send its server IV until after it has understood what protocol the client wants to talk. Both IVs should be included in the final shared session secret.

Nothing
Client does not have any keys or user names what so ever. Server knows no keys or user names what so ever. No protocol is pre-agreed.

Best method seems to be:

Protocol negotiation in clear text. For stealth reasons the client should talk first and the server should only respond after the client told what protocol it wants to talk and only if the server supports that protocol.

Then the two nodes can do a Diffie-Hellman crypto negotiation. (Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys.)

This is not that stealthy and not man-in-the-middle secure but at least passive eavesdropper secure. It also kind of gives forward secrecy.

Almost nothing
Client does not have any keys or user names what so ever. Server knows no keys or user names what so ever. Client expects the server to understand the stealthy Diffie-Hellman crypto negotiation protocol.

Best method seems to be:

Do a stealthy Diffie-Hellman crypto negotiation to agree about a shared secret, then turn on encryption. Then send a first encrypted standard string to show it is the Diffie-Hellman method and that it succeeded.

This is fairly stealthy and it is eavesdropper secure but not man-in-the-middle secure. It also kind of gives forward secrecy.

Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys but then it is less stealthy.

Symmetric key
Client has a user name and a symmetric key (for instance a password or passphrase). Server knows the user name and the user's symmetric key. Client expects the server to understand the stealthy negotiation protocol.

Best method seems to be:

Protocol negotiation using some stealthy method that encrypts from the first byte using the user name + user password as key to encrypt/hide data from the first byte. (Negotiation about what protocol to be used actually can be done encrypted from the first byte.)

Method 1:

For instance use Rik's hashed method or a symmetrically encrypted method. In these methods the server has to test hash or test decrypt for each key it knows and then for each protocol it knows. Then turn on the first encryption.

This is stealthy, eavesdropper secure and man-in-the-middle secure. But it is not forward secure.

For added security and to get forward secrecy then also do a Diffie-Hellman key negotiation. (Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys.) Then combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the user name and key to get a new stronger shared secret. Then turn on the second stronger encryption.

Now we are stealthy, eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Method 2:

Slightly less stealthy than method 1.

First do a Diffie-Hellman crypto negotiation to agree about a first shared secret. Then turn on first encryption. Then send a first encrypted standard string to show it is the Diffie-Hellman method and that it succeeded.

Then do more protocol negotiation and tell which user it is. Then combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the user name and user key to get a new stronger shared secret. Then turn on the second stronger encryption.

This is fairly stealthy, eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Server certificate
This is the normal case on the web today. Client does not have any keys or user names what so ever. Client is aware of CAs and can thus check server certificates. Server knows no user keys or user names what so ever. Server has an asymmetric key pair and has a certificate for the key pair. No protocol is pre-agreed.

Best method seems to be:

Protocol negotiation in clear text. For stealth reasons the client should talk first and the server should only respond after the client told what protocol it wants to talk and only if the server supports that protocol.

Then the server sends its certificate to the client. The client then creates a random session key, encrypts it and sends it to the server by using the server's public key. Then turn on encryption.

This is not stealthy and not forward secure, but it is passive eavesdropper secure and man-in-the-middle secure.

For added security and to get forward secrecy then also do a Diffie-Hellman key negotiation. (Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys.) Combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the client created random session key to get a new stronger shared secret. Turn on the second stronger encryption.

This is not stealthy, but now it is eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Note that the client here knows for sure what server it talks to but the server does not know who the client is.

Server asymmetric key
Client does not have any keys or user names what so ever. Client knows the server's public key or at least the ID (the hash) of the server's public key. Server knows no user keys or user names what so ever. Server has an asymmetric key pair. Client expects the server to understand the stealthy negotiation protocol.

This is slightly similar to the normal case on the web today but no certificates are used instead the client has knowledge of the server's public key. This allows us to add full stealth to the connection.

Best method seems to be:

The ID (the hash) of the server's public key is used as the "semi-secret key".

Use the semi-secret key together with Rik's hashed method or a symmetrically encrypted method. In these methods the server has to test hash or test decrypt for each semi-secret key it knows (usually just one) and then for each protocol it knows. Then turn on the first encryption.

We are now stealthy but not especially secure.

If the client only knows the ID of the server's public key the client now asks the server for the full public key and gets it. The client then hashes the public key and checks that the hash becomes the ID it already know.

The client now creates a random session key, encrypts it and sends it to the server by using the server's public key.

For added security and to get forward secrecy then also do a Diffie-Hellman key negotiation. (Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys.) Then combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the random session key to get a new stronger shared secret.

Then turn on the second stronger encryption.

Now we are stealthy, eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Note that the client here knows for sure what server it talks to but the server does not know who the client is.

Client and server asymmetric key
Client has an asymmetric key pair and for some methods also has a client certificate. Client knows the server's public key or the ID (hash) of the server's public key. Server knows the users public key or the ID (hash) of the users public key or is CA aware and thus can verify the users certificate.

Client expects the server to understand the stealthy negotiation protocol.

Best method seems to be:

The ID (the hash) of the server's public key is used as the "semi-secret key".

Use the semi-secret key together with Rik's hashed method or a symmetrically encrypted method. In these methods the server has to test hash or test decrypt for each semi-secret key it knows (usually just one) and then for each protocol it knows. Then turn on the first encryption.

We are now stealthy but not especially secure.

If the client only knows the ID of the server's public key the client now asks the server for the full public key and gets it. The client then hashes the public key and checks that the hash becomes the ID it already know.

The client now creates a random session key, encrypts it and sends it to the server by using the server's public key.

For added security and to get forward secrecy then also do a Diffie-Hellman key negotiation. (Note that this can also be done by using temporary RSA keys.) Then combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the random session key to get a new stronger shared secret.

Then turn on the second stronger encryption.

Now we are stealthy, eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Note that now the client knows for sure what server it talks to but the server does not know who the client is.

Now the client tells the server who it is by sending over the client's public key ID.

If the server knows the client it recognises the client's public key ID. However the server might only know the ID and not the actual public key of the client. Then the server simply asks the client for the full public key and gets it. The server then hashes the public key and checks that the hash becomes the ID it already know.

If the server does not know the client it does not recognise the client's public key ID. But if the server supports that clients use certificates it can now request a certificate from the client. If the server is not open for anyone the certificate should contain info that tells if the client is allowed to use this server.

The server now creates a second random session key, encrypts it and sends it to the client by using the client's public key.

Then combine the Diffie-Hellman negotiated shared secret with the random session key sent from the client to the server and the second session key sent from the server to the client, to get a new even stronger shared secret.

Then turn on the third even stronger encryption.

Now we are stealthy, eavesdropper secure, man-in-the-middle secure and forward secure.

Now both the client and the server know for sure who the other party is.


text:
User:Displague

Marques Johansson
Displague is the internet identity of Marques Johansson. His web site contains a number of personal blog type items and photographs.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Displague


text:
Talk:Back in My Arms Again

Untitled
Re: "Romeo", Mary Wilson in concert, often flashes a limp-wrist when singing this part of the song; perhaps somewhat insensitive considering the large gay-following of the Supremes over the years.

Fair use rationale for Image:Supremes Back in my arms again.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 11:12, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Back in My Arms Again


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/January 7

January 7

 * 2012 – A hot air balloon on a scenic flight disintegrates and crashes just north of Carterton, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board. It is the second-deadliest balloon accident in history, the deadliest aviation accident in mainland New Zealand since July 1963, and the deadliest accident involving a New Zealand aircraft since November 1979.

 * 2012 – In the Syrian Civil War, Colonel Afeef Mahmoud Suleima of the Syrian Army's aviation logistics division defects along with at least 50 of his men, ordering his men to protect protesters in the Syrian city of Hama from government forces.

 * 2009 – A French Army Eurocopter AS 532 Cougar Helicopter crashes into the Atlantic Ocean of the coast of Gabon. The helicopter on a routine exercise was flying from the amphibious assault ship the FS Foudre and the accident occurred shortly after take-off resulting in 2 injured and 8 fatalities from the 13e Régiment de Dragons Parachutistes and the Aviation Légère de l'Armée de Terre.

 * 2008 – Two F/A-18 fighter jets operation from USS Harry S. Truman crashed during an Iraq-related mission in the Gulf. All three pilots were rescued.

 * 2006 – UH-60L Black Hawk 91-26346 from B Company, 1–207th Aviation Regiment crashes near Tal Afar in bad weather, killing 12 people on board. Reports suggest it was not shot down.

 * 2004 – Boeing launches the 747 – 400 Special Freighter program with an agreement with Cathay Pacific Airways to convert at least six 747 – 400 passenger airplanes into freighters.

 * 2004 – Death of Oswald Garrison "Mike" Villard Jr., American engineer, pioneer in radio and radar, Father of the 'over-the-horizon radar'.

 * 1998 – Launch of The Lunar Prospector mission, part of the Discovery Program, designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon.

 * 1992 – Produte (Croazia) incident. 2 Yugoslavian Mig-21 (Pilots Danijel Borovic and Emir Šišic) shot down a Bell UH-1 Iroquois of the European Union Monitoring Mission. Killing Italian Enzo Venturini pilot, Marco Matta co-pilot, observers Fiorenzo Ramacci, Silvano Natale and French Lieutenant de vaisseau Jean-Loup Eychenne. For this, Emir Šišic served prison time.

 * 1987 – French Air Force jets attack the Libyan Air Force base in Ouadi Doum to avenge a raid by Libya against the French military 3 days before.

 * 1983 – Introduction: McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet

 * 1981 – A Boeing 747 of CAAC lands at JFK International Airport, marking the first time since 1949 that a flight from mainland China to the United States is performed.

 * 1980 – In San Francisco, a single-engined Mooney 231 sets a nonstop coast-to coast record in 8 hours 4 minutes using only 105 gallons of fuel.

 * 1973 – Cameron Balloons Ltd. of Bristol, England, flies for the first time the world’s only hot-air airship (G-BAMK) from Wantage, Berkshire.

