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18th-century French literature

18th-century French literature is French literature written between 1715, the year of the death of King Louis XIV of France, and 1798, the year of the coup d'État of Bonaparte which brought the Consulate to power, concluded the French Revolution, and began the modern era of French history. This century of enormous economic, social, intellectual and political transformation produced two important literary and philosophical movements: during what became known as the Age of Enlightenment, the Philosophes  questioned all existing institutions, including the church and state, and applied rationalism and scientific analysis to society; and a very different movement, which emerged in reaction to the first movement; the beginnings of Romanticism, which exalted the role of emotion in art and life.

In common with a similar movement in England at the same time, the writers of 18th century France were critical, skeptical and innovative. Their lasting contributions were the ideas of liberty, toleration, humanitarianism, equality, and progress, which became the ideals of modern western democracy.

Context

The 18th century saw the gradual weakening of the absolute monarchy constructed by Louis XIV. Its power slipped away during the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans, (1715–1723) and the long regime of King Louis XV, when France lost the Seven Years' War with England, and lost much of its empire in Canada and India. France was forced to recognize the growing power of England and Prussia. The Monarchy finally ended with King Louis XVI, who was unable to understand or control the forces of the French Revolution. The end of the century saw the birth of the United States, with the help of French ideas and military forces;  the declaration of the French Republic in 1792, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, setting the stage for the history of modern France

The 18th century also brought enormous social changes to France; an enormous growth in population;  and, even more important, the growth of the wealthy class, thanks to new technologies (the steam engine, metallurgy), and trade with France's colonies in the New World and India. French society was hierarchal with the Clergy (First Estate) and Nobility (Second Estate) at the top and The Third Estate who included everyone else. Members of the Third Estate, especially the more wealthy and influential, began to challenge the cultural and social monopoly of the aristocracy; French cities began to have their own theaters, coffee houses and salons, independent of the aristocracy. The Rise of the Third Estate was influential in the overthrow of the monarchy in the French Revolution in 1789.

French thinking also evolved greatly, thanks to major discoveries in science by Newton, Watt, Volta, Leibniz, Buffon, Lavoisier, and Monge, among others, and their rapid diffusion throughout Europe through newspapers, journals, scientific societies, and theaters.

Faith in science and progress was the driving force behind the first French Encyclopedia of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The authority of the Catholic Church was weakened, partly by the conflicts between high and low clergy, partly by the conflict between the State and Jesuits, who were finally expelled from the Kingdom in 1764. The Protestants achieved legal status in France in 1787. The church hierarchy was in continual battle with the Lumieres, having many of their works banned, and causing French courts to sentence a Protestant, Jean Calas, to death in 1762 for blasphemy, an act which was strongly condemned by Voltaire.

The explorations of the New World and the first encounters with American Indians also brought a new theme into French and European Literature; exoticism, and the idea of the Noble Savage, which inspired such works as Paul et Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. The exchange of ideas with other countries also increased. British ideas were particularly important, particularly such ideas as constitutional monarchy and romanticism, which greatly influenced French writers, particularly in the following century.

The visual arts of the 18th century were highly decorative and oriented toward giving pleasure, as exemplified by the Regency style and Louis XV style, and the paintings of François Boucher, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Watteau and Chardin, and portrait painters Quentin de La Tour, Nattier and Van Loo. Toward the end of the century, a more sober style appeared, aimed at illustrating scenery, work, and moral values  exemplified by Greuze, Hubert Robert and Claude Joseph Vernet. The leading figures in French music were François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau, but they were overshadowed by other European composers of the century, notably Vivaldi, Mozart Haendel, Bach, and Haydn.

For art and architecture in the 18th century, see French Rococo and Neoclassicism

The Philosophes and the literature of ideas

Continuing the work of the so-called "Libertines" of the 17th century, and the critical spirit of such writers as Bayle and Fontenelle, (1657–1757), the writers who were called the lumières denounced, in the name of reason and moral values, the social and political oppressions of their time. They challenged the idea of absolute monarchy and demanded a social contract as the new basis of political authority, and demanded a more democratic organization of central power in a constitutional monarchy, with a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government (Montesquieu, Diderot, and Rousseau.) Voltaire fought against the abuses of power by the government, such as censorship and letters of cachet, which allowed imprisonment without trial, against the collusion of the church and monarchy, and for an "enlightened despotism" where kings would be advised by philosophers.

These writers, and others such as the Abbé Sieyès, one of the main authors of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, became known as the philosophes. They came from the wealthy upper class or Third Estate, sought a society founded upon talent and merit, rather than a society based on heredity or caste. Their ideas were strongly influenced by those of John Locke in England. They introduced the values of liberty and equality which became the ideals of the French Republic founded at the end of the century. They defended the freedom of conscience and challenged the role of religious institutions in society. For them, tolerance was a fundamental value of society. When the Convention placed the ashes of Voltaire in the Pantheon in Paris, they honored him as the man who "taught us to live as free men."

While the philosophes had widely different approaches, they all had as a common objective, both for humanity and for individuals, the ideal of happiness (bonheur). Some, like Rousseau, dreamed of the happiness of the noble savage, rapidly disappearing; others, like Voltaire, sought happiness in a life of the worldly pursuit of refinement. The philosophes were optimists, and they saw their mission clearly; they did not simply observe, but agitated ceaselessly for the achievement of their goals.

The important works of the philosophes belonged to a variety of different genres, such as the tale illustrating a particular philosophical point;(Zadig (1747) or Candide (1759), both by Voltaire in 1759); or satire on French life disguised as letters from an exotic country (Lettres persanes by Montesquieu in 1721); or essays (The Spirit of the Laws by Montesquieu in 1748, An Essay on Tolerance by Voltaire in 1763; The Social Contract by Rousseau in 1762; The Supplement to a voyage of Bougainville by Diderot, or The History of the Two Indias by the Abbé Guillaume-Thomas Raynal).

The comedies of Marivaux and of Beaumarchais also played a part in this debate about and diffusion of great ideas. The monumental work of the philosophes was the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, the famous encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert, published in thirty-five volumes, with texts and illustration, from 1750 until 1772, accompanied by a large variety of essays, speeches, dialogues and interviews on all aspects of knowledge.

French theater in the 18th century
The great French playwrights of the 17th century, Molière, Racine and Corneille, continued to exert a great influence on the Comédie-Française, but new life was brought into French theater by the tragedies of Voltaire, which introduced modern themes while keeping the classical forms of the alexandrine, as in the play Zaïre in 1732, and The Fanaticism of Mohamet in 1741, both of which enjoyed great success. Nonetheless, royal censorship was still active in the theater under King Louis XV and Louis XVI, and, despite his popularity, Beaumarchais had great difficulty getting his play The Marriage of Figaro staged in Paris, because of its political message.

The relaxing of morals under the French Regency brought the return in 1716 of the Comédie-Italienne, which had been driven out of Paris under Louis XIV. It also saw a period of great theatrical spectacles; crowds went to the theater to see famous actors and to laugh at the characters introduced by the Italian commedia dell'arte, such as Harlequin, Columbine and Pantalone. This was the genre used by Marivaux (1688–1763), with comedies which combined a perceptive analysis of the sentiments of love, subtle verbal play, and an analysis of the problems of society, all done through a clever use of the relationship between the master and his valet. His major works include Les Fausses Confidences (1737), le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard (1730), and l'Île des esclaves (1725).

Jean-François Regnard and Alain-René Lesage (1668–1747) also had great success with comedies of manners, such as Regnard's Le Légataire universel, and Lesage's Turcaret in 1709. But the greatest author of French comedies in the 18th century was Beaumarchais (1732–1799), who displayed a mastery of dialogue and intrigue combined with social and political satire through the character of Figaro, a valet who challenges the power of his master, who is featured in two major works; le Barbier de Séville (1775) and le Mariage de Figaro (1784).

The theater of the 18th century also introduced two new genres, now considered minor, which both strongly influenced the French theater in the following century; the "Comedy of Tears" (comédie larmoyante) and the bourgeois drama (drame bourgeois) which told stories full of pathos in a realistic setting, and which concerned the lives of bourgeois families, rather than aristocrats. Some popular examples of these genres were the Le Fils naturel (The Natural Son) by Diderot in 1757; Le Père de famille (The Father of the Family) by Diderot in 1758; Le Philosophe sans le savoir (The Philosopher who did not know he was a Philosopher) by Michel-Jean Sedaine, (1765); La Brouette du vinaigrier (The Vinegar Cart) by Louis-Sébastien Mercier (1775); and La Mère Coupable (The Guilty Mother) by Beaumarchais, (1792).

The 18th century also saw the development of new forms of musical theater, such as the vaudeville theater, and the opéra comique, as well as a new genre of literary writing about theater, such as Diderot's Paradoxe sur le comédien; the writings of Voltaire defending theater actors against the condemnation of the church;  and Rousseau's condemnation of immorality in the theater.

The French novel in the 18th century

The novel in the 18th century saw innovations in form and content which opened the way for the modern novel, a work of fiction in prose recounting the adventures or the evolution of one or several characters. In the 18th century the genre of the novel enjoyed a great increase in readership, and was marked by the effort to convey feelings realistically, through such literary devices as first-person narration, exchanges of letters, and dialogues, all trying to show, in the spirit of the lumieres,  a society which was evolving. The French novel was strongly influenced by the English novel, through the translation of the works of Samuel Richardson, Jonathan Swift, and Daniel Defoe.

The novel of the 18th century explored all the potential devices of a novel - different points of view, surprise twists of the plot, engaging the reader, careful psychological analysis, realistic descriptions of the setting, imagination, and attention to form. The texts of the period are difficult to neatly divide into categories, but they can loosely be divided into several subgenres.

The philosophical tale
This category includes the contes philosophiques of Voltaire, Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759), and also the later novella, l'Ingénu, (1768) in which Voltaire moved away from fantasy and introduced a large part of social and psychological realism.

The realistic novel
This subgenre combined social realism with stories about men and women looking for love. Examples include la Vie de Marianne (1741), and Le Paysan parvenu (1735) by Marivaux; Manon Lescaut (1731) by the abbé Antoine François Prévost (1731)  and Le Paysan perverti (The Perverse Peasant) (1775), a novel in the form of letters by Nicolas-Edme Rétif (1734–1806). Within this subgenre is a sub-subgenre of realistic novels about love influenced by Spanish literature; novels full of satire, a variety of different social milieux, and young men learning their way in the new world. The classic example is Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane by Alain-René Lesage (1715).

The novel of the imagination
The novel of the imagination pictured life centuries in the future; L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fut jamais (The year 2440 - dream of all dreams) by Mercier (1771); or stories of fantasy le Diable amoureux (The Devil in Love) of Jacques Cazotte (1772).

The libertine, or erotic novel
The libertine, or erotic novel, featured eroticism, seduction, manipulation, and social intrigue. Classic examples are Les Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons) by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos (1782); Justine ou les Malheurs de la vertu (Justine or the misfortunes of virtue) by Donatien Alphonse François de Sade (the Marquis de Sade) (1797); Le Sopha- conte moral (The Sopha - a moral tale) by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (1745), and les Bijoux indiscrets (The indiscreet jewels) (1748) and La Religieuse (The Nun) by Diderot (1760).

The novel of feelings
The novel of feelings appeared in the second half of the 18th century, with the publication of Julie ou la Nouvelle Héloïse (Julie, or the New Heloise), in a novel in the form of letters, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1761). It was modelled after the English novel Pamela by Samuel Richardson, which was the best-selling novel of the century, drawing readers by its pre-romantic depiction of nature and romantic love. Another popular example was Paul et Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1787).

The novel broken apart
The romans éclatés, roughly translated "Novels broken apart", such as Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Eng: Jacques the Fatalist and His Master) (1773) and le Neveu de Rameau (Eng: The Nephew of Rameau) (1762) by Diderot are almost impossible to classify, but resemble the modernist novels that would come a century or more later.

The birth of the autobiography in the 18th century
Literary stories of people's lives were popular throughout the 18th century, with such popular books as la Vie de mon père (Eng: The Life of My Father) (1779) and Monsieur Nicolas (1794) by Nicolas-Edme Rétif, but the success of the century was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who founded the genre of the modern autobiography with les Rêveries du promeneur solitaire (The dreams of a solitary walker) in 1776, and Les Confessions in 1782, which became the models for all novels of self-discovery.

French poetry of the 18th century
Voltaire used verse with great skill in his Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne (Poem on the Lisbon Disaster) and in le Mondain (The Man About Town), but his poetry was in the classical school of the 17th century. Only a few French poets of the 18th century have an enduring reputation; they include Jacques Delille (1738–1813), for les Jardins (The Gardens), in 1782; and Évariste de Parny (1753–1814) for Élégies in 1784, who both contributed to the birth of romanticism and to the poetry of nature and nostalgia.

The poet of the 18th century best-known today is André Chénier (1762–1794), who created an expressive style in his famous la Jeune Tarentine (The Young Tarentine) and la Jeune Captive (The Young Captive), both published only in 1819, long after his death during the Terror of the French Revolution.

Fabre d'Églantine was known both for his songs, such as Il pleut, il pleut, bergère) (It's raining, shepherdess) and for his participation in the writing of the new French Republican Calendar created during the French Revolution.

Other genres of 18th century French literature

 * The genre of modern art criticism was launched by Diderot in Salons, in which he analyzed the way emotions could be created by works of art, using the example of the feelings inspired by the poetic ruins painted by Hubert Robert.
 * Georges-Louis Leclerc, Count of Buffon, popularized the scientific discoveries of his century with the massive Histoire naturelle (Natural History), published with great success between 1749 and 1789.
 * During the French Revolution, political speeches became a popular genre of literature with the publication of the speeches of such talented orators as Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre.

Conclusions
French literature in the 18th century offered a rich collection of works in all genres, and brought together, rather than opposed, the philosophical and analytical views of the Philosophes and Lumieres with the more subjective and personal views of the emerging romantic movement. Many of the works of the 18th century are forgotten, but the century also produced a number of writers who were great both for the originality and importance of their ideas and for their literary talent; writers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot and Beaumarchais, whose ideas are still quoted today. They used their novels and plays as weapons which profoundly changed their society, while expressing their own personalities and feelings. Thanks largely to these writers, in the 18th century French became the language of culture, political and social reform all across Europe, and as far away as America and Russia.

title: 18th-century French literature


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Talk:Harry J. Sonneborn

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I'll have to check but having read Ray Kroc's "Grinding it out" several times, I believe that Sonneborne's genius and real estatlkjke franchising ideas are discussed and acknowledged by Kroc.

--- Sonneborn, not Kroc, was CEO when Sonneborn departed. Kroc was chairman.

His education ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.3.127.95 (talk) 15:56, 4 February 2017 (UTC)

Question: this article says that Sonneborn was posthumously vindicated by Ray Kroc several years after his death, and just months before Kroc himself died.

Kroc died in 1984, Sonneborn in 1992, so how is this sentence logical?174.69.112.130 (talk) 04:41, 10 September 2017 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Harry J. Sonneborn


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Regional screen agencies

Following a review of the film infrastructure in England during 2000, the UK Film Council set up nine Regional Screen Agencies, one in each of the regions of England, to deliver support for film-making, exhibition and related media activities. The regional screen agency network was closed down in 2011, with a number of services consolidated into a new agency, Creative England, and the majority of screen agencies then folded. However, a few continued to operate, most notably Film London and Screen Yorkshire.

The nine agencies were or are:
 * Screen East (East of England)
 * (East Midlands)
 * Film London (Greater London)
 * Northern Film and Media, relaunched in 2022 as North East Screen (North East England)
 * Vision+Media (North West England)
 * Screen South (South East England)
 * South West Screen (South West England)
 * Screen West Midlands (West Midlands)
 * Screen Yorkshire (Yorkshire and the Humber)

Role and activities
Regional Screen Agencies have cultural, economic and social objectives. They engage with other regional partners and to involve stakeholders including local film and television producers, broadcasters, games developers, museums and other cultural organisations.

Each agency has interpreted the brief from the UK Film Council in its own way. Typically, this focusses on the provision of operational activities such training schemes, administration of funding for activities such as film festivals and film education, and the operation of investment funds and local services designed to make a region an attractive place for film-makers to bring inward investment.

title: Regional screen agencies


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19th-century French literature

19th-century French literature concerns the developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. The period covered spans the following political regimes: Napoleon Bonaparte's Consulate (1799–1804) and Empire (1804–1814), the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814–1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1830–1848), the Second Republic (1848–1852), the Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852–1871), and the first decades of the Third Republic (1871–1940).

Overview
French literature enjoyed enormous international prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism, until around the mid-century Realism emerged, at least partly as a reaction. In the last half of the century, "naturalism", "parnassian" poetry, and "symbolism", among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name and a program or manifesto. In other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts.

Romanticism
French literature from the first half of the century was dominated by Romanticism, which is associated with such authors as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, père, François-René de Chateaubriand, Alphonse de Lamartine, Gérard de Nerval, Charles Nodier, Alfred de Musset, Théophile Gautier and Alfred de Vigny. Their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. The effect of the romantic movement would continue to be felt in the latter half of the century in diverse literary developments, such as "realism", "symbolism", and the so-called fin de siècle "decadent" movement.

French romanticism used forms such as the historical novel, the romance, the "roman noir" or Gothic novel; subjects like traditional myths (including the myth of the romantic hero), nationalism, the natural world (i.e. elegies by lakes), and the common man; and the styles of lyricism, sentimentalism, exoticism and orientalism. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Goethe, and Friedrich Schiller. French Romanticism had ideals diametrically opposed to French classicism and the classical unities, but it could also express a profound loss for aspects of the pre-revolutionary world in a society now dominated by money and fame, rather than honor.

Key ideas from early French Romanticism:
 * "Le vague des passions" (vagueness, uncertainty of sentiment and passion): Chateaubriand maintained that while the imagination was rich, the world was cold and empty, and civilization had only robbed men of their illusions; nevertheless, a notion of sentiment and passion continued to haunt men.
 * "Le mal du siècle" (the pain of the century): a sense of loss, disillusion, and aporia, typified by melancholy and lassitude.

Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of "pre-romanticism" in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (among others) at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and in Madame de Staël's interpretation of Germany as the land of romantic ideals. It found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine.

The major battles of romanticism in France were in the theater. The early years of the century were marked by a revival of classicism and classical-inspired tragedies, often with themes of national sacrifice or patriotic heroism in keeping with the spirit of the Revolution, but the production of Victor Hugo's Hernani in 1830 marked the triumph of the romantic movement on the stage (a description of the turbulent opening night can be found in Théophile Gautier). The dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods (the French Renaissance, the reign of Louis XIII of France) and doomed noble characters (rebel princes and outlaws) or misunderstood artists (Vigny's play based on the life of Thomas Chatterton).

Victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction. Other writers associated with the movement were the austere and pessimistic Alfred de Vigny, Théophile Gautier a devotee of beauty and creator of the "Art for art's sake" movement, and Alfred de Musset, who best exemplifies romantic melancholy. All three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other romantic novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction. Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, a literary critic, showed romantic expansiveness in his hospitality to all ideas and in his unfailing endeavour to understand and interpret authors rather than to judge them.

Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups: the Arsenal (formed around Charles Nodier at the Arsenal Library in Paris from 1824-1844 where Nodier was administrator), the Cénacle (formed around Nodier, then Hugo from 1823–1828), the salon of Louis Charles Delescluze, the salon of Antoine (or Antony Deschamps), the salon of Madame de Staël.