 * 1972 – Iberia Airlines Flight 602, a Sud Aviation SE 210 Caravelle, crashes into a mountain while on approach to Ibiza Airport in Spain killing all 104 passengers and crew on board.

 * 1971 – An unarmed USAF Boeing B-52C-45-BO Stratofortress, 54-2666, of the 99th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Westover AFB, Massachusetts, crashed into Lake Michigan near Charlevoix, Michigan during a practice bomb run, exploding on impact. Only a small amount of wreckage, two life vests, and some spilled fuel was found in Little Traverse Bay. Bomber went down six nautical miles from the Bay Shore Air Force Radar Site. Nine crew KWF.

 * 1968 – Launch of Surveyor 7, seventh and last lunar lander of the American uncrewed Surveyor program sent to explore the surface of the Moon.

 * 1967 – Entered Service: SR-71 Blackbird with the US Air Force.

 * 1967 – U.S. Navy Lockheed P-2 Neptune on training mission with nine Naval Reservists on board, on out-and-back flight from the Naval Air Facility, Andrews AFB, Maryland, crashes in light rainstorm near Upper Marlboro, Maryland, killing all crew. Neptune disappeared from radar at 1107 hrs., impacting in wooded area, digging crater 10 feet deep, 30 feet wide, 100 feet long. Airframe completely disintegrates, said Lt. Cmdr. Don Maunder.

 * 1964 – Birth of Marco Matta, Italian Air Force Pilot.

 * 1963 – Aeroflot commences direct services between Moscow and Havana

 * 1960 – Launch: Polaris missile, US two-stage solid-fuel nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM).

 * 1954 – Death of Emil Uzelac, Croatian soldier and military commander who was a leading figure in the air forces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Independent State of Croatia.

 * 1952 – First flight of the Manzolini Libellula (Dragonfly), an Italian co-axial twin-rotor helicopter.

 * 1951 – Birth of Talgat Amangeldyuly Musabayev, Kazakh test pilot and cosmonaut

 * 1949 – A USAF Douglas C-54G-5-DO Skymaster, 45-0543, c/n 35996, of the 14th Troop Carrier Squadron, 61st Troop Carrier Group, en route to RAF Burtonwood from Rhein-Main Air Base for a 200-hour inspection, crashes at ~1645 hrs. in bad weather at Stake House Fell, Lancashire, England, killing all six on board. KWF are pilot 1st Lt. Richard M. Wurgel, co-pilot 1st Lt. Lowell A. Wheaton Jr., engineer Sgt. Bernard J. Watkins, radio operator Cpl. Norbert H. Theis, and passengers Capt. W. A. Rathgeber and Pvt. Ronald E. Stone. Investigation showed that a commercial radio signal N of Burtonwood interfered with aircraft's radio compass, giving a false reading.

 * 1949 – No. 208 Squadron RAF loses four Supermarine Spitfires and a Hawker Tempest to Israeli Air Force fighters

 * 1948 – The first flight of the RCAF’s Vampire III in Canada.

 * 1948 – Death of Captain Thomas Francis Mantell Jr., WWII pilot, in the crash of his P-51 Mustang while in pursuit of a supposed UFO.

 * 1947 – Death of Helen Richey, American pioneering female aviator and first woman to be hired as a pilot by a commercial airline in the USA.

 * 1946 – Birth of Giovanni Carta (John Carta), Italo-American aviator and Extreme Skydiver.

 * 1945 – Death of Thomas Buchanan McGuire Jr., second highest scoring American ace during WWII, Killed in the crash of his P-38 which stalled while chasing a Ki-43 Hayabusa 'Oscar'.

 * 1945 – In clearer weather, Task Force 38 aircraft employ the “Big Blue Blanket” tactic over Luzon, flying 757 sorties, shooting down all four Japanese aircraft that they meet in the air and claiming another 75 destroyed on the ground. Task Force 38 loses 10 planes in combat and 18 due to non-combat causes. Eleven U. S. escort aircraft carriers in Lingayen Gulf contribute another 143 sorties, and U. S. Army Air Forces planes also participate. In Lingayen Gulf, kamikazes sink a destroyer and a destroyer-minesweeper.

 * 1942 – First flight of the Supermarine Seafire

 * 1941 – Adolf Hitler orders Luftwaffe Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft to begin supporting German U-boat operations in the Atlantic Ocean.

 * 1941 – Birth of Frederick Drew Gregory, USAF test pilot and NASA astronaut

 * 1941 – Saro Lerwick flying boat, L7262, of No. 209 Squadron RAF is lost when pilot Flt. Lt. Spotswood is unable to take off near Stranraer, Scotland. After a long take off run, the hull strikes a floating obstacle and rapidly takes on water, sinks. Two crew are trapped and drown.

 * 1935 – First flight of the Avro 652

 * 1935 – First flight of the Tachikawa Ki-9

 * 1935 – Birth of Valeri Nikolayevich Kubasov, Soviet cosmonaut.

 * 1934 – First flight of the Curtiss XF13C (Model 70), a U.S. prototype carrier-based HighWing monoplane fighter aircraft with a manually retractable landing gear and an enclosed cockpit. The aircraft was designed to facilitate conversions from biplane to monoplane and vice versa.

 * 1933 – Death of Herbert John Louis Hinkler AFC DSM, better known as Bert Hinkler, pioneer Australian aviator (dubbed "Australian Lone Eagle"), Inventor, WWI pilot and aircraft designer. His plane crashed in the Tuscan Mountains in Italy in an attempt to break the flying record from England to Australia.

 * 1931 – Guy Menzies flies the first solo non-stop trans-Tasman flight (from Australia to New Zealand) in 11 hours and 45 minutes, crash-landing on New Zealand's west coast.

 * 1929 – Carl Spaatz, Ira Eaker, and Elwood Quesada sets an endurance record of 151 hours aloft in the Question Mark, a modified Atlantic-Fokker C-2A airplane. While in the air, it Refueled 37 times and resupplied six others, with 12 of the 43 replenishments taking place at night.

 * 1927 – Imperial Airways commences a regular service from Basra to Cairo via Baghdad, the first of its Empire "trunk routes"

 * 1925 – Death of Emil Schäpe, German WWI flying ace.

 * 1920 – The Boeing BB-1 seaplane, another new commercial aircraft, makes its first flight. It is bought by a Canadian and becomes the company’s second international sale. 1919 – Death of Lorenzo Gaslini, Goal keeper and WWI Italian Pilot.

 * 1917 – Thomas Mottershead VC, DCM, British WWI pilot, is severely injured during a dogfight with two Albatros D.III, He managed to take his burning FE-2d back to the Allied lines and made a successful forced landing saving his observer's life.

 * 1917 – Death of Paul Joannes Sauvage, French WWI youngest flying ace, killed by anti-aircraft fire.

 * 1911 – Lieutenant Myron Sydney Crissy of the United States Army, drops the first live bomb from an aeroplane when he conducts a test drop on a target in San Francisco from a Wright biplane piloted by Philip O. Parmelee.

 * 1910 – Frenchman Hubert Latham is the first pilot to climb to 1000 metres.

 * 1906 – Birth of Evelyn "Bobbi" Trout, American early aviator, first Woman to set the first non-refueling endurance record for women.

 * 1898 – Birth of Wallace Alexander Smart, Welsh WWI flying ace.

 * 1896 – Birth of Geoffrey Hornblower Cock, British WWI fighter ace, highest scoring ace to fly the Sopwith 1½ Strutter.

 * 1895 – Birth of Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh KBE, DFC, Australian aviator and businessman, founder of the Australian airline company Qantas.

 * 1891 – Birth of Fernand Eugene Guyou, French WWI flying ace, Airliner pilot and WWII Pilot.

 * 1785 – The English Channel is crossed for the first time by air as Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries fly their hydrogen balloon from Dover, England to a forest near Calais, France.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/January 7


text: User talk:209.202.9.5

title: User talk:209.202.9.5


text:
Category:Mountains of Nigeria

The mountains of Nigeria.

title: Category:Mountains of Nigeria


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 10

March 10
 * 2019 – Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, a Boeing 737 MAX 8 crashed shortly after take-off from Addis Ababa, with the deaths of all 157 people on board.

 * 2010 – A United States Marine Corps McDonnell-Douglas F/A-18D Hornet, BuNo 164694, 'WK-01', from VMFA(AW)-224 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, app. 35 miles (56 km) east of St. Helena Sound, South Carolina, after a double engine failure and a fire. Both pilots ejected and were floating in an inflatable life raft for about one hour before they were rescued by a USCG helicopter.

 * 2010 – A Brazilian Army Eurocopter Fennec helicopter crashed During a night training flight during Operation Caburé. All four crew members died.

 * 2003 – The T-45 Goshawk advanced jet trainer surpasses 100,000 flights hours.

 * 1989 – Air Ontario Flight 1363, a Fokker F28, crashes immediately after takeoff from Dryden, Ontario, Canada because of ice on the wings, killing 24 of 69 people on board.

 * 1987 – Pan Am Flight 125, a Boeing 747, loses cabin pressure after leaving London Heathrow Airport; the aircraft returns safely to London; failure of the forward cargo door locks is blamed.

 * 1986 – The U. S. Navy selects the F/A-18 Hornet as the official airplane of the Blue Angels.

 * 1982 – 101 a Chilean Air Force T-35 was written off, pilot killed.

 * 1979 – The US Air Force sends E-3 Sentry aircraft to monitor the civil war in Yemen

 * 1978 – First flight of the Dassault Mirage 2000

 * 1977 – The first woman navigator candidates report to Mather AFB, Calif., to begin undergraduate navigator training.

 * 1977 – Astronomers James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Douglas J. Mink discover rings around Uranus.

 * 1974 – “Turbo” Tarling flew his 5,000th T-33 h.

 * 1967 – West Coast Airlines Flight 720, a Fokker F27 Friendship, crashes on Stukel Mountain just after takeoff in a mix of snow and rain from Klamath Falls Airport in Klamath Falls, Oregon, due to icing of its wings and control surfaces, killing all four people on board.

 * 1967 – American aircraft attack the steel and iron works at Thái Nguyên, North Vietnam, for the first time.