Romanticism in France defied political affiliation: one finds both "liberal" (like Stendhal), "conservative" (like Chateaubriand) and socialist (George Sand) strains.

Realism
The expression "Realism", when being applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science (especially biology), history and the social sciences and to the growth of industrialism and commerce. The "realist" tendency is not necessarily anti-romantic; romanticism in France often affirmed the common man and the natural setting, as in the peasant stories of George Sand, and concerned itself with historical forces and periods, as in the work of historian Jules Michelet.

The novels of Stendhal, including The Red and the Black and The Charterhouse of Parma, address issues of their contemporary society while also using themes and characters derived from the romantic movement. Honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a complete contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils.

Many of the novels in this period, including Balzac's, were published in newspapers in serial form, and the immensely popular realist "roman feuilleton" tended to specialize in portraying the hidden side of urban life (crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in the novels of Eugène Sue. Similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century.

Gustave Flaubert's great novels Madame Bovary (1857)—which reveals the tragic consequences of romanticism on the wife of a provincial doctor—and Sentimental Education represent perhaps the highest stages in the development of French realism, while Flaubert's romanticism is apparent in his fantastic The Temptation of Saint Anthony and the baroque and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in Salammbô.

In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile Augier.

Naturalism
From the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary "Naturalism". The expression is imprecise, and was frequently used disparagingly to characterize authors whose chosen subject matter was taken from the working classes and who portrayed the misery and harsh conditions of real life. Many of the "naturalist" writers took a radical position against the excesses of romanticism and strove to use scientific and encyclopedic precision in their novels (Zola spent months visiting coal mines for his Germinal, and even the arch-realist Flaubert was famous for his years of research for historical details). Hippolyte Taine supplied much of the philosophy of naturalism: he believed that every human being was determined by the forces of heredity and environment and by the time in which he lived. The influence of certain Norwegian, Swedish and Russian writers gave an added impulse to the naturalistic movement.

The novels and short stories of Guy de Maupassant are often tagged with the label "naturalist", although he clearly followed the realist model of his teacher and mentor, Flaubert. Maupassant used elements derived from the gothic novel in stories like Le Horla. This tension between portrayal of the contemporary world in all its sordidness, detached irony and the use of romantic images and themes would also influence the symbolists (see below) and would continue to the 20th century.

Naturalism is most often associated with the novels of Émile Zola in particular his Les Rougon-Macquart novel cycle, which includes Germinal, L'Assommoir, Nana, Le Ventre de Paris, La Bête humaine, and L'Œuvre (The Masterpiece), in which the social success or failure of two branches of a family is explained by physical, social and hereditary laws. Other writers who have been labeled naturalists include: Alphonse Daudet, Jules Vallès, Joris-Karl Huysmans (later a leading "decadent" and rebel against naturalism), Edmond de Goncourt and his brother Jules de Goncourt, and (in a very different vein) Paul Bourget.

Parnasse
An attempt to be objective was made in poetry by the group of writers known as the Parnassians—which included Leconte de Lisle, Théodore de Banville, Catulle Mendès, Sully-Prudhomme, François Coppée, José María de Heredia and (early in his career) Paul Verlaine—who (using Théophile Gautier's notion of art for art's sake and the pursuit of the beautiful) strove for exact and faultless workmanship, and selected exotic and classical subjects which they treated with a rigidity of form and an emotional detachment (elements of which echo the philosophical work of Arthur Schopenhauer whose aesthetic theories would also have an influence on the symbolists).

Modern science and geography were united with romantic adventure in the works of Jules Verne and other writers of popular serial adventure novels and early science-fiction.

Symbolism and the birth of the Modern
The naturalist tendency to see life without illusions and to dwell on its more depressing and sordid aspects appears in an intensified degree in the immensely influential poetry of Charles Baudelaire, but with profoundly romantic elements derived from the Byronic myth of the anti-hero and the romantic poet, and the world-weariness of the "mal du siècle", etc. Similar elements occur in the novels of Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly.

The poetry of Baudelaire and much of the literature in the latter half of the century (or "fin de siècle") were often characterized as "decadent" for their lurid content or moral vision. In a similar vein, Paul Verlaine used the expression "poète maudit" ("accursed poet") in 1884 to refer to a number of poets like Tristan Corbière, Stéphane Mallarmé and Arthur Rimbaud who had fought against poetic conventions and suffered social rebuke or had been ignored by the critics. But with the publication of Jean Moréas Symbolist Manifesto in 1886, it was the term symbolism which was most often applied to the new literary environment.

The writers Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, Paul Valéry, Joris-Karl Huysmans, Arthur Rimbaud, Jules Laforgue, Jean Moréas, Gustave Kahn, Albert Samain, Jean Lorrain, Rémy de Gourmont, Pierre Louÿs, Tristan Corbière, Henri de Régnier, Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, Stuart Merrill, René Ghil, Saint-Pol-Roux, Oscar-Vladislas de Milosz, Albert Giraud, Emile Verhaeren, Georges Rodenbach and Maurice Maeterlinck and others have been called symbolists, although each author's personal literary project was unique.

The symbolists often share themes that parallel Schopenhauer's aesthetics and notions of will, fatality and unconscious forces. The symbolists often used themes of sex (often through the figure of the prostitute), the city, irrational phenomena (delirium, dreams, narcotics, alcohol), and sometimes a vaguely medieval setting. The tone of symbolism is highly variable, at times realistic, imaginative, ironic or detached, although on the whole the symbolists did not stress moral or ethical ideas. In poetry, the symbolist procedure—as typified by Paul Verlaine—was to use subtle suggestion instead of precise statement (rhetoric was banned) and to evoke moods and feelings by the magic of words and repeated sounds and the cadence of verse (musicality) and metrical innovation. Some symbolists explored the use of free verse. The use of leitmotifs, medieval settings and the notion of the complete work of art (blending music, visuals and language) in the works of the German composer Richard Wagner also had a profound impact on these writers.

Stéphane Mallarmé's profound interest in the limits of language as an attempt at describing the world, and his use of convoluted syntax, and in his last major poem Un coup de dés, the spacing, size and position of words on the page were important modern breakthroughs that continue to preoccupy contemporary poetry in France.

Arthur Rimbaud's prose poem collection Illuminations are among the first free verse poems in French; his biographically inspired poem Une saison en enfer (A Season in Hell) was championed by the Surrealists as a revolutionary modern literary act (the same work would play an important role in the New York City punk scene in the 1970s). The infernal images of the prose poem Les Chants de Maldoror by Isidore Ducasse, Comte de Lautréamont would have a similar impact.

The crisis of language and meaning in Mallarmé and the radical vision of literature, life and the political world in Rimbaud are to some degree the cornerstones of the "modern" and the radical experiments of Dada, Surrealism and Theatre of the Absurd (to name a few) in the 20th century.

title: 19th-century French literature


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20th-century French literature

20th-century French literature is literature written in French from 1900 to 1999. For literature made after 1999, see the article Contemporary French literature. Many of the developments in French literature in this period parallel changes in the visual arts. For more on this, see French art of the 20th century.

Overview
French literature was profoundly shaped by the historical events of the century and was also shaped by—and a contributor to—the century's political, philosophical, moral, and artistic crises.

This period spans the last decades of the Third Republic (1871–1940) (including World War I), the period of World War II (the German occupation and the Vichy–1944), the provisional French government (1944–1946) the Fourth Republic (1946–1958) and the Fifth Republic (1959–). Important historical events for French literature include: the Dreyfus Affair; French colonialism and imperialism in Africa, the Far East (French Indochina) and the Pacific; the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962); the important growth of the French Communist Party; the rise of Fascism in Europe; the events of May 1968. For more on French history, see History of France.

Twentieth century French literature did not undergo an isolated development and reveals the influence of writers and genres from around the world, including Walt Whitman, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Franz Kafka, John Dos Passos, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, Luigi Pirandello, the British and American detective novel, James Joyce, Jorge Luis Borges, Bertolt Brecht and many others. In turn, French literature has also had a radical impact on world literature.

Because of the creative spirit of the French literary and artistic movements at the beginning of the century, France gained the reputation as being the necessary destination for writers and artists. Important foreign writers who have lived and worked in France (especially Paris) in the twentieth century include: Oscar Wilde, Gertrude Stein, Ernest Hemingway, William S. Burroughs, Henry Miller, Anaïs Nin, James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Julio Cortázar, Vladimir Nabokov, Edith Wharton and Eugène Ionesco. Some of the most important works of the century in French were written by foreign authors (Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett).

For Americans in the 1920s and 1930s (including the so-called "Lost Generation"), part of the fascination with France was also linked to freedom from Prohibition. For African-Americans in the twentieth century (such as James Baldwin), France was also more accepting of race and permitted greater freedom (in a similar way, Jazz was embraced by the French faster than in some areas in America). A similar sense of freedom from political oppression or from intolerance (such as anti-homosexual discrimination) has drawn other authors and writers to France. France has also been more permissive in terms of censorship, and many important foreign language novels were originally published in France while being banned in America: Joyce's Ulysses (published by Sylvia Beach in Paris, 1922), Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita and William S. Burroughs's Naked Lunch (both published by Olympia Press), and Henry Miller's Tropic of Cancer (published by Obelisk Press).

From 1895 to 1914
The early years of the century (often called the "Belle époque") saw radical experiments in all genres and Symbolism and Naturalism underwent profound changes.

Alfred Jarry united symbolism with elements from marionette theater and a kind of proto-surrealism. The stage was further radicalised both in the direction of expressionism (the "théâtre de l'oeuvre" of Aurélien Lugné-Poe) and hyper-realism (the theater of André Antoine). The theater director Jacques Copeau emphasized training an actor to be a complete person and rejected the Italian stage for something closer to the Elizabethan model, and his vision would have a profound impact on the "Cartel" of the 1920s and 1930s (see below).

Guillaume Apollinaire radicalized the Baudelairian poetic exploration of modern life in evoking planes, the Eiffel Tower and urban wastelands, and he brought poetry into contact with cubism through his Calligrammes, a form of visual poetry. Inspired by Rimbaud, Paul Claudel used a form of free verse to explore his mystical conversion to Catholicism. Other poets from this period include: Paul Valéry, Max Jacob (a key member of the group around Apollinaire), Pierre Jean Jouve (a follower of Romain Rolland's "Unanism"), Valery Larbaud (a translator of Whitman and friend to Joyce), Victor Segalen (friend to Huysmans and Claudel), Léon-Paul Fargue (who studied with Stéphane Mallarmé and was close to Valéry and Larbaud).

In the novel, André Gide's early works, especially L'Immoraliste (1902), pursue the problems of freedom and sensuality that symbolism had posed; Alain-Fournier's novel Le Grand Meaulnes is a deeply felt portrait of a nostalgic past.

But radical experimentation was not appreciated by all literary and artistic circles in the early 20th century. Popular and bourgeois tastes were relatively conservative. The poetic dramas of Edmond Rostand, especially Cyrano de Bergerac in 1897, were immensely popular at the start of the 20th century, as too the "well-made" plays and bourgeois farces of Georges Feydeau. Anatole France, Maurice Barrès, Paul Bourget were leading authors of the period who employed fiction as a convenient vehicle for ideas about men and things. The tradition of the Balzac and Zola inspired roman-fleuve continued to exert a profound attraction, as in Romain Rolland's Jean-Christophe (1906–1912). Paul Léautaud (1872–1956) was the author of a highly original personal diary chronicling the life of the Parisian literary world in the first half of the 20th century in his monumental 13-volume "Journal Littéraire", considered to be "the greatest study of character ever written" by Mavis Gallant, and "more devastating in its truthfulness than the Confessions of Rousseau" by his biographer James Harding.

Popular fiction and genre fiction at the start of the 20th century also included detective fiction, like the mysteries of the author and journalist Gaston Leroux who is credited with the first "locked-room puzzle" -- The Mystery of the Yellow Room, featuring the amateur detective Joseph Rouletabille (1908) -- and the immensely popular The Phantom of the Opera (1910). Maurice Leblanc also rose to prominence with the adventures of gentleman-thief Arsene Lupin, who has gained a popularity akin to Sherlock Holmes in the Anglophone world.

Dada and Surrealism
The First World War generated even more radical tendencies. The Dada movement—which began in a café in Switzerland in 1916—came to Paris in 1920, but by 1924 the writers around Paul Éluard, André Breton, Louis Aragon and Robert Desnos—heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud's notion of the unconscious—had modified dada provocation into Surrealism. In writing and in the visual arts, and by using automatic writing, creative games (like the cadavre exquis) and altered states (through alcohol and narcotics), the surrealists tried to reveal the workings of the unconscious mind. The group championed previous writers they saw as radical (Arthur Rimbaud, the Comte de Lautréamont, Baudelaire, Raymond Roussel) and promoted an anti-bourgeois philosophy (particularly with regards to sex and politics) which would later lead most of them to join the communist party. Other writers associated with surrealism include: Jean Cocteau, René Crevel, Jacques Prévert, Jules Supervielle, Benjamin Péret, Philippe Soupault, Pierre Reverdy, Antonin Artaud (who revolutionized theater), Henri Michaux and René Char. The surrealist movement would continue to be a major force in experimental writing and the international art world until the Second World War. The surrealists technique was particularly well suited for poetry and theater, although Breton, Aragon and Cocteau wrote longer prose works as well, such as Breton's novel Nadja.

Influence and dissidence
The influence of surrealism will be of great importance on poets like Saint-John Perse or Edmond Jabès, for example. Others, such as Georges Bataille, created their own movement and group in reaction. The Swiss writer Blaise Cendrars was close to Apollinaire, Pierre Reverdy, Max Jacob and the artists Chagall and Léger, and his work has similarities with both surrealism and cubism.

Novel
In the first half of the century the genre of the novel also went through further changes. Louis-Ferdinand Céline's novels—such as Voyage au bout de la nuit (Journey to the End of Night) -- used an elliptical, oral, and slang-derived style to rail against the hypocrisies and moral lapses of his generation (his anti-semitic tracts in the 1940s, however, led to his condemnation for collaboration). Georges Bernanos's novels used other formal techniques (like the "journal form") to further psychological exploration. Psychological analysis was also central to François Mauriac's novels, although he would come to be seen by Sartre as representative of an outdated fatalism. Jules Romains's 27-volume novel Les Hommes de bonne volonté (1932–1946), Roger Martin du Gard's eight-part novel cycle The Thibaults (1922–1940), and Marcel Proust's seven-part masterpiece À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time, 1913–1927) expanded on the roman-fleuve model. André Gide continued to experiment with the novel, and his most sophisticated exploration of the limits of the traditional novel is found in The Counterfeiters, a novel ostensibly about a writer trying to write a novel.

Theater
Theater in the 1920s and 1930s went through further changes in a loose association of theaters (called the "Cartel") around the directors and producers Louis Jouvet, Charles Dullin, Gaston Baty and Ludmila and Georges Pitoëff. They produced works by the French writers Jean Giraudoux, Jules Romains, Jean Anouilh, Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, and also of Greek and Shakespearean theater, and works by Luigi Pirandello, Anton Chekhov and George Bernard Shaw. Antonin Artaud 1896-1948 as a poet and playwright revolutions the concept of language, and changes the history and practice of theater.

Existentialism
In the late 1930s, the works of Hemingway, Faulkner and Dos Passos came to be translated into French, and their prose style had a profound impact on the work of writers like Jean-Paul Sartre, André Malraux and Albert Camus. Sartre, Camus, Malraux and Simone de Beauvoir (who is also famous as one of the forerunners of Feminist writing) are often called "existentialist writers", a reference to Sartre's philosophy of Existentialism (although Camus refused the title "existentialist"). Sartre's theater, novels and short stories often show individuals forced to confront their freedom or doomed for their refusal to act. Malraux's novels of Spain and China during the civil wars confront individual action with historical forces. Similar issues appear in the novels of Henri Troyat.

In the French colonies
The 1930s and 1940s saw significant contributions by citizens of French colonies, as Albert Camus or Aimé Césaire, the latter whom created, along with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Léon Damas the literary review L'Étudiant Noir, which was a forerunner of the Négritude movement.

Literature after World War II
The 1950s and 1960s were highly turbulent times in France: despite a dynamic economy ("les trente glorieuses" or "30 Glorious Years"), the country was torn by their colonial heritage (Vietnam and Indochina, Algeria), by their collective sense of guilt from the Vichy Regime, by their desire for renewed national prestige (Gaullism), and by conservative social tendencies in education and industry. The works, positions and thinking of Albert Camus are also emblematic of a reckoning in the French intellectual circles of post World War II, signaling the moral imperative to distance from Communism.

Inspired by the theatrical experiments in the early half of the century and by the horrors of the war, the so-called avant-garde Parisian theater, "New Theater" or "Theatre of the Absurd" around the writers Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Fernando Arrabal refused simple explanations and abandoned traditional characters, plots and staging. Other experiments in theatre involved decentralisation, regional theater, "popular theater" (designed to bring working classes to the theater), and theater heavily influenced by Bertolt Brecht (largely unknown in France before 1954), and the productions of Arthur Adamov and Roger Planchon. The Avignon festival was started in 1947 by Jean Vilar who was also important in the creation of the T.N.P. or "Théâtre National Populaire."

The French novel from the 1950s on went through a similar experimentation in the group of writers published by "Les Éditions de Minuit", a French publisher; this "Nouveau roman" ("new novel"), associated with Alain Robbe-Grillet, Marguerite Duras, Robert Pinget, Michel Butor, Samuel Beckett, Nathalie Sarraute, Claude Simon, also abandoned traditional plot, voice, characters and psychology. To a certain degree, these developments closely paralleled changes in cinema in the same period (the Nouvelle Vague).Furthermore, French writing's about the course of the recent world war were plentiful, with many works, such as Au Revoir Les Enfants by Louis Malle becomg widespread and popular

The writers Georges Perec, Raymond Queneau, Jacques Roubaud are associated with the creative movement Oulipo (founded in 1960) which uses elaborate mathematical strategies and constraints (such as lipograms and palindromes) as a means of triggering ideas and inspiration.

Poetry in the post-war period followed a number of interlinked paths, most notably deriving from surrealism (such as with the early work of René Char), or from philosophical and phenomenological concerns stemming from Heidegger, Friedrich Hölderlin, existentialism, the relationship between poetry and the visual arts, and Stéphane Mallarmé's notions of the limits of language. Another important influence was the German poet Paul Celan. Poets working within these philosophical/language concerns—especially concentrated around the review "L'Ephémère"—include Yves Bonnefoy, André du Bouchet, Jacques Dupin, Claude Esteban, Roger Giroux and Philippe Jaccottet. Many of these ideas were also key to the works of Maurice Blanchot. The unique poetry of Francis Ponge exerted a strong influence on a variety of writers (both phenomenologists and those from the group "Tel Quel"). The later poets Claude Royet-Journoud, Anne-Marie Albiach, Emmanuel Hocquard, and to a degree Jean Daive, describe a shift from Heidegger to Ludwig Wittgenstein and a reevaluation of Mallarmé's notion of fiction and theatricality; these poets were also influenced by certain English-language modern poets (such as Ezra Pound, Louis Zukofsky, William Carlos Williams, and George Oppen) along with certain American postmodern and avant garde poets loosely grouped around the language poetry movement (such as Michael Palmer, Keith Waldrop and Susan Howe; with her husband Keith Waldrop, Rosmarie Waldrop has a profound association with these poets, due in no small measure to her translations of Edmond Jabès and the prose of Paul Celan into English).