 * 1967 – Capt. Mac C. Brestel, an F-105 pilot with the 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron at Takhli Royal Thai AFB, Thailand, became the first U. S. Air Force pilot to down two MiGs in one mission in the Vietnam War.

 * 1966 – Maj. Bernard Fisher from the first Commando Squadron landed an A-1E on A Shau runway, Vietnam, under fire from North Vietnamese troops to rescue a downed pilot, Maj. Dafford W. Myers from the 602nd Fighter Squadron. President Lyndon B. Johnson presented Major Fisher the Medal of Honor for heroism on Jan. 19, 1967 and he became the first Air Force man to be so honored for action in the Southeast Asian conflict.

 * 1961 – Douglas RB-66C Destroyer, 54-0471, of the 9th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, suffers explosion in starboard engine on climb-out from Shaw AFB, South Carolina, attempts emergency landing in zero-zero visibility weather at Donaldson AFB at Greenville, South Carolina. On second attempt, aircraft strikes embankment to right of runway threshold, slides onto airfield, burns. Crew escapes with only minor injuries.

 * 1960 – The last flight by a United States Air Force-operated North American B-25 Mitchell takes place, when TB-25 J-25-NC, 44-30854, the last Mitchell in the U. S. Air Force inventory, lands at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, for preservation.

 * 1956 – Lt Cdr Peter Twiss sets a new airspeed record in the Fairey Delta FD.2, also becoming the first person to exceed 1,000 mph. His top speed is 1,132 mph (1,821 km/h).

 * 1956 – One of four United States Air Force Boeing B-47E Stratojet bombers of the 369th Bomb Squadron, 306th Bomb Wing (M), out of MacDill AFB, Florida, en route non-stop to Ben Guerir AFB, B-47E-95-BW, 52-534, Inkspot 59, misses tanker meet over the Mediterranean. Extensive search never turns up plane, crew, or two 210DE nuclear capsules.

 * 1955 – Pakistan International Airlines is formed.

 * 1953 – Czechoslovakian Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s shoot down a USAF F-86 Sabre in Czech airspace.

 * 1949 – A Queensland Airlines Lockheed Lodestar crashes on takeoff from Coolangatta airstrip, killing all 21 on board.

 * 1948 – NACA test pilot Herbert Henry Hoover becomes the first civilian to exceed the speed of sound when he flies the No. 2 Bell XS-1 to a speed of 703 mph (Mach 1.065).

 * 1948 – Entered Service: North American FJ-1 Fury – The United States Navy’s first operational jet aircraft – with Fighter Squadron 1 (VF-1) aboard USS Boxer (CV-21)

 * 1948 – VF-5 becomes the first US Navy carrier squadron to be equipped with jets.

 * 1946 – The 1946 Australian National Airways DC-3 crash near Hobart, Tasmania kills all 25 on board.

 * 1945 – A total of 279 US Army Air Forces B-29 Superfortress bombers drop 1,700 tons of incendiary bombs on Tokyo, killing over 100,000 people and leaving over 1 million homeless.

 * 1944 – Icelandic Airlines Loftleiðir is formed.

 * 1944 – Sunderland aircraft of 442 Squadron attacked U-boat 625 forcing crew to abandon ship.

 * 1943 – The U. S. Army Air Forces activate the Fourteenth Air Force in China.

 * 1943 – The first combat mission of the U. S. Army Air Forces Republic P-47 Thunderbolt takes place, a fighter sweep by England-based 4th Fighter Group P-47 s over France. They encounter no enemy aircraft.

 * 1942 – The U. S. Navy aircraft carriers USS Lexington (CV-2) and USS Yorktown (CV-5) launch a 104-aircraft raid from south of New Guinea and over the Owen Stanley Mountains via a 7,500-foot (2,286-meter) pass to strike Japanese shipping off Lae and Salamaua, New Guinea.

 * 1941 – (Overnight) – The Handley Page Halifax becomes the second British four-engined bomber to enter combat, as six Halifaxes of No. 35 Squadron join eight Bristol Blenheims in attacking Le Havre, France.

 * 1937 – First flight of the Hawker Henley

 * 1936 – First flight of the Fairey Battle prototype K4303

 * 1931 – Lockheed Y1C-17, 31-408, Vega Model DL1B Special, c/n 159, assigned at Bolling Field, Washington, D.C., cracks up during forced landing at Tolu, Kentucky during attempted transcontinental record flight by Capt. Ira C. Eaker, pilot unhurt. Specially rigged gas lines had leaked air which shut off fuel flow to engine. Wreckage taken to Wright Field, Ohio, scrapped 22 April 1931. Was the fastest USAAC aircraft of its time at 221 mph. Total airframe flight time 33 hours.

 * 1925 – One of the most outstanding flying boats of its day and a stunning demonstration of the skills of aircraft designer R. J. Michell, the Supermarine Southampton, makes its first flight with Henri Biard at the controls. It remains in service for 12 years, longer than any other flying boat before Sunderland.

 * 1919 – Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes announces a £10,000 reward to the first aviator who will fly from the United Kingdom to Australia in less than 30 days.

 * 1918 – Sole prototype Nieuport B.N.1, C3484, operating out of Sutton's Farm, a home aerodrome, Great Britain, catches fire in the air and is destroyed. No further development undertaken.

 * 1918 – Günther Rall, German ace fighter pilot, was born. Rall is the third most successful fighter ace in history, and the most successful ace still living. He achieved a total of 275 victories: 272 on the Eastern Front, of which 241 were against Soviet fighters. He flew a total of 621 combat missions, was shot down 8 times and was wounded 3 times. He scored his victories in the Messerschmitt Bf 109 ‘Black 13′.

 * 1910 – Emil Aubrun makes the first night flights, in a Blériot Type IX at Villalugano, Argentina.

 * 1905 – The French lawyer and aspiring aeronaut Ernest Archdeacon sends a letter to the Wright brothers in Dayton, Ohio challenging them to prove the validity of their claims. This marks the beginning of a bitter contest between the Wrights and European aeronauts.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 10


text: User talk:82.104.211.188

title: User talk:82.104.211.188


text:
Talk:Forge

Proposed reworking
I would propose this article and that on blacksmith be reworked.

"Forge" is a noun describing first a device/mechanism for heating metal specifically so it can be shaped by deformation of one kind or another. From the device comes the name "forge" for a smithy or blacksmith shop or a factory (where the word would be synonymous with "ironworks"). "Forging" being a verb is about the processes of shaping metal as well as creating counterfiet documents. "Forging" does not necessarily involve a "forge". I believe between the two articles, blacksmithing and forge, which cover about the same topics there could arise some confusion.

I would propose the following reorganization for clarity:

 * 1) The article on "forge" be rewritten to make it more exclusive to the noun meaning device/mechanism for heating. It should contain links to "forging" and "blacksmithing".
 * 2) "Forging" should be established as an article to deal briefly with the aspects of the verb forge/forging (with a recommended link to "forgery" and creating a "forgery" article if it does not exist). This article should have at least three sections:
 * 3) * a section defining the verb and giving an overview
 * 4) * a section devoted to industrial forging
 * 5) * a brief section on forging as a "hand craft" with a link to "blacksmithing"
 * 6) * a brief section on "forge" and "forging" as related to "forgery" with a link to that article.
 * 7) "blacksmithing" should be an article on it's own and that article should cover the aspects of "forging" which are more hand craft (I hesitate for some reason to use the term "handicraft") as opposed to topics like drop forging and machining which are more industrial processes.

I believe the foregoing reorganization would fairly logically move elements of each of the articles into groupings that would present the topics involved more intelligibly.

I suspect that the article "blacksmith" should be separated and linked into this reorganization as well.

Comments and replies and discussion are always welcome. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Erraunt (talk • contribs) 16:25, 25 August 2005

 * I've seen no replies or further comments since my previous posting in August. Therefore unless I hear objections I will commence to move elements under "Forging" in this article to that topic, and link to "forge" rather than redirect.
 * I also intend to adjust the opening paragraphs of this article to clarify the several uses of the term "forge". Erraunt 19:53, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The article also confuses forges with forging hammers and presses. A forge is a metal heating furnace or the shop where the work ocurs. Hammers and presses are forging hammers and forging presses, eg. Drop-forging is done with a drop-hammer. Heat sources and forming tools should be seperate categories under equipment in the article. Fciron 15:13, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

Anon edit
anon (65.60.182.89) edited the Forge section by adding the following (red) statement:

"Forging results in metal that is stronger than cast or machined metal parts. This is because during forging the metals grain flow changes such that is stronger and more ductile. (note that there is no evidence to support this and it is a common myth)"

while ductility may be in question, I'd have thought the strength benefits of forging were undisputed, certainly when compared to older casting methods. However thought ain't fact so, can anyone with more expertise in the field or access to good references reword and, preferably, reference this paragraph? — Graibeard 23:43, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

When using wrought iron (metallurgically speaking) there is a grain in the metal and forging complex shapes is superior to machining. However wrought iron is rarely used today and is primarily an art material. I can speak to the use of different metals in blacksmithing and will look through the material and my references.Fciron 15:04, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