The events of May 1968 marked a watershed in the development of a radical ideology of revolutionary change in education, class, family and literature. In theater, the conception of "création collective" developed by Ariane Mnouchkine's Théâtre du Soleil refused division into writers, actors and producers: the goal was for total collaboration, for multiple points of view, for an elimination of separation between actors and the public, and for the audience to seek out their own truth.

The most important review of the post-1968 period -- Tel Quel—is associated with the writers Philippe Sollers, Julia Kristeva, Georges Bataille, the poets Marcelin Pleynet and, the critics Roland Barthes, Gérard Genette and the philosophers Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan.

Another post-1968 change was the birth of "Écriture féminine" promoted by the feminist Editions des Femmes, with new women writers as Chantal Chawaf, Hélène Cixous, Luce Irigaray ...

From the 1960s on, many of the most daring experiments in French literature have come from writers born in French overseas departments or former colonies. This Francophone literature includes the prize-winning novels of Tahar ben Jelloun (Morocco), Patrick Chamoiseau (Martinique), Amin Maalouf (Lebanon) and Assia Djebar (Algeria).

title: 20th-century French literature


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User talk:PariahKing

Welcome!
Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome!
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Seriously, this is the closest thing there is to PMs. Reply with your message preceded by ":". And you should write a little bio, so your name no longer appears in red. --The Computer Mutt 08:33, August 23, 2005 (UTC)

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Contemporary French literature

This article is about French literature from the year 2000 to the present day.

Overview
The economic, political and social crises of contemporary France -terrorism, violence, immigration, unemployment, racism, etc.—and (for some) the notion that France has lost its sense of identity and international prestige—through the rise of American hegemony, the growth of Europe and of global capitalism (mondialisation)—have created what some critics (like Nancy Huston) have seen as a new form of detached nihilism, reminiscent of the 50s and 60s (Beckett, Cioran). The best known of these authors is Michel Houellebecq, whose Atomised (Les particules élémentaires) was a major international phenomenon. These tendencies have also come under attack. In one of her essays, Nancy Huston criticises Houellebecq for his nihilism; she also makes an acerbic censure of his novels in her work The teachers of despair (Professeurs de désespoir).

Although the contemporary social and political context can be felt in recent works, overall, French literature written in past decades has been disengaged from explicit political discussion (unlike the authors of the 1930s–1940s or the generation of 1968) and has focused on the intimate and the anecdotal. It has tended to no longer see itself as a means of criticism or world transformation, with some notable exceptions (such as Michel Houellebecq or Maurice Dantec).

Other contemporary writers during the last decade have consciously used the process of "autofiction" (similar to the notion of "faction") to renew the novel (Christine Angot for example). "Autofiction" is a term invented by Serge Doubrovsky in 1977. It is a new sort of romanticised autobiography that resembles the writing of the romantics of the nineteenth century. A few other authors may be perceived as vaguely belonging to this group: Emmanuel Carrère, Alice Ferney, Annie Ernaux, Olivia Rosenthal, Anne Wiazemsky, and Vassilis Alexakis. In a related vein, Catherine Millet's 2002 memoir The Sexual Life of Catherine M. gained much press for its frank exploration of the author's sexual experiences.

Contemporary French authors include: Jonathan Littell,  David Foenkinos, Jean-Michel Espitallier, Christophe Tarkos, Olivier Cadiot, Chloé Delaume,  Patrick Bouvet, Charles Pennequin,  Nathalie Quintane, Frédéric-Yves Jeannet, Nina Bouraoui, Hubries le Dieu, Arno Bertina, Edouard Levé, Bruno Guiblet, Christophe Fiat, and Tristan Garcia.

Many of the most lauded works in French over the last decades have been written by individuals from former French colonies or overseas possessions. This Francophone literature includes the novels of Ahmadou Kourouma (Côte d'Ivoire), Tahar ben Jelloun (Morocco), Patrick Chamoiseau (Martinique), Amin Maalouf (Lebanon), Mehdi Belhaj Kacem (Tunisia), Assia Djebar (Algeria) and Mohamed Mbougar Sarr (Senegal).

France has a number of important literary awards Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française, Prix Décembre, Prix Femina, Prix Flore, Prix Goncourt, Prix Interallié, Prix Médicis, and Prix Renaudot. In 2011 a new, controversial, award was created called Prix des prix littéraires ("Prize of Literary Prizes") which picks its winner from among the winners of these prizes.

Extrême contemporain
The term extrême contemporain is a French expression used to indicate French literary production published in France in the last 10 years. The extrême contemporain is, then, an ever-shifting concept.

This term was used for the first time by French writer Michel Chaillou in 1987. This simple and convenient definition hides a complex and chaotic literary situation, both from the chronological point of view (the temporal boundaries of the extrême contemporain are in continuous shifting) and for the hetereogeneity of present French literary production, which cannot be defined in a clear and homogeneous way. The term extrême contemporain, therefore, is all-inclusive. The literary production of this period is characterized by a transitory quality; because of the manifolded nature of such an immense corpus of texts, the identification of specific tendencies is inevitably partial and precarious.

Therefore, to define the extrême contemporain as a literary movement would be very improper: it is a mere term of convenience used by commentators and not by the authors themselves.

The extrême contemporain can be seen as a "literary constellation" hardly organized in schemes. In some cases, authors of the extrême contemporain follow an "aesthetics of fragments": their narration is broken into pieces or they show, like Pascal Quignard, for instance, a preference for short sentences. The "apportionment" of knowledge can also be carried out by the use of a chaotic verbal stream, the interior monologue, tropisms, repetition and endophasy. The feeling of uncertainty experience by writers leads him to put in question the notion of novel and its very form, preferring the more general notion of récit. Then, a return to reality takes place: in Pierre Bergounioux's works, readers witness the cultural upsetting concerning generations which follow one another; François Bon describes the exclusion from social and industrial reality; many authors of crime stories, like Jean-Patrick Manchette and Didier Daeninckx, describe social and political reality, and so it does Maurice G. Dantec in his works halfway between spy stories and science fiction; on another side, Annie Ernaux's écriture plate ("flat writing") tries to demolish the distance between reality and its narration.

Subjects are shown in a persistent state of crisis. However, a return to everyday life and trivial habits also takes place: the attention is focused to the "outcasts of literature", like, for instance, old people. This use of triviality and everyday life expresses itself in a new sort of "minimalism": from Pierre Michon's Small lives fictional biographies of unknown people, to Philippe Delerm's "small pleasures". The facets of this minimalism manifest themselves in many ways, through the triviality of the subject, through short forms, or through concise and bare phrases. On one hand, heroicized characters try to build up their own individual way against a senseless reality, so that emarginated or marginal people emerge through the building up of their own story; on the other hand, a "negative minimalism" takes place: characters stagnate in social and relational difficulties.

 * French authors of the extrême contemporain (selection)

 * Eliette Abécassis
 * Jean-Pierre Abraham
 * Olivier Adam
 * Emmanuel Adely
 * Hafid Aggoune
 * Eva Almassy
 * Marc Alpozzo
 * Jacques-Pierre Amette
 * Jean-Pierre Andrevon
 * Christine Angot
 * Yann Apperry
 * Claude Arnaud
 * Pierre Assouline
 * Alexis Aubenque
 * Brigitte Aubert
 * Antoine Audouard
 * Yvan Audouard
 * Pierre Autin-Grenier
 * Ayerdhal
 * François Bégaudeau
 * Frédéric Beigbeder
 * Pierre Bergounioux
 * Arno Bertina
 * Jacques A. Bertrand
 * François Bon
 * Michel Chaillou
 * Christophe Claro
 * Philippe Claudel
 * Philippe Delerm
 * Christine Deroin
 * Maryline Desbiolles
 * Michèle Desbordes
 * Virginie Despentes
 * Jean Echenoz
 * Annie Ernaux
 * Maxence Fermine
 * Michael Ferrier
 * Alain Fleischer
 * Christian Gailly
 * Sylvie Germain
 * Michel Houellebecq
 * Frédéric-Yves Jeannet
 * Jean-Marie Laclavetine
 * Camille Laurens
 * Gabriel Méxène
 * Pierre Michon
 * Alain Nadaud
 * Claude Ollier
 * Christian Oster
 * Daniel Pennac
 * Pascal Quignard
 * Jean Rolin
 * Olivier Rolin
 * Tiphaine Samoyault
 * Colombe Schneck
 * Tanguy Viel
 * Antoine Volodine
 * Cécile Wajsbrot

title: Contemporary French literature


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Pilocarpus

Pilocarpus is a genus of about 13 species of plants belonging to the family Rutaceae, native to the Neotropics of South America. Various species are important pharmacologically as a source of the parasympathomimetic alkaloid pilocarpine. Many of the species have the common name jaborandi.

Etymology
The taxonomic name Pilocarpus is derived from ancient Greek πῖλος wool, felt + καρπός fruit.

Species

 * Selected species
 * Pilocarpus goudotianus Tul.
 * Pilocarpus jaborandi (Pernambuco jaborandi)
 * Pilocarpus microphyllus (Maranham jaborandi)
 * Pilocarpus racemosus (Guadeloupe jaborandi)
 * Pilocarpus pennatifolius (Paraguay jaborandi)
 * Pilocarpus spicatus (Aracati jaborandi)

title: Pilocarpus


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User talk:JoJo McLeod

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Adrienne Corri

Adrienne Corri (born Adrienne Riccoboni; 13 November 1931 – 13 March 2016) was a Scottish actress.

Early life
She was born Adrienne Riccoboni in Glasgow in November 1931, the daughter of an English mother (Olive Smethurst) and an Italian father (Luigi Riccoboni; sometimes spelt Reccobini). In the 1930s, her father Luigi (known as Louis) ran the Crown Hotel in Callander, Stirling. She had one brother.