(re: the myth about forged articles) Cast metal necessarily contains a certain degree of porosity. These small holes (formed by gas inclusions) act as focal points for the development of cracks. When any cast metal article is wrought (ie; worked under a hammer at welding (white) heat) these porosity holes are closed up. ¶ In lieu of retaining the services of blacksmiths in modern steel mills, the bars being produced are subjected to "rolling mills" to effect the same purpose. Most modern steel is worked into the stock which is sold to consumers, as either HRS (Hot Rolled Steel) or CRS (Cold Rolled Steel). HRS is rolled at a glowing heat to effect the compression and welding-shut of the porosity. On purchase, HRS will be seen to have a noticeable firescale still attached to the surface. CRS is subjected to the same rolling, but in a cool state which leaves a better surface. On purchase, CRS has a smooth gray surface. Additionally, both hammering bars, and rolling billets leads to an elongation of the crystal-units (grain) which form the bulk of any metal. This produces a difference in the tensile strength of the bar whether you are measuring with or across the grain. In (metallurgical) wrought-iron, the ratio of these strengths is as 20:17. ¶ If that is not enough to convince one that forged metal parts are stronger than cast, then one might ask why industry invests in equipment to "drop-forge" metal parts. Here, a metal blank is placed on a bottom die, and a top die attached to a very large weight which is then dropped. The metal blank is squashed between the 2 dies, deforming to fill the cavity of the dies. Upon removing the article from the dies, the 'flash' is removed from the parting line (deburred), and the article is ready. It is just as easy to cast the parts for a wrench, but the drop-forged wrench will advertise how it was created by actually saying "drop-forged" on it. It is a valid selling point, and a much stronger tool. ¶ Further, cold machining does not renormalize the crystalline structure of the finished article. Something as simple as a drill-hole becomes a weakened stress point - subject to breaking there at some point in the future. In contrast, in hot forging the metal is repeatedly heated and cooled, and somewhere along the way annealed, so that the stresses worked into the metal by shaping are relieved. It's not a myth, you really can end up with a better,stronger article by forging. What you can't get is a more precisely dimensioned or cheaper article. Forged articles MAY be worked further into precise dimensions by careful filing and scraping, but this additional work only worsens the price disparity. In the future, we will demand less for less; and strangely enough, we will get just that. 68.37.59.70 03:33, 28 July 2007 (UTC)

Blacksmiths not here anymore
blacksmiths are not here today because we now have factories that makes the metal. In medieval times, people would have blacksmiths make their weapons for them, and in return, they would get charcoal from the lord. The stronger the metal was, the better the blacksmith was. Usually more people would come to the blacksmith whose metal is strong enought to go through a person without losing it's head.

Factories do the same think blacksmiths do, only they are more complex, and dont break down as easily. Blacksmiths could get tired and decide to quite, while factory machines dont ever quit, they keep on going. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.172.55.152 (talk • contribs) 01:35, 7 June 2006

Blacksmiths in mediaeval times did not by-and-large make weapons. I have no problem with weapons but I wish people would stop getting confused between blacksmiths and bladesmiths (and farriers come to that). They produced domestic items; fire dogs, fire tools, cooking items, belt knives, fire-strikers etc. etc. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.99.255.242 (talk) 20:55, 28 April 2008 (UTC)

FYI blacksmiths ARE here today. There are a large number of people who supplement income by blacksmithing and many who are employed full time. Here is a link to an organization I, as well as thousands of other modern day blacksmiths, am a member of www.abana.org/ —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.17.115.253 (talk) 15:36, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Good article candidacy?
This is a really nice little article. With the addition of some good refs I think it's worthy of being nominated as a WP:GA. Chris Cunningham 11:12, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * No it isn't especially when it redirects from something that isn't even mentioned in the article.

 * The grammar and punctuation are also appalling, especially in the first section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.161.206.111 (talk) 09:49, 12 August 2017 (UTC)

Forge/smithy
It should be made clear that: A "smithy" is a building, in which a "smith" practices his/her craft. A "forge" is a tool used to contain and control the fire used in this craft. A forge is housed in, and a necessary adjunct to, a smithy. The art of 'working metal at/in the forge' was shortened to the verb "forging". 68.37.59.70 02:33, 28 July 2007 (UTC) 27jul2007
 * Semantically this may possibly be correct, but the position is not quite so simple. Smithy is also the vernacular for a bloomery.  Forge can also refer to the whole building of a plating forge or finery forge.  Peterkingiron (talk) 15:08, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

I suggest adding a "List of Forging Companies"
I believe it may be useful to add a list of forging companies sorted by geogpraphical location. I think this could become long, so it should be on a seperate page. Celiksanayi 14:12, 1 November 2007 (UTC)
 * This might be a better idea to add to the Forging article Wizard191 (talk) 21:14, 23 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I am far from sure that this is a good idea, as it would attract linkspam from every working blacksmith. Peterkingiron (talk) 15:08, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

FORGE WORK
Bold text —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.220.15.146 (talk) 14:44, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

Firebox
This article seems like it could use at least a summary explanation of different designs of fireboxes, or at least an explanation of the firebox, as well as an explanation of clinker and clinker breakers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.17.115.253 (talk) 15:40, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Drop Forging
I corrected a mistake in the description of drop forging. The article incorrectly said the name comes from the dropping of the workpiece into the forge. It does not. The name comes from freely dropping the hammer onto the workpiece. The hammer is carefully aligned with the anvil, and constrained by the machine to fall onto the workpiece. But once released there is nothing but gravity moving the hammer. The alternative is called Press Forging. In this process the forging machine forces the two halves of the die together using hydraulic rams or some other power source. Nick Beeson (talk) 18:42, 10 August 2011 (UTC)

Assessment
I have in the past probably contributed to this article. I came here, wondering whether to revert some recent edits, which I have decided not to do. As it currently stands, it is almost wholly devoted to blacksmith's shops, and their larger scale equivalents. However blacksmiths shops are not the only thing that are called forges. Other kinds of forges are involved in making iron. Perhaps confusingly the vernacular term for a water powered bloomery forge is also a "smithy". We also have finery forges, covered in this article by a title and main link. However the term is also applied in processes used in the subsequent period for rolling (in the "forge train") iron from the puddling furnace and later (mild steel) processes into long products. How do we resolve this issue? Peterkingiron (talk) 11:03, 19 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Forge


text:
John Gilbert Winant

John Gilbert Winant OM (February 23, 1889 – November 3, 1947) was an American diplomat and politician with the Republican party after a brief career as a teacher in Concord, New Hampshire. John Winant held positions in New Hampshire, national, and international politics. He was the 60th governor of New Hampshire from 1925 to 1927 and 1931 to 1935. Winant also served as U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom during most of World War II. Depressed by career disappointments, a failed marriage and heavy debt, he killed himself in 1947.

Early life
Winant was born on the East Side, New York City, the son of Frederick and Jeanette Winant. His father was a partner in a prosperous real estate company. Winant attended St. Paul's School in Concord and progressed to Princeton University, but he was a poor student, and left without graduating. He was appointed an instructor in history at St. Paul's in 1913, remaining there until 1917. He was elected to the New Hampshire House of Representatives in 1916. In 1917, he joined the United States Army Air Service, trained as a pilot, and commanded the 8th Aero Squadron (Observation) in France, with the rank of captain.

Public offices
Winant returned to his position at St. Paul's in 1919 after his military service, and was elected to the New Hampshire Senate in 1920. He lost money in oil stocks in 1929, which he had profited from through the 1920s.

Governor of New Hampshire
He twice served as Governor of New Hampshire: from 1925 to 1927, and from 1931 to 1935. He served his later term during the Great Depression and responded in several ways. He oversaw an emergency credit act which allowed the state to guarantee debts of municipalities so that local governments could continue. He pushed through a minimum wage act for women and children. During the Depression, Winant fought to keep improving the state's highways while reorganizing the state banking commission and pursuing more accurate accounting of state agencies' funds. Working closely with the federal government, Winant was the first governor whose state filled its enrollment quota in the Civilian Conservation Corps.

Social Security Board
Subsequently, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Winant as first head of the Social Security Board in 1935, a position he held until 1937. At the time, it was rumored that Roosevelt appointed Winant to prevent him from running for President in 1936, but Winant never admitted to Presidential aspirations.

International Labour Organization
The next year, he was elected to head the International Labour Organization in Geneva, Switzerland, from January 1939. As Director-General, he was preceded by Harold Butler and succeeded by Edward J. Phelan.

Ambassador to the United Kingdom
In 1941, Roosevelt appointed Winant ambassador to the Court of St. James's, and Winant remained in that post until he resigned in March 1946. Winant dramatically changed the U.S. stance towards Britain compared to his predecessor, Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Upon landing at Bristol airport in March 1941, Winant announced "I'm very glad to be here. There is no place I'd rather be at this time than in England." The remark heartened a country that had come through the Battle of Britain and was in the midst of The Blitz, and it was featured dramatically on the front pages of most British newspapers the next day.

The new ambassador quickly developed close contacts with King George VI and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, even though the U.S. was only providing military aid and the Axis was not yet at war with the U.S. Winant had an affair with Churchill's second daughter Sarah Churchill during that time.

Winant was with Churchill when Churchill learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Return to the US
President Harry S. Truman appointed Winant as the US representative to UNESCO in 1946. But Winant soon retired to Concord shortly after to write his memoirs. However, he found himself unable to adjust to a quieter pace of life. "Everywhere Winant turned he saw the drama in which he had participated so significantly drawing to a close." Estranged from his socially ambitious wife and deeply in debt, he became profoundly depressed.

Personal life
Winant married Constance Rivington Russell (1899–1983) in 1919. They had a daughter, Constance Russell Winant (1921–1978), and two sons, John Gilbert Winant Jr. (1922–1993) and Rivington Russell Winant (1925–2011). The younger Constance married Carlos Valando, a Peruvian scientist, in 1941. John Winant Jr. served as a bomber pilot in World War II and was taken prisoner by the Germans. Sent to Colditz, he was removed in April 1945 as one of the Prominente to be used as a bargaining chip by Himmler and the SS as the end of the war approached; he was eventually released. Rivington Winant also served in World War II and later became treasurer at the United Nations.

Suicide
Winant shot himself in the head at his Concord home on November 3, 1947, the day his book Letter from Grosvenor Square was published. The book Citizens of London reports that after Roosevelt's death, with Winant distanced from his Republican Party base, "[h]e hoped that he was going to become secretary-general of the new UN... On top of that [disappointed hope], his affair with Sarah Churchill ended badly. 'He was an exhausted, sick man after the war'," author Olson continued in the interview on NPR.

Winston Churchill sent four dozen yellow roses to Winant's funeral, and the British king and queen sent their condolences by telegram.