Career
Corri may be best known for one of her smaller parts, that of Mary Alexander, wife of the writer Frank Alexander (played by Patrick Magee), in Stanley Kubrick's dystopian A Clockwork Orange (1971). Corri, not originally cast in the film, was offered the role after two actresses had already withdrawn from the production, one of them, according to Malcolm McDowell (who played Alex DeLarge), because she found it "too humiliating – because it involved having to be perched, naked, on Warren Clarke's (playing "Dim the Droog") shoulders for weeks on end while Stanley decided which shot he liked the best." Corri had no such qualms about appearing naked, joking to McDowell: "Well, Malcolm, you're about to find out that I'm a real redhead."

Corri earned Kubrick's respect by her willingness to undergo the gruelling process of shooting endless takes. She recalled: "For four days I was bashed about by Malcolm (Alex) and he really hit me. One scene was shot 39 times until Malcolm said 'I can't hit her any more!'"

Corri's film debut was in The Romantic Age (1949), which was followed by Jean Renoir's version of The River (1951). Her other film roles included Lara's mother in David Lean's Dr. Zhivago and Dorothy in Otto Preminger's thriller Bunny Lake Is Missing (both 1965). She also appeared in a number of horror and suspense films until the 1970s including Devil Girl from Mars (1954), The Tell-Tale Heart (1960), A Study in Terror (1965) and Vampire Circus (1972). She also appeared as Therese Duval in Revenge of the Pink Panther (1978).

She appeared in such diverse productions as the science fiction movie Moon Zero Two (1969) and a television version of Twelfth Night (1970), directed by John Sichel, as the Countess Olivia, where she played opposite Sir Alec Guinness as Malvolio.

Her other television credits include Angelica in Sword of Freedom (1958), Yolanda in The Invisible Man episode "Crisis in the Desert" (1958), regular roles in A Family at War and You're Only Young Twice (both 1971 – the latter a television series created by Jack Trevor Story), Mena in the Doctor Who story "The Leisure Hive" (1980), and Veronica in Love in a Cold Climate (1980). She guest-starred as the mariticidal Liz Newton in the UFO episode "The Square Triangle" (1970) and was in two episodes of Danger Man (US: Secret Agent, both 1965). She was equally at home in the classics of British theatre, giving an outstanding performance as Lady Fidget in a BBC Play of the Month, William Wycherley's Restoration comedy The Country Wife (1977), with Helen Mirren.

Corri had a major stage career, appearing regularly both in London and in the provincial theatres. She appeared in one of the first English performances in 1968 of Come and Go, Samuel Beckett's one-act "dramaticule", in Beckett's coinage, performed at the Royal Festival Hall as part of "a gala entertainment concerning depravity and corruption" (the words coming from the nineteenth-century definition of obscenity), sponsored by the National Council for Civil Liberties and the Defence of Literature and the Arts Society, which raised funds to support publishers being prosecuted for obscenity. It was directed by Deryk Mendel, with Corri appearing alongside Marie Kean and Billie Whitelaw in the roles of Flo, Vi, and Ru. The evening included both classical and rock music, and a mixed programme compèred by George Melly. In his entry for Clifford Anthony Smythe in the online Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, John Calder records that "The profit was much less than expected for a sold-out house, as the person who had volunteered to organise the souvenir programme spent too little time finding advertisers as against providing editorial content."

Personal life
Corri was known for her feisty personality. When the audience booed on the first night of John Osborne's The World of Paul Slickey, she responded by raising two fingers to the audience and shouting: "Go fuck yourselves". During the making of Moon Zero Two, she poured a glass of iced water inside James Olson's rubber space suit. Despite his uncomfortable state, Olson was obliged to wear the suit for the remainder of the day's shooting.

Corri was acquainted with many of the leading figures in the British theatre, including Joe Orton, who recounted in his diaries that he asked her advice on how best to end his relationship with his lover, Kenneth Halliwell. She enjoyed a good relationship with Stanley Kubrick, who joked with her that, in the home invasion sequence in A Clockwork Orange, she was cast in "the Debbie Reynolds part", a reference to Reynolds's role in the film Singin' in the Rain (1952). After completing A Clockwork Orange, Corri kept in touch with Kubrick, who complained to her about the problem he had of losing socks whenever he did the washing, so for Christmas she gave him a pair of bright red socks, a humorous reference to her scene in A Clockwork Orange in which, after Alex had finished snipping off her red pyjama suit, she was naked except for a pair of red socks.

In the louche atmosphere of the 1960s, when peers, film stars and gangsters rubbed shoulders, Corri became acquainted with some of London's demi-monde, including the much-married bon viveur John Wodehouse, 4th Earl of Kimberley, as well as socialising with other actors, and the Kray twins at their El Morocco club, one of the haunts of Conservative politician Robert Boothby, an acquaintance of the Krays, who used the twin brothers to supply him with rent boys.

She had two children, Patrick and Sarah Filmer-Sankey, from a relationship with the film producer Patrick Filmer-Sankey in the 1950s.

Corri died at her home in London on 13 March 2016 from coronary artery disease, at the age of 84.

Gainsborough studies
She was the author of The Search for Gainsborough, a book written in diary form, detailing her efforts to establish the provenance of a painting of David Garrick which she believed to be by a young Thomas Gainsborough. She also wrote a scholarly article in The Burlington Magazine about the portrait and its connection to Gainsborough's very early work Self Portrait as a Boy, c. 1739 (the latter can be seen online at the Historical Portraits Image Library).

Corri's research and her article are discussed in "Tom will be a genius – new landscapes by the young Thomas Gainsborough", the catalogue of an exhibition at Philip Mould Ltd, 4–28 July 2009, with text by Lindsay Stainton and Bendor Grosvenor. Corri's claim that the painting was by the young Gainsborough was based on her detailed research into the archives of the Bank of England, which indicated that significant financial payments were made to Gainsborough while he was still a boy. Following a claim by Corri for the expense incurred restoring and authenticating the picture, the painting was given to her in May 1990, in an out-of-court settlement with the Alexandra Theatre in Birmingham, which disputed her valuation and the attribution to Gainsborough.

Marriage
Corri was married to actor Daniel Massey from 1961 until they divorced in 1967. The marriage to Massey proved to be somewhat tempestuous, with Massey describing the relationship in the following terms, "We were agonizingly incompatible but we had an extraordinary physical attraction." Massey envisaged a domestic life for Corri but she realised that she was not suited to being a full-time housewife, and after a six-year hiatus she resumed her career as an actress.

title: Adrienne Corri


text: Template:User lv-4

title: Template:User lv-4


text:
Pimelea

Pimelea, commonly known as rice flowers, is a genus of plants belonging to the family Thymelaeaceae. There are about 150 species, including 110 in Australia and 36 in New Zealand.

Description
Plants in the genus Pimelea are herbs or small shrubs, usually with leaves arranged in opposite pairs. The leaves are usually paler on the lower surface and the petiole is usually very short. The flowers are usually arranged in groups on the ends of the branches and have no petals, but four petal-like sepals and two stamens. The ovary has a single ovule and the fruit is usually a nut containing a single seed.

Taxonomy and naming
The genus Pimelea was first formally described in 1788 by Joseph Gaertner from unpublished descriptions by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. The first species Gaertner described was Pimelea laevigata, now known as Pimelea prostrata.

The name Pimelea is from the Ancient Greek word pimele, meaning "fat or "lard", possibly referring to the oily seeds or fleshy cotyledons of riceflowers.

Ecology
Some species, including P. curviflora, P. flava, P. glauca, P. linifolia, P. microcephala, P. neo-anglica, P. pauciflora, P. simplex and P. trichostachya, are toxic to stock; there is no known cure.

Species
About 150 species of Pimelea have been formally described, including about 110 in Australia and 36 in New Zealand. The following is a combined list of names accepted by the Australian Plant Census or the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network as of December 2021.

 * Pimelea acra C.J.Burrows & de Lange (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea actea C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea aeruginosa F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea alpina F.Muell. ex Meisn. – alpine riceflower (N.S.W., Vic.)
 * Pimelea altior F.Muell. (Qld., N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea amabilis (Domin) A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea ammocharis F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea angustifolia R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea approximans A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea aquilonia Rye (Qld.)
 * Pimelea argentea R.Br. – silvery leaved pimelea (W.A.)
 * Pimelea aridula Cheeseman (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea avonensis Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea axiflora F.Muell. ex Meisn. – bootlace bush (N.S.W., Vic., Tas.)
 * Pimelea axiflora subsp. alpina
 * Pimelea axiflora subsp. axiflora
 * Pimelea axiflora subsp. pubescens
 * Pimelea barbata C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea biflora N.A.Wakef. – matted rice flower (N.S.W.,Vic.)
 * Pimelea brachyphylla Benth. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea bracteata Threlfall (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea brevifolia R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea brevifolia subsp. brevifolia
 * Pimelea brevifolia subsp. modesta
 * Pimelea brevistyla Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea brevistyla subsp. brevistyla
 * Pimelea brevistyla subsp. minor
 * Pimelea buxifolia Hook.f. (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea calcicola Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea carnosa C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea chlorina A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea ciliata Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea ciliata subsp. ciliata
 * Pimelea ciliata subsp. longituba
 * Pimelea ciliolaris (Threlfall) Rye (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea cinerea R.Br. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea clavata Labill. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea concinna Allan (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea concreta F.Muell. (W.A., N.T.)
 * Pimelea confertiflora A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea congesta C.Moore & F.Muell. (Lord Howe Island)
 * Pimelea cornucopiae Vahl (Qld.)
 * Pimelea cracens Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea cracens subsp. cracens
 * Pimelea cracens subsp. glabra
 * Pimelea cremnophila L.M.Copel. & I.Telford (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea cryptica C.J.Burrows & Enright (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea curviflora R.Br. – tough-barked riceflower, curved riceflower (N.S.W., Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea curviflora var. acuta Threlfall
 * Pimelea curviflora R.Br. var. curviflora
 * Pimelea curviflora var. divergens Threlfall
 * Pimelea curviflora var. gracilis (R.Br.) Threlfall
 * Pimelea curviflora var. sericea Benth.
 * Pimelea curviflora var. subglabrata Threlfall
 * Pimelea declivis C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea decora Domin – Flinders poppy (Qld.)
 * Pimelea drummondii (Turcz.) Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea drupacea Labill. – cherry riceflower (Vic., Tas.)
 * Pimelea dura C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea elongata Threlfall (N.S.W., Qld., S.A.)
 * Pimelea erecta Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea eyrei F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea eremitica C.J.Burrows – roimata o tohe (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea ferruginea Labill. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea filifolia (Rye) C.S.P.Foster & Henwood (N.T.)
 * Pimelea filiformis Hook.f. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea flava R.Br. – yellow riceflower, diosma riceflower (N.S.W., Vic. S.A.)
 * Pimelea flava subsp. dichotoma
 * Pimelea flava subsp. flava
 * Pimelea floribunda Meisn. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea forrestiana F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea fugiens A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea gigandra A.R.Bean (Qld., N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea gilgiana E.Pritz. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea glauca R.Br. – smooth riceflower (N.S.W., Qld., Tas., S.A.)
 * Pimelea gnidia (J.R.Forst. et G.Forst.) Willd. (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea graniticola Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea haematostachya F.Muell. (Qld.)
 * Pimelea halophila Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea hewardiana Meisn. – forked riceflower (Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea hirta C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea hirsuta Meisn. (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea hirsuta subsp. elliptifolia
 * Pimelea hirsuta subsp. hirsuta
 * Pimelea hispida R.Br. – bristly pimelea (W.A.)
 * Pimelea holroydii F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea humilis R.Br. – common riceflower (N.S.W., Vic., Tas., S.A.)
 * Pimelea ignota C.J.Burrows & Courtney – pinatoro (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea imbricata R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea imbricata var. imbricata
 * Pimelea imbricata var. major
 * Pimelea imbricata var. petraea
 * Pimelea imbricata var. piligera
 * Pimelea imbricata var. simulans
 * Pimelea interioris Rye (N.T.)
 * Pimelea lanata R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea latifolia R.Br. (N.S.W., Qld.)
 * Pimelea lehmanniana Meisn. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea lehmanniana subsp. lehmanniana
 * Pimelea lehmanniana subsp. nervosa
 * Pimelea leiophylla A.M.Gray & M.Baker (Tas.)
 * Pimelea leptospermoides F.Muell. (Qld.)
 * Pimelea leptospermoides subsp. bowmanii
 * Pimelea leptospermoides subsp. leptospermoides
 * Pimelea leptostachya Benth. (Qld.)
 * Pimelea leucantha Diels (W.A.)
 * Pimelea ligustrina Labill. – tall riceflower (N.S.W., Qld., Vic., Tas., S.A.)
 * Pimelea ligustrina subsp. ciliata
 * Pimelea ligustrina subsp. hypericina
 * Pimelea ligustrina subsp. ligustrina
 * Pimelea linifolia Sm. – slender riceflower (N.S.W., Qld., S.A., Vic., Tas.)
 * Pimelea linifolia subsp. caesia
 * Pimelea linifolia subsp. collina
 * Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia
 * Pimelea linifolia subsp. ''linoides'
 * Pimelea longiflora R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea longiflora subsp. longiflora
 * Pimelea longifolia Sol. ex Wikstr. – long-leaved pimelea, taranga (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea lyallii Hook.f. (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea macrostegia (Benth.) J.M.Black (S.A.)
 * Pimelea mesoa C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea micrantha F.Muell. ex Meisn. – silky rice-flower (N.S.W., Vic., W.A., S.A., Tas.)
 * Pimelea microcephala R.Br. – mallee riceflower or shrubby riceflower (N.S.W., Qld., Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A.)
 * Pimelea microcephala subsp. glabra
 * Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala
 * Pimelea microphylla Colenso (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea milliganii Meisn. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea mimosa C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea mollis A.R.Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea neoanglica Threlfall – poison pimelea, scanty riceflower (N.S.W., Qld.)
 * Pimelea neokyrea Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea nitens C.J.Burrows & Courtney (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea nivea Labill. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea notia C.J.Burrows & Thorsen (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea octophylla R.Br. – woolly riceflower, downy riceflower (Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea oreophila C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea orthia C.J.Burrows & Thorsen (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea pagophila Rye (Vic.)
 * Pimelea pauciflora R.Br. – poison rice-flower (N.S.W., Vic., Tas.)
 * Pimelea pelinos Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea pendens Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea penicillaris F.Muell. (N.S.W., Qld., S.A., N.T.)
 * Pimelea petrophila F.Muell. (S.A., N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea phylicoides (Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea physodes Hook.f. – Qualup bell (W.A.)
 * Pimelea plurinervia Bean (Qld.)
 * Pimelea poppelwellii Petrie – Poppelwells pimelea (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea preissii Meisn. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea prostrata (J.R.Forst. et G.Forst.) Willd. – pinatoro, New Zealand daphne, Strathmore weed (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea pseudolyallii Allan (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea punicea R.Br. (W.A, N.T.)
 * Pimelea pygmaea F.Muell. & C.Stuart ex Meisn. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea rara Rye – summer pimelea (W.A.)
 * Pimelea rosea R.Br. – rose banjine (W.A.)
 * Pimelea rosea subsp. annelsii Rye
 * Pimelea rosea R.Br. subsp. rosea
 * Pimelea rupestris A.R.Bean (Qld., N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea sanguinea F.Muell. (W.A., N.T., Qld.)
 * Pimelea sericea R.Br. (Tas.)
 * Pimelea sericostachya F.Muell. (Qld.)
 * Pimelea sericeovillosa Hook.f. – cushion pimelea (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea serpyllifolia R.Br. – thyme riceflower (N.S.W., Vic., Tas., W.A., S.A.)
 * Pimelea serpyllifolia subsp. occidentalis
 * Pimelea serpyllifolia subsp. serpyllifolia
 * Pimelea sessilis Rye (W.A.)
 * Pimelea simplex F.Muell. – desert riceflower (N.T., N.S.W., Qld., Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea simplex subsp. continua
 * Pimelea simplex subsp. simplex
 * Pimelea spectabilis Lindl. – bunjong (W.A.)
 * Pimelea spicata R.Br. (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea spiculigera F.Muell. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea spiculigera F.Muell. var. spiculigera
 * Pimelea spiculigera var. thesioides (S.Moore) Rye
 * Pimelea spinescens Rye – spiny riceflower (Vic.)
 * Pimelea spinescens subsp. pubiflora Rye
 * Pimelea spinescens Rye subsp. spinescens
 * Pimelea sporadica C.J.Burrows (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea stricta Meisn. (N.S.W., Vic., S.A.) – gaunt rice-flower
 * Pimelea strigosa Gand. (N.S.W., Qld.)
 * Pimelea suaveolens Meisn. – scented banjine (W.A.)
 * Pimelea suaveolens subsp. flava
 * Pimelea suaveolens subsp. suaveolens
 * Pimelea subvillifera (Threlfall) Rye (W.A., S.A.)
 * Pimelea sulphurea Meisn. – yellow banjine (W.A.)
 * Pimelea suteri Kirk (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea sylvestris R.Br. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea telura C.J.Burrows – three kings pimelea (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea tinctoria Meisn. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea tomentosa (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Druce (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea traversii Hook.f. (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea treyvaudii F.Muell. ex Ewart & B.Rees – grey riceflower (N.S.W., Vic.)
 * Pimelea trichostachya Meisn. (N.S.W., Qld., Vic., W.A., S.A., N.T.)
 * Pimelea umbratica A.Cunn. ex Meisn. (N.S.W., Qld.)
 * Pimelea urvilleana A.Rich. (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea urvilleana subsp. nesica (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea urvilleana subsp. urvilleana – pinatoro (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea venosa Threlfall – Bolivia Hill pimelea (N.S.W.)
 * Pimelea villifera Meisn. (W.A.)
 * Pimelea villosa Sol. ex Sm. – sand daphne, autetaranga, toroheke, sand pimelea (N.Z.)
 * Pimelea williamsonii J.M.Black – Williamson's riceflower (Vic., S.A.)
 * Pimelea xenica C.J.Burrows – pinatoro (N.Z.)

title: Pimelea


text:
Talk:Nilgiri Mountain Railway

World Heritage Site
It's true that Nilgiri's Mountain railways has been declared a world heritage site. But when was it exactly? Recently (15th July 2005) valley of the Flowers in Uttaranchal has been included in thw world heritage site list, but Am confused which has been declared when. Or whether both have been declared at the same time. Because we get both of these places listed in UN World Heritage Site website. anybody, please enlighten me...... shree

 * Nilgiri Mountain Railway was grouped with Darjeeling Railway on 15th July 2005 under the title Mountain Railways of India. See website . AHEMSLTD 13:02, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Abt Rack
I am familliar with the Abt rack rail system from the Snowdon Mountain Railway, but I have never seen the "Alternate Biting Teeth (ABT)" explanation of the name.

I have always understood "Abt" to be the name of the (Swiss) inventor.

Is this a case of a second explanation growing up such as PTFE tape being called "Plastic Tape For Engineers"? AHEMSLTD 14:58, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. The Abt system is named after its inventor, Roman Abt who was a Swiss locomotive engineer; also the Nilgiri Mountain Railway is very far from being its only user. I have removed the following from the article as it is patently wrong:

 * It is the only railway system in the world using the technology of Alternate Biting Teeth (ABT) of the rack and pinion system. This technology enables the engine at the rear to push up the rakes while climbing up and holds the trains while decending.