Winant was buried at Blossom Hill Cemetery in Concord; his wish to be buried in St. Paul's School's consecrated cemetery was refused by the Episcopalian rector on the grounds that suicide was a sin. However, in the more secular culture of 1968, his casket was reinterred at St Paul's. His epitaph was his 1946 quote:

"Doing the day's work day by day, doing a little, adding a little, broadening our bases wanting not only for ourselves but for others also, a fairer chance for all people everywhere. Forever moving forward, always remembering that it is the things of the spirit that in the end prevail. That caring counts and that where there is no vision the people perish. That hope and faith count and that without charity, there can be nothing good. That having dared to live dangerously, and in believing in the inherent goodness of man, we can stride forward into the unknown with growing confidence."

Honors
In 1947, Winant was only the second (and last) American citizen, after General Dwight Eisenhower, to be made an honorary member of the British Order of Merit. In 1943, he was awarded the Freedom of the City of Aberdeen.

Legacy
In what amounted to a eulogy, The New York Times wrote of Winant two days after his death:

"Here was a man who truly loved mankind and tried all his life to make the lot of his fellow-men better and happier... Governor Winant was a liberal Republican. When President Roosevelt summoned him to a larger field as head of the Social Security Board, his political opponents called him 'a Republican New Dealer.'"

In 1948, the Winant Clayton Volunteers formed in honor of Winant and the Reverend Philip "Tubby" Clayton, organizer of the Toc H Christian charity in the First World War. Initially, American volunteers came to London to help British families rebuild churches and community centers damaged during World War II. In 1959 the exchange was reciprocated with Winant volunteers traveling from America to England while the Claytons go from England to work in the United States.

In 1982, The Carsey Institute at the University of New Hampshire established The John G. Winant Fellowship for students interested in working in non-profit or governmental organizations.

In 2009, Rivington Winant, with his wife Joan, donated 85 acres of land in Concord for the creation of Winant Park in honor of his late father and mother. The property sits on what was formerly the Winants' estate and offers the public biking, hiking and cross-country ski trails. Rivington Winant said his goal was to create "something that would be useful to the people of Concord, and something my father would like."

Two positions have been endowed in Winant's honor at the University of Oxford: the John G. Winant Lectureship in U.S. Foreign Policy and the John Gilbert Winant Visiting Professorship of American Government, which is held at Oxford's Rothermere American Institute.

On June 30, 2017, a statue of Winant was unveiled outside the New Hampshire State Library in Concord. The campaign to build the statue with private funds was led by Van McLeod, longtime Commissioner of New Hampshire's Department of Cultural Resources, and the former Speaker of the New Hampshire House, Steve Shurtleff.

General bibliography

 * Bellush, Bernard. He Walked Alone: A Biography of John Gilbert Winant. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
 * Winant, John Gilbert. A Letter from Grosvenor Square: An Account of a Stewardship. Hodder & Stoughton, 1947.

title: John Gilbert Winant


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 13

March 13

 * 2012 – A Turkish Air Force Northrop NF-5A-2000 crashed on take off from Konya Air Base, Turkey, killing the pilot. The Turkish Stars aircraft was on a training flight.

 * 2009 – Mexican airline MexicanaLink commences operations.

 * 2006 – Television personality Peter Tomarken and his second wife Kathleen are killed when Tomarken's Beechcraft Bonanza A36, N16JR, crashes a few hundred feet off shore in Santa Monica Bay after attempting climb-out from the Santa Monica Airport in California.

 * 1997 – An Iranian Air Force Lockheed C-130 crashes in Mashhad, Iran after reporting an engine failure.

 * 1992 – Two B-52 bombers fly to Ryanzan Air Base near Moscow in exchange for a visit to the United States by three TU-95 Bear bombers and a TU Blackjack bomber from the Commonwealth of Independent States.

 * 1989 – Launch: Space Shuttle Discovery STS-29 at 14:57:00 UTC. Mission highlights: ISS supply, crew rotation.

 * 1987 – Japanese Air Self Defense Force Mitsubishi F-15J, 42-8840, of the 204 Hiko-tai, crashes into the sea 100 miles E of Hyakuri Air Base, Japan, following suspected spatial disorientation. Pilot KWF.

 * 1982 – Boeing Boeing KC-135A-BN Stratotanker, 57-1489, assigned to the 197th Air Refueling Squadron, 161st Air Refueling Group, Arizona Air National Guard, crashed south of Luke AFB, Arizona. The KC-135 was on an instrument approach to Luke when a Grumman AA-1 Yankee, N6160L, collided with it aft of the wings, causing the tail section to separate from the rest of the aircraft, leading to loss of control and crash. All four crew members in the KC-135 and the two civilians in the Yankee were killed.

 * 1977 – First flight of the Sikorsky S-76 helicopter.

 * 1974 – Sierra Pacific Airlines Flight 806 strays off course and collides with terrain in Bishop, California. All 36 aboard perish on the Convair CV-440 (N4819 C).

 * 1969 – Apollo 9 ends after a 10-day test of the Lunar Module in Earth’s lower orbit.

 * 1967 – South African Airways Flight 406, a Vickers Viscount 818, crashes into the sea while on approach to East London, South Africa, killing all 25 passengers and crew on board. The pilot of the plane suffered a fatal heart attack while on approach and the co-pilot was unable to regain control of the aircraft.

 * 1964 – Beginning of RCAF support of UN Peacekeeping operations on Cyprus.

 * 1961 – McDonnell delivers the last of 807 F-101 Voodoos to the Air Force.

 * 1958 – A Boeing B-47B-30-BW Stratojet, 51-2104, of the 379th Bombardment Wing, from Homestead AFB, Florida, crashes shortly after take-off, breaking into four parts while making a shallow turn at 1,500 feet (460 m), coming down 10 nm SW of Homestead. Four crew killed: Maj. Leon F. Hatcher Jr., aircraft commander; Maj. Frank H. Whyte Jr., instructor pilot; 1st Lt. Paul J. Pennington, Co-Pilot; Capt. George Reid, Navigator. On the same date, a TB-47B-10-BW Stratojet, 50‑0013, c/n 450028, of the 3520th Combat Crew Training Wing, out of McConnell AFB breaks up in flight over Tulsa, Oklahoma. Student pilot, instructor eject, parachute to safety, but crewman occupying the navigator's position does not eject and is killed. Both accidents are due to unexpected fatigue issues in the B-47 fleet.

 * 1954 – A BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corporation) Lockheed L-749 A (G-ALAM) crashes in Kallang Singapore, killing 33 of the 40 on board. Pilot fatigue is blamed for the aircraft falling short of the runway and striking a concrete wall.

 * 1952 – Entered Service: Airspeed Ambassador with British European Airways

 * 1951 – The Australian airline Qantas begins a survey flight from Rose Bay, Sydney to Valparaiso, Chile with a Catalina (VH – ASA).

 * 1951 – 1st Lt. Henry A. Crescibene suffers forced landing due to mechanical failure 3 miles W of Aldenhoven, Germany, in Republic F-84E-15-RE Thunderjet, 49-2379, of the 307th Fighter-Escort Squadron, 31st Fighter-Escort Group, based at RAF Manston. Aircraft damaged, pilot survives.

 * 1945 – U. S. interest in flight is so popular that courses in aviation are being taught at this point in 14,000 of America’s 25,686 high schools.

 * 1940 – The Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland ends in the defeat of Finland. During the 3½-month war, the Finnish Air Force has grown from 96 to 287 aircraft, and has lost 62 aircraft in air-to-air combat and 59 more damaged beyond repair, while the Soviet Union has lost between 700 and 900 – 725 confirmed destroyed and about 200 unconfirmed – of the 2,500 to 3,000 aircraft it has committed to the campaign, and another 300 damaged. The Soviet Air Force has dropped 150,000 bombs – About 7,500 tons (6,803,955 kg) of bombs – on Finnish territory, but has performed poorly; its operations in early December 1939 had failed to disrupt Finnish mobilization and, despite unusually clear weather in January and February, it failed to disrupt the lone railroad connecting Finland with the outside world for more than a few hours at a time or to disrupt Finnish merchant shipping, despite 60 air raids on Finnish ports.

 * 1928 – The first Canadian woman to become a licensed pilot was Eileen Volick, passing her private pilot’s License (Certificate No. 77) in Hamilton, Ontario. Other Canadian women soon followed, obtaining private, commercial, multi-engine, instrument, and instructor ratings before the Second World War.

 * 1927 – First of two Naval Aircraft Factory PN-8 flying boats, BuNo A-6799, delivered 8 May 1925, intended for a flight by the Navy from San Francisco to Hawaii, is wrecked while being transported fully assembled on the deck of the USS West Virginia (BB-48). Hit by heavy seas, the plane is lifted against its tie-down cables, which cut through the hull, airframe written off with 32:48 flying hours.

 * 1922 – Portuguese pilots Cpt Gago Coutinho and Cpt Sacadura Cabral leave Lisbon to attempt the first crossing of the South Atlantic by air. They arrive in Brazil on June 16, in the third Fairey III they use for the trip.

 * 1917 – The United States Army’s 6th Aero Squadron is organized in the Territory of Hawaii, operating three N-9 seaplanes.

 * 1914 – Edward O’Hare, American pilot, is born (d. 1943). O’Hare was a naval aviator of the United States Navy who on 20 February 1942 became the U. S. Navy’s first flying ace and Medal of Honor recipient in World War II. On 19 September 1949, the Chicago, Illinois airport was renamed O’Hare International Airport in honor of Edward O’Hare.

 * 1910 – Paul Engelhard makes the first flight in Switzerland, flying a Wright biplane from a frozen lake at St Moritz.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 13


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 14

March 14

 * 2008 – An Lockheed Martin F-16C Block 25D Fighting Falcon, 84-1273, flown by pilot 2nd Lt. David J. Mitchell, 26, of Amherst, Ohio, crashes during training mission in a remote area three miles (5 km) S of Alamo Lake, Arizona. His body is located in a ravine near the aircraft wreckage. Mitchell, of the Ohio Air National Guard's 180th Fighter Wing at Toledo Express Airport, Swanton, Ohio, was assigned to the 62d Fighter Squadron at Luke AFB, Arizona since November 2007 as a student pilot. He had 237 total flying hours, ~26 in the F-16.

 * 2006 – Helios Airways was renamed to ajet.

 * 1995 – An Aeroflot Antonov An-12 crashes near Baku after running out of fuel. Crew negligence is blamed, and it is suggested that the flight crew were drunk.

 * 1984 – Marc Garneau named the first Canadian astronaut.

 * 1980 – LOT Flight 7, an Ilyushin Il-62, crashes near Warsaw, Poland after the No. 2 engine disintegrates and severs the elevator and rudder control lines; all 87 on board are killed.

 * 1979 – A British-built Trident aircraft crashed into a factory in Beijing, China killing an estimated 200 people, including a dozen crew and passengers and scores of victims in the factory.

 * 1972 – Sterling Airways Flight 296, a Sud Caravelle, crashes near Kalba, United Arab Emirates due to pilot error; all 112 on board die in the worst air disaster in the history of the United Arab Emirates.

 * 1972 – Two USAF McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs have mid-air collision over the town of El Buste, Spain, about 30 miles from the joint US-Spanish base at Zaragoza. All four crewmen are KWF. Debris showered down onto the town, damaging communications and starting several roof fires, but no injuries to townspeople. Aircraft were returning to base in strong winds and broken clouds after a routine gunnery mission.

 * 1961 – 1961 Yuba City B-52 crash: Failure of a cabin pressurization system forces USAF Boeing B-52F-70-BW Stratofortress, 57-0166, c/n 464155, to fly low, accelerating fuel-burn, bomber has fuel starvation at 10,000 feet over Yuba City, California, crashes, killing aircraft commander. Two nuclear weapons on board tear loose on impact but no explosion or contamination takes place.

 * 1960 – Within a year of completion of a major expansion program, Chicago’s O’Hare International airport has become the busiest terminal in the US, handling 10.2 million passengers in 1959, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) reports. In the same year it handled 431,600 take-offs and landings.

 * 1957 – British European Airways Flight 411, a Vickers Viscount, crashes while on approach to Manchester Airport, killing all 20 on board and 2 on the ground.

 * 1957 – Sikorsky HO4S-3, 55892, c/n 55-892, of the Royal Canadian Navy, ditches off the coast of Key West, Florida. Crew rescued by USS Cromwell.

 * 1951 – RAF Coastal Command Avro Lancaster GR.3, TX264, 'BS-D', of 120 Squadron RAF Kinloss, off-course in high winds and heavy overcast during a night-time navigation exercise between the Faroes and Rockall, crashes into Beinn Eighe's Triple Buttress at ~0200 hrs., just 15 feet (4.6 m) below the top of the 2,850-foot (870 m) westernmost gully of the buttress known as Coire Mhic Fhercair in the Scottish Highlands, killing all eight crew. Wreck not found until 17 March, crew remains not recovered until August. Due to remoteness of the crashsite the wreckage is still there.

 * 1947 – Saudi Arabian Airlines begins regular services.

 * 1947 – First flight of the Lockheed L-749 Constellation

 * 1946 – The last operation for the Canadian 435 (T) squadron was from Down Ampney England. With 15,681 sorties, 28,792 operational hours and 2734 non-operational hours. They airlifted 27,460 tons of freight, 14,000 passengers and had 851 casualties.

 * 1946 – The Royal Canadian Navy commissions its first aircraft carrier, HMCS Warrior (CVL 20), which the United Kingdom has transferred to Canada. She will serve until replaced by HMCS Magnificent (CVL 21) in 1948.

 * 1945 – The first prototype of two of the experimental Cornelius XFG-1-CR fuel glider, 44-28059, crashes 3 miles W of Wilmington, Ohio during spin testing out of Clinton County Army Air Field, Ohio, killing test pilot Alfred Reitherman of the Spartan Aircraft Company which constructed the design. The fuel glider concept (to be towed behind bombers) is abandoned at the end of the war.

 * 1945 – 13-14 – An Avro Lancaster of No. 617 Squadron RAF drops the first 22,000 lb (9,980 kg) Grand Slam bomb

 * 1936 – Imperial Airways opens a weekly service to Hong Kong.

 * 1927 – First flight of the Parnall Pike N202

 * 1927 – Pan American Airways is formed to carry airmail on the Key West-Havana route.

 * 1910 – Louis Paulhan flies 146 km in a straight route from Orleans to Trois.

 * 1908 – Henri Farman makes the first flight in his modified Voisin-Farman I-bis, the biplane built by Voisin brothers.

 * 1889 – German Ferdinand von Zeppelin patents his “Navigable Balloon”.

 * 1885 – Raoul Lufbery, American World War I pilot, was born (d. 1918). Lufbery was a French-American fighter pilot and flying ace in World War I. Because he served in both the French and later the United States Army Air Service in World War I, he is sometimes listed as a French ace and sometimes as an American ace, though all but one of his 17 combat victories came while flying in French units.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 14


text:
Youth Aliyah

Youth Aliyah (Hebrew: עלית הנוער, Aliyat Hano'ar, German: Jugend-Alijah, Youth Immigration) is a Jewish organization that rescued thousands of Jewish children from the Nazis during the Third Reich. Youth Aliyah arranged for their resettlement in Palestine in kibbutzim and youth villages that became both home and school.

History
Recha Freier, a rabbi's wife, founded Youth Aliyah in Berlin on the same day that Adolf Hitler took power, Monday 30 January 1933. The organisation was founded as a work study training program but became a means to save Jewish children from the growing Nazi regime. The idea was supported by the World Zionist Organization. Freier supervised the organization's activities in Germany, and Henrietta Szold, after at first opposing Freier's initiative, in Jerusalem.

Szold was skeptical about the merits of Freier's proposal because, as the person responsible for social services by the Jewish Agency for all of Palestine, she was extremely pressed for funds and loath to take on a new untried program for German Jewish children. Then Recha Freier approached Dr. Siegfried Lehman, founder and director of Ben Shemen Youth Village. He agreed to accept 12 children. Henrietta Szold was informed and changed her mind, agreeing to organize and lead the effort.

At the time, Tamar de Sola Pool, a former national president of Hadassah, and her husband had just completed a visit to Palestine and were about to return to the US. Szold met her and explained the decision to initiate the major effort of Youth Aliyah and that Mrs de Sola Pool must convince Hadassah to accept it as an important project. She was convinced and, after convincing Hadassah, called Eddie Cantor, the actor-comedian. He wrote her a check for $25,000 to start the program. Hadassah has continued to be the major supporter of Youth Aliyah to this day.

With Hitler's rise to power the Nuremberg Racial Laws were enacted in 1935 and on 31 March 1936 German elementary schools were closed to Jewish children. Szold coordinated an appeal to Jewish communities around the world in conjunction with the Jewish Agency.

After a brief period of training in Germany, Youth Aliyah children were placed on kibbutzim for two years to learn farming and Hebrew. Kibbutz Ein Harod in the Jezreel Valley was one of the first cooperative settlements to host such groups. Many of the children found it difficult being separated from their families, and they often realized the reasons for their journey and that they would not be returning to Europe. Parents struggled with the decision to send off their children to Palestine and expected to join them there later on, however many were murdered in the Holocaust. Youth Aliyah had a quota system in which they required at least 60% of the children to be boys, in order to ensure that a substantial number could work on the farms.

Just before the outbreak of World War II, when immigration certificates to Palestine became difficult to obtain, Youth Aliyah activists in London came up with an interim solution whereby groups of young people would receive pioneer training in countries outside the Third Reich until they could immigrate to Palestine. Jewish immigration facilitated by the United Kingdom became increasingly difficult and complicated as the Italian-Abyssinian war affected Britain's relationship with Palestine. Starting in 1936, to appease Arabs that were against Jewish immigration, Britain greatly reduced the number of immigrants through the Youth Aliyah program. As a result, Britain shifted immigration internally within the United Kingdom. Out of the approximately 10,000 children who migrated to Great Britain under the auspices of the Kindertransport program, some intended to reach Palestine with Youth Aliyah at a later time. After this British policy was formulated in November 1938, it facilitated not only thousands of Jewish children settling in the United Kingdom on a permanent basis, but also 3,400 staying there temporarily on the way to Palestine. As the war spread across Europe, the program expanded to save children from occupied countries such as Yugoslavia.

Britain would continue to allow foreign policy to affect their support of the Youth Aliyah program which resulted in the organization saving less children from Nazi tyranny and violence. In 1938, the British government withdrew their previous support of the Balfour Declaration, limiting their commitment to create a Jewish homeland. As violent anti-Semitism metastasized in Europe, Britain attempted to move 5,000 children from Germany into Palestine. In 1939, only 240 children were brought to Palestine. Immigration certificates given to the Youth Aliyah program became increasingly hard to obtain as Britain failed to give full support. The cynical foreign policy from Great Britain held the program back and failed to save thousands of children from the Nazi regime.

Despite waning British support, Youth Aliyah found modest success. Around 5,600 children immigrated to Palestine through the program. Most children came from Germany and Austria as a meager 139 Jewish children emigrated from Poland through the program, a devastating low number considering the hundreds of thousands of children who were left behind and eventually exterminated.

Freier experienced significant opposition from the Jewish community in Germany, who continued to believe that appeasement and accommodation was the best course for Germany's Jews. In 1938 she was expelled from the board of the organisation that she had founded, the Jewish Youth Support Committee, because of her controversial use of illegal methods. In 1940 she was denounced by colleagues for anti-Nazi agitation, but was warned in time, and managed to flee to Palestine, taking 40 teenagers with her.

After World War II and the Holocaust, emissaries were sent to Europe to locate child survivors in displaced persons camps. A Youth Aliyah office was opened in Paris. Children's homes in Eastern Europe were moved to Western Europe, Youth Aliyah believing (correctly) that immigration from Communist countries would be difficult later on.

In all 5,000 teenagers were brought to Palestine before World War II and educated at Youth Aliyah boarding schools. Others were smuggled out of occupied Europe in the early years of the war, some to Palestine, others to the United Kingdom and other countries. After the war an additional 15,000, most of them Holocaust survivors, were brought to Palestine.

Later, Youth Aliyah became a department of the Jewish Agency. Over the years, the organization has brought young people to Israel from North Africa, Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America, the Soviet Union and Ethiopia.