 * -- Chris j wood 14:11, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

I think it must have been copied directly off one of the websites listed on the page. AHEMSLTD 11:51, 27 September 2005 (UTC)

Electrification
"During the Centenary celebrations of Nilgiri Mountain Railway in 1999 the then Railway Minister Nitish Kumar announced that the line would soon be electrified." Is it true that heritage listing forced abandonment of this plan?Myrtone (the strict Australian wikipedian)

 * Certainly not in the way this article portrays it. To reach world heritage status, the NMR must have been nominated as such by the Indian government. There is no way that UNESCO can step in and list a place over the head of the sovereign government of the country in which that place is located. On the other hand this may be a case of the national government using world heritage status as a tool to override local state government decisions; I know that has certainly been the case in (eg) Australia. Or possible one government department playing off another. It isn't clear from the article whether Nitish Kumar was a minister in the Indian government or the Tamil Nadu government. -- Chris j wood 16:38, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

SI vs. Imperial
Is there a good reason why distances are given in kilometers but elevations are given in feet?

 * Good question. Perhaps the article could show both. --DThomsen8 (talk) 01:35, 9 August 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 18:56, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Relationship between articles
Is this railway the same one as the Mountain Train in Ooty? Perhaps there is confusion on my part, and that article should be deleted, or merged with this article. --DThomsen8 (talk) 01:34, 9 August 2009 (UTC)

 * They appear to be different lines, but maybe that's just because the details are presented a bit differently. 64.85.229.248 (talk) 08:46, 26 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Hello. I put a little note into the TV and Film section yesterday about Coonoor Station being used for many of the railway scenes in 'a passage to india'.  I think that my 'skype' made a mess of the settings for the main photograph, so somebody thankfully reverted it.  (I'll just de-install skype...I never use it).  Could somebody (without skype !!) put the note back in for me, because the link at the end goes to a site with some really nice 'moody' photos of the station, which I enjoyed and I think others might too.  Many thanks. (ChrisRed)86.158.124.141 (talk) 08:00, 7 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Ah, that's what it is. I've seen the same garbled text on quite a few articles and have had to revert it. I'll try reinserting the "clean" part of your addition if I can extract it. cheers. — Spaceman  Spiff  08:03, 7 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much for your help. Yes, it seems that skype finds anything that it thinks looks like phone numbers and highlights them so you can call the numbers.  I wish it wouldn't.  I've deleted skype now.  I don't understand the 'citation needed' tag though.  If you click on the link, it is its own citation surely??  Once again, thanks.  (ChrisRed)86.158.124.141 (talk) 16:15, 7 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Just out of interest (cos I'm thinking about a HOn3 model). The article says that the average gradient over the rack section is 1/24.5, but I get the feeling that this has been worked out over the full run from Mettupalayam to Coonoor.  The first part of the line from Mettupalayam to Kalaar is relatively flat, and worked by adhesion (58m rise in 8km = 0.725% = 1/135).  The rack starts at Kalaar and ends at Coonoor; that's 1328m rise in 20km = 6.64% = 1/15.  I know 1/15 sounds pretty steep, but it also looks and sounds pretty steep on YouTube.  I know...I really must get out more :-)  )(ChrisRed) 81.157.16.194 (talk) 18:46, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

NMR is in which division?
The organizational aspect of NMR within IR is not mentioned in the article. Is NMR under the Salem division of SR or is it some special entity?

07:27, 15 August 2014 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Gulielmus estavius (talk • contribs) Yes, NMR was transferred from the Palghat Division to Salem Division from Nov. 2007. - V.M. Govind Krishnan — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.161.28.37 (talk) 12:38, 15 July 2016 (UTC)

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External links modified (January 2018)
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title: Talk:Nilgiri Mountain Railway


text:
Talk:Hum Saath-Saath Hain

Untitled
Don't speedy-delete. I can save this page. Cnwb 08:41, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Hum saath saath hain film poster.JPG
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Unencyclopedic tone
"The first half of the movie is pure family fun and full of love" "So now we move onto the sweet childhood love story" etc etc. Fliponymous (talk) 01:37, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hum Saath-Saath Hain


text:
War of the Theatres

The War of the Theatres is the name commonly applied to a controversy from the later Elizabethan theatre; Thomas Dekker termed it the Poetomachia.

Because of an actual ban on satire in prose and verse publications in 1599 (the Bishops' Ban of 1599), the satirical urge had no other remaining outlet than the stage. The resulting controversy, which unfolded between 1599 and 1602, involved the playwright Ben Jonson on one side and his rivals John Marston and Thomas Dekker (with Thomas Middleton as an ancillary combatant) on the other. The role Shakespeare played in the conflict, if any, has long been a topic of dispute among scholars.

Sequence of events
The least disputed facts of the matter yield a schema like this:

 * 1) In his play Histriomastix (1599), Marston satirized Jonson’s pride through the character Chrisoganus.
 * 2) Jonson responded by satirizing Marston's wordy style in Every Man out of His Humour (1599), a play acted by the Lord Chamberlain's Men. (Note: the order of these first two events has been questioned by James Bednarz, who argues that "(a) Histriomastix was deliberately launched in the final weeks of 1599 to serve as a critique of Jonson's first "comicall satire" Every Man Out, and that (b) Jonson's disparagement of Histriomastix in Every Man Out (III.iv.29) was subsequently added to the acting script of his already completed play, before the end of the same year, as a rejoinder to Marston's initial attack.")
 * 3) Marston, in turn, replied with Jack Drum's Entertainment (1600), a play acted by the Children of Paul's, satirizing Jonson as Brabant Senior, a cuckold.
 * 4) In Cynthia's Revels (1600), acted by the Children of the Chapel, Jonson satirizes both Marston and Dekker. The former is thought to be represented by the character Hedon, a "light voluptuous reveller," and the latter by Anaides, a "strange arrogating puff."
 * 5) Marston next attacked Jonson in What You Will (1601), a play most likely acted by the Children of Paul's.
 * 6) Jonson responded with The Poetaster (1601), by the Children of the Chapel again, in which Jonson portrays the character representing Marston as vomiting bombastic and ridiculous words he has ingested.
 * 7) Dekker completed the sequence with Satiromastix (1601), which mocks Jonson ("Horace") as an arrogant and overbearing hypocrite. The play was acted by both the Children of Paul's and the Lord Chamberlain's Men.

Apparently Jonson and Marston later came to terms and even collaborated with George Chapman on the play Eastward Hoe in 1605. That play offended King James with its anti-Scottish satire, a part apparently written by Marston. While Marston evaded capture, Jonson and Chapman ended up in jail as a result.

Context
Shakespeare probably alludes to The War of the Theatres in a scene between Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern:

 * Rosencrantz: Faith, there has been much to do on both sides; and the nation holds it no sin to tar them to controversy: there was, for a while, no money bid for argument unless the poet and the player went to cuffs in the question.
 * Hamlet: Is't possible?
 * Guildenstern: O, there has been much throwing about of brains. (Hamlet 2.2.362-9)

Scholars differ over the true nature and extent of the rivalry behind the Poetomachia. Some have seen it as a competition between theatre companies rather than individual writers, though this is a minority view. It has even been suggested that the playwrights involved had no serious rivalry and even admired each other, and that the "War" was a self-promotional publicity stunt, a "planned ... quarrel to advertise each other as literary figures and for profit." Most critics see the Poetomachia as a mixture of personal rivalries and serious artistic concerns—"a vehicle for aggressively expressing differences...in literary theory...[a] basic philosophical debate on the status of literary and dramatic authorship."

title: War of the Theatres


text:
Rashid Nurgaliyev

Rashid Gumarovich Nurgaliyev (Рашид Гумарович Нургалиев Рәшит Гомәр улы Нургалиев; born 8 October 1956) is a Russian general and politician who served as Russia's interior minister from 2003 to 2012.

Early life and education
Nurgaliyev was born in Zhetikara, Kazakh SSR, on 8 October 1956 and is of Volga Tatar ethnicity. He graduated from Kuusinen State University in Petrozavodsk in 1979. He later received a doctoral degree in economics. His thesis was on the “economic aspects of the formation of business undertakings in modern Russia".

Career
From 1981 to 1995, he worked in the KGB Directorate of Karelia and its successor, Security Ministry of Karelia, in 1992-1994 led by Nikolai Patrushev.

In 1995, he moved to Moscow and was appointed chief inspector of the Inspectorial Directorate of FSK (FSB) and head of a section of FSB Internal Security Department led by Nikolai Patrushev.

In 2002, he became first deputy minister of interior of Russia. In 2003, he became minister of the MVD. He was removed from office on 21 May 2012 and Vladimir Kolokoltsev replaced him in the post. Two days after his dismissal he was made deputy secretary of the Security Council on 23 May.

He holds the rank of Army General.

In February 2023, by decree of President Putin, Nurgaliyev was appointed First Deputy Secretary of the Russian Security Council.

Sanctions
Sanctioned by the UK government in 2014 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War.

In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, on 6 April 2022 the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the United States Department of the Treasury added Nurgaliyev to its list of persons sanctioned pursuant to.

Personal life
Nurgaliyev is married and has two children. He is an Orthodox Christian.

Honours and awards

 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd and 4th classes
 * Order of Honour
 * Order of Saint Righteous Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy, 1st class (2005, Russian Orthodox Church)
 * Order of Akhmad Kadyrov (2006, Chechen Republic)
 * Honorary Citizen of the Republic of Karelia
 * Yuri Andropov Award
 * Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan"
 * Medal for Distinction in Military Service, 2nd class
 * Medal of Merit in the conduct of national census
 * Jubilee Medal "100 Years of the Trans-Siberian Railway"
 * Medal "In Commemoration of the 300th Anniversary of Saint Petersburg"
 * Jubilee Medal "70 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
 * Medal for Strengthening Military Cooperation(Defence)
 * Medal "200 Years of the Ministry of Defence"
 * Medal "For Military Merit" (MIA)
 * Medal "For Impeccable Service", 1st class

title: Rashid Nurgaliyev