Today
Youth Aliyah Child Rescue continues to play a role in the absorption of young newcomers to Israel, particularly from the former Soviet Union and Africa. In addition, the organisation offers a second chance to Israeli youth who have been designated 'at risk' by child care authorities.

Children in the care of Youth Aliyah are housed in five youth residential villages in Israel. The villages include schools, dorms, clubhouses and playgrounds, and offer emotional support, education, developmental training and extra-curricular activity. More than 2,000 children have found a home and a new and more meaningful life through the organization.

The children come from a wide variety of backgrounds, and often have serious emotional, psychological and behavioral difficulties. Many come from disadvantaged, low income or dysfunctional families, very often single-parent families. They are often at risk because of poverty, neglect, domestic violence, sexual abuse, drug or alcohol abuse, mental illness, homelessness or delinquent behaviour. Other children suffer from cancer and need respite care, while others come from families that have been victims of terror.

Alonei Yitzhak was founded in 1948, houses 400 youth, and emphasises music, drama and dance. Neve Hadassah, near Netanya, houses 310 youth. Talpiot, in Hadera, houses 200 youth. Torah o'Mikzoah, south of Hadera, caters specifically to religious teenage boys unable to fit into a high school yeshiva environment. Alongside education in torah, it offers vocational training in motor mechanics and engineering. Yemin Orde, near Haifa, houses 500 youth. It has twice received the President's Award for Excellence in Education. Outreach programs run throughout the summer months. This facility was destroyed by wildfire in 2011, and is being rebuilt.

Awards and recognition
In 1958, Youth Aliyah was awarded the Israel Prize for its contribution to education, being the first year in which the Prize was awarded to an organization.

Directors
Directors of Youth Aliyah after the establishment of the State of Israel include Moshe Kol, Meir Gottesmann (1978–1984), Uri Gordon and Eli Amir.

title: Youth Aliyah


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 28

March 28

 * 2013 – Two United States Air Force B-2 Spirit bombers make the first nonstop B-2 flight to and from the Korean Peninsula, departing Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, bombing a target range on a South Korean island, and returning in a 37½-hour flight. The flight, part of the annual Foal Eagle field training exercise, is intended to signal American support to South Korea in the face of belligerent North Korean rhetoric.

 * 2012 – A United States Air Force F-15E crashed in southwest Asia on a non-combat mission. The pilot was killed and a crewman got injured.

 * 2012 – An Angolan Air Force Aerospatiale SA316B helicopter crashed near Lunondo, Angola, killing two and injuring four.

 * 2011 – British jets bomb ammunition bunkers in southern Libya and destroy 22 tanks, other armoured vehicles, and artillery pieces in the vicinity of Ajdabiya and Misrata.

 * 2011 – (Overnight) Coalition aircraft fly 115 strike sorties against targets in Libya.

 * 2005 – Chicago Express Airlines, also known as ATA Connection, ceased operations.

 * 2003 – Two AH-64D Apaches, 97-5032 of A Company and 98-5068 of B Company, 2–101st Aviation Regiment crash in Iraq; one pilot injured.

 * 2003 – OH-58D Kiowa 95-0006 from A Troop, 2–17th Cavalry Regiment crashes in Iraq, pilots survive.

 * 1990 – The Boeing 737 becomes the world’s best-selling jetliner when United Airlines accepts delivery of the 1,832nd 737.

 * 1981 – Air France pilot Michel Breton flies the airline's last Sud Aviation Caravelle service, from Amsterdam to Paris.

 * 1981 – Garuda Indonesia Flight 206, a Douglas DC-9, is hijacked by Komando Jihad, the pilot is killed; all others survive.

 * 1980 – The 1,000th production Learjet is delivered.

 * 1980 – First flight of the British Aerospace Jetstream

 * 1970 – A United States Navy F-4 J Phantom II fighter of Fighter Squadron 142 (VF-142) shoots down a North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighter. It is the only American air-to-air kill in the Vietnam War between September 1968 and 1971.

 * 1961 – ČSA Flight 511, an Ilyushin Il-18, crashed in Gräfenberg, West Germany. All 52 passengers and crew on board were killed.

 * 1961 – The Royal Canadian Air Force took a delivery of the first CF-104 Starfighter. Capable of flying at over 1,400 miles per hour; it carried nuclear bombs, the CF-104 fulfilled Canada’s NATO commitment in Europe as a nuclear strike aircraft.

 * 1961 – Air Afrique is formed

 * 1957 – First flight of the Canadair CP-107 Argus.

 * 1956 – A Boeing B-47B-35-BW Stratojet, 51-2175, of the 3520th FTW, McConnell AFB, Kansas, suffers explosion in bomb bay fuel tank and sheds its wings over East Wichita, Kansas, crashing four miles (6 km) NE of the city, killing three crew. The office of information services at McConnell Air Force Base, said the explosion occurred after takeoff, probably at about 2,000 feet (610 m) altitude. Lt. Maurice Boyack, pilot of a Navy Lockheed P2V Neptune bomber, out of Naval Air Station Hutchinson, Kansas, said the explosion occurred in a climbing turn. He flew his bomber to a point where he could see the wings rip off the B-47. He said it appeared there was a fire in the midsection, followed by the explosion. Fire fighters battled the blaze at the crash scene for more than an hour. The plane crashed within 1,000 feet (300 m) of two large suburban houses. Officials at McConnell AFB identified the pilot and instructor as Capt. William C. Craggs of Wichita. He is survived by his widow and two sons. The students were Lt. Col. William H. Dames, 39, of Oconomowoc, Wisconsin whose wife and two sons are reported to be living in Milwaukee; and 1st Lt. John C. Leysath, 24, of North, South Carolina.

 * 1952 – Entered Service: Convair CV-340 with United Air Lines

 * 1948 – B-29 Superfortresses undergo aerial refueling tests, demonstrating the viability of this technique to extend the range of strategic bombers.

 * 1947 – First RCAF helicopter crash on take-off.

 * 1947 – A dual ceremony, the first two Douglas DC-6 commercial airliners are delivered to American Airlines and United Air Lines.

 * 1944 – Japanese torpedo bombers attack U. S. Navy Task Force 58 as it approaches the Palau Islands, doing no damage.

 * 1943 – 57 Japanese Rabaul-based aircraft – 18 Aichi D3 A (Allied reporting name “Val”) dive bombers and 37 Mitsubishi A6 M Zeros – Attack Allied shipping in Oro Bay off New Guinea, sinking a United States Army transport and a Dutch merchant ship.

 * 1941 – During the Battle of Cape Matapan in the Mediterranean Sea, Swordfish and Albacore torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Formidable and land-based Fleet Air Arm Swordfish from Maleme, Crete, damage the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto and heavy cruiser Pola, slowing Pola. In the predawn darkness of the next morning, British battleships catch up to the damaged Pola and the four ships accompanying her – The heavy cruisers Zara and Fiume and two destroyers – And sink all five ships with gunfire.

 * 1936 – National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) commences operational use of the newly constructed 8-ft.-high speed tunnel (8-Foot HST) at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, Langley, Virginia. Built as a companion to the full scale tunnel capable of simulated speeds of up to 118 mph, the new facility can test models and components to 577 mph (Mach 0.75).

 * 1933 – The City of Liverpool disaster was the fatal accident of an Armstrong Whitworth Argosy II aeroplane flown by British airline Imperial Airways named City of Liverpool on 28 March 1933 near Dixmude, northern Belgium after an onboard fire. All 15 onboard were killed. At the time it was the deadliest accident in the history of British civil aviation. It has been suggested that this was the first airliner ever lost to sabotage, and in the immediate aftermath suspicion centred on one passenger, Dr. Albert Voss, who seemingly jumped from the aircraft before it crashed.

 * 1931 – Boeing Air Transport, National Air Transport, Varney Airlines and Pacific Air Transport combine as United Air Lines, providing coast-to-coast passenger service and mail service. It takes 27 hours to fly the route, one way.

 * 1931 – First flight of the Mitsubishi 2MR8

 * 1920 – Croydon replaces Hounslow Heath Aerodrome as London’s airport.

 * 1918 – Sole prototype of the Breguet LE (Laboratoire Eiffel), a single-seat fighter monoplane, crashes on its second flight, out of Villacoublay, France, when it dives into the ground at full-throttle, killing pilot Jean Sauclière. Further development suspended.

 * 1913 – Lts. Thomas DeWitt Milling and William C. Sherman set a two-man duration and distance record of four hours and 22 min for 220 miles from Texas City, Texas to San Antonio.

 * 1910 – Henri Fabre makes the first flights in a seaplane at Matigues, France

 * 1908 – Leon Delagrange makes the first passenger flight, taking Farman aboard his Voisin biplane at Issy-les-Moulieaux.

 * 1843 – William Samuel Henson (1805-1888) receives the patent and publishes in London his design for an Aerial Steam Carriage. This is the first reasoned, formulated, and detailed design for a propeller-driven aircraft.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/March 28


text:
Talk:Women's rights in Cuba

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Alisonyardley.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 13:10, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

NPOV tag
There is a NPOV tag, but no discussion. I'm removing NPOV until someone posts why it's in question. Gattster 16:26:51, 2005-08-25 (UTC)
 * where does this come from?, it holds no text that could confirm it whatsoever, it almost seems like nothing but propaganda. Would americans like to have a "women of america" segment where they talk how inferior they are looked down there?. I suggest this should be erased.

This is one of the most blatantly biased articles I have ever read, it should be erased.

I've placed the NPOV tag on this article. This article is poorly written and makes no sense. It's blatantly biased, and, in my opinion, should be tagged as nonsense. Kamikaze Highlander 05:54, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

I concur. This is horribly biased, unconfirmed, useless and even incorrect material that shouldn't even be here. This needs to be deleted. --Mcmachete 07:20, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

definitely somewhat biased. Some of the more damaging allegations against Castro need to be proven. --M1ss1ontomars2k4 17:18, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Im amazed that this is still here and yet there has not been a single source of information to confirm its veracity, most of them have been taken for what i presume are articles a là Readers Digest (who can forget those monthly anti-communist articles that were the backbone of the magazine). Im still figuring out the importance of the article and why is it on the encyclopedia to begin with.

I've re-written the whole thing as an attempt to save the page from deletion. Although I'm not overly concerned about whether it stays or not. The previous material was entertaining but plain unencylopedic - (sorry El Jigue)!--Zleitzen 01:44, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

 * What this article needs is some livening up. How about some pictures of Cuban women ? Something like http://dailyphoto.org/p/cubana-five-years-later ? -- Beardo 15:46, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Have added a cropped pic from the commons. The background poster also featured a huge pic of Fidel, but it distracted from the image, it looked more like a picture of castro than a shot of the women so I've had him airbrushed out of the shot for clarity. (Perhaps a forerunner of what may happen in Cuba!). --Zleitzen 17:17, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060909163705/http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CUB.html to http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CUB.html

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Contribution
I will working on this page for my ECON 5560 course at the University of Utah. I am planning on adding to the section on work and including some information gender inequalities that are seen in Cuba. User:Alisonyardley 26 March 2018

I have been working on adding information and updating sources for this article. My goal is to decrease bias and add more information with links to other articles. I have added a section on reproductive health and plan to add several other sections. I will continue to post here as I add them. Alisonyardley (talk) 19:02, 23 April 2018 (UTC)Alisonyardey 23 April 2018

Comments
Great work Alison, Your sections are well-written and relevant with the entire article. The more that you add the further this topic will expand. I am loving your contributions and can't wait to see how the final article turns out.Cohoward (talk) 23:46, 8 April 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:52, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Havana - Cuba - 1005.jpg

title: Talk:Women's rights in Cuba


text:
Quercus gambelii

Quercus gambelii, with the common name Gambel oak, is a deciduous small tree or large shrub that is widespread in the foothills and lower mountains of western North America. It is also regionally called scrub oak, oak brush, and white oak.

The common and scientific names, Gambel oak and Quercus gambelii, were named after the American naturalist William Gambel (1821–1849).

Description
Quercus gambelii trees differ in size from one location to another. The average mature height is from 3 - 9 m, but occasionally reaches heights of 18 m in some locations. Dwarf stands of plants under 1 m tall are common in marginal areas where heavy browsing occurs. The largest trees are found along streams in the southern part of its range, and can reach up to 100 feet tall. The champion tree is in Arizona at 114 ft tall.

Although the wood is hard and dense, its branches are irregular and crooked, making them flexible enough to bend without breaking when covered with heavy snow. The bark is rough and brownish-gray.

The leaves are generally 7 - 12 cm long and 4 - 6 cm broad, deeply lobed on each side of the central vein; the upper surface is glossy dark green, the undersurface is paler and velvety. Trees are deciduous and the leaves frequently turn orange and yellow during autumn, creating mountainsides of vivid colors. The flowers are inconspicuous unisexual catkins that occur in the spring.

The acorns are 10 - 20 mm long and about one-third to one-half enclosed by a cap or cup (cupule); they mature in September, turning from green to golden brown. The plant reproduces from acorns, but also spreads from root sprouts that grow from vast underground structures called lignotubers. These reproductive characteristics often result in dense groves or thickets of trees that can cover entire mountainsides.

Distribution and habitat
The natural range of Quercus gambelii is centered in the western United States and northwestern Mexico in the states of Arizona, Chihuahua, Colorado, New Mexico, Sonora, and Utah. It also extends into Nevada, Wyoming, Idaho, Nebraska, the Oklahoma Panhandle, Coahuila, and into the Trans-Pecos region of western Texas.

The tree typically grows at altitudes of 1000 - 3000 m above sea level where precipitation averages between 30 - 60 cm per year.

The species flourishes in full sun on hillsides with thin, rocky, alkaline soil where competition from other plant species is limited. It also does well in richer soils, but in those areas it is forced to compete for growing room. It is well-adapted to locations where wet springs and hot, dry summers create conditions conducive to wildfires.

Ecology
After a fire, Gambel oak quickly re-establishes from root sprouts. The plant is drought tolerant.

Associated plant species include: chokecherry, arrowleaf balsamroot, bigtooth maple, mountain mahogany, ponderosa pine, and serviceberry. Associated birds and mammals include Woodhouse's scrub jay, black-billed magpie, grouse, deer, chipmunks and squirrels.

Where abundant, Gambel oak is an important food source for browsing animals such as deer and livestock. The sweetish acorns are frequently gathered by squirrels and stored for winter food. Acorns are also eaten by wild turkeys, black bears, and domestic animals such as hogs. Some insects depend on the Gambel oak: for example, the Colorado hairstreak butterfly uses it as a food source for caterpillars.

Uses
Historically, acorns from Gambel oak provided a reliable source of food for Native Americans. If bitter, tannins can be leached from the acorns.

title: Quercus gambelii


text:
Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/September 23

September 23

 * 2004 – AH-64D Apache 02-5292 from B Company, 1–227th Aviation Regiment, 4th BCT, 1st Cavalry Division crashes near Tallil AB, Iraq when pilot loses control following tail rotor problem.

 * 1999 – NASA announces that it has lost contact with the Mars Climate Orbiter after it descended to a low altitude in Mars’ orbit and was destroyed by atmospheric stresses.

 * 1999 – Qantas Flight 1 overruns the runway in Bangkok during a storm. While some passengers only received minor injuries, it is still the worst crash in Qantas‘s history to date.

 * 1997 – Static test Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet airframe, ST56, being barricade tested at NAES Lakehurst, New Jersey by being powered down a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) track by a Pratt & Whitney J57-powered jet car, flips over and crashes into nearby woods when the steel cable linking the barrier with underground hydraulic engines fails.

 * 1983 – Gulf Air Flight 771, a Boeing 737, crashes near Mina Jebel Ali in the United Arab Emirates after a bomb planted by the Abu Nidal Organization detonates on board; all 112 people on board perish.

 * 1968 – General Dynamics F-111A, 66-0040, c/n A1-58, crashes and is destroyed this date due to control system failure, at Nellis AFB, Nevada. Crew ejected safely.

 * 1961 – The 1961 Turkish Airlines Ankara crash: a Turkish Airlines-operated Fokker F27 Friendship crashes while on approach to Esenboğa Airport; 28 of the 29 passengers and crew on board perish in the crash.

 * 1959 – The USAF officially cancels the North American Aviation XF-108 Rapier.

 * 1941 – Formation of University Training Squadrons was approved.

 * 1941 – Hans-Ulrich Rudel single-handedly sinks a Soviet battleship (the Marat) flying a Junkers Ju 87

 * 1940 – The British aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal arrives off Dakar, Senegal, with the Free French leader General Charles de Gaulle embarked. She flies off two French Caudron C.270 Luciole trainer aircraft which carry Free French officers ashore to request that Vichy French forces there join de Gaulle on the Allied side, but the Vichy French refuse.

 * 1938 – First flight of the Supermarine Sea Otter. (Some sources say 29 Sep).

 * 1931 – A Pitcairn XOP-1 autogyro conducts landing and take-off trials aboard the United States Navy aircraft carrier USS Langley (CV-1). It is the U. S. Navy’s first experiment with a shipborne rotary-wing aircraft.

 * 1925 – The U.S. Navy flies 23 Curtiss CS-1 floatplanes to Bay Shore Park on the Chesapeake Bay, 14 miles SE of Baltimore, Maryland, on a Friday with intention of an airshow demonstration before the 1925 Schneider Cup Race on Saturday, but that night gale force winds break three-inch mooring and anchor ropes on 17 of the biplanes and they are blown onto shore or dashed against seawalls, destroying seven and damaging ten. The next afternoon's Baltimore Evening Sun runs headline "Plane Disaster in Harbor Called Hard Blow to Navy" and quotes the ever-outspoken General William "Billy" Mitchell calling the loss of the CS-1s "staggering", and blaming it on Navy mismanagement of its aviation program.

 * 1923 – 1st Lts. Robert Stanford Olmsted and John W. Shoptaw enter U.S. Army balloon S-6 in international balloon race from Brussels, despite threatening weather which causes some competitors to drop out. S-6 collides with Belgian balloon, Ville de Bruxelles on launch, tearing that craft's netting and knocking it out of the race. Lightning strikes S-6 over Nistelrode, the Netherlands, killing Olmsted outright, and Shoptaw in the fall. Switzerland's Génève is also hit, burns, killing two on board, as is Spain's Polar, killing one crew immediately, second crewman jumps from 100 ft, breaking both legs. Three other balloons are also forced down.Middletown Air Depot, Pennsylvania, was renamed Olmsted AFB on 11 March 1948.

 * 1922 – A Martin NBS-1 bomber, Air Service 68487, Raymond E. Davis, pilot, nose dived and crashed from an estimated altitude of 500 ft on a residential street near Mitchel Field, Mineola, New York, killing the six military personnel on board. At the time, the plane was involved in a night time war game display that was lit by searchlights and watched by an estimated crowd of 25,000 spectators.

 * 1917 – During an epic 10-minute dogfight against six Royal Flying Corps SE.5s of No. 56 Squadron, the German ace Werner Voss, flying a Fokker Dr.I triplane, is shot down and killed by the British ace Arthur Rhys-Davids north of Frezenberg, Belgium. At the time of his death, Voss has 48 victories and is the second-leading German ace behind Manfred von Richthofen.

 * 1916 – 23-24 – By some counts as many as eleven Zeppelins (more likely four) attacked England in a mass air-raid. Two were shot down, LZ 76 by ground fire, and LZ 74 by Lt Frederick Sowrey

 * 1913 – Roland Garros (right) makes the first air crossing of the Mediterranean Sea. He flies the 729 km (453 miles) from Saint-Raphaël to Bizerte in 7 hours 53 min.

 * 1911 – The first US airmail flight is made. Earle Ovington flies 9.7 km (6 miles) from Nassau Boulevard, New York to Mineola, New York.

 * 1910 – The Peruvian Geo Chavez flies the Blériot-monoplane over the Alps from Brig (Switzerland) to Domodossola (Italy) reaching a height of 2200 m, but was killed in a crash landing.