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Cotai Strip

The Cotai Strip is a strip, known mostly for its hotel-casinos in the central area of Cotai, Macau. The term was first coined by the Las Vegas Sands Corporation in reference to its construction of a strip.

Cotai was the result of a major land reclamation project which joined the two islands of Coloane and Taipa and forms part of the Macau government's continuous efforts to expand the region's territory. The reclaimed land in Cotai has been mainly used for the development of casinos.

Over the past few decades, the layout of the Cotai Strip has also slowly developed into a grid-like layout with major hotels and casinos, not directly connected to the 'strip' as opposed to Las Vegas Strip where the majority of major hotels and casinos have front access to the strip.

Naming
The United States Patent and Trademark Office granted Sheldon Adelson's Las Vegas Sands Corporation a trademark on the term Cotai Strip. The name 'Cotai' was formed by combining the first letters of the islands of Coloane and Taipa.

Creation
The Cotai Strip is a term coined by the American company Las Vegas Sands Corporation, referring to its construction of a strip of hotel-casinos in the Cotai section of Macau, a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China. The Cotai Strip was built upon a 5.2 square kilometer land reclamation site in the Seac Pai Bay of the Pearl River Estuary. The strip joins the formerly separate islands of Taipa and Coloane.

Galaxy Entertainment Group's Grand Waldo Hotel was the first casino to commence operations in Cotai, which commenced operations in May 2006. The construction of many other casino and hotel projects is currently underway. The largest and most notable property on Cotai so far is Las Vegas Sands' The Venetian Macao, which opened its doors on August 28, 2007.

Economic Crisis (2008-2010)
Due to the 2008 financial crisis, as many as 11,000 construction workers were set to lose their jobs as the US gaming giant Las Vegas Sands scaled back its development in Macau. Stephen Weaver, Sands' president for Asia, said up to 11,000 workers will lose their jobs in Macau after the company halted building projects in the city such as the developments of Plots 5 and 6, previously Sands Cotai Central, now The Londoner Macao, on the strip. Las Vegas Sands had instead, focused its construction work on the Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore.

On November 30, 2009, Las Vegas Sands announced that it had secured $1.75 billion to complete its development of Sands Cotai Central, which was abandoned with 65% completed in mid-2008. Sands Cotai Central was completed in phases from 2012 to 2015 before being rebranded to The Londoner Macao in 2021. No information was released about Plots 3, 7, and 8. It was very likely these would be cancelled. Macao's Director of the Lands, Public Works, and Transport Bureau (DSSOPT), Jaime Carion, said on 5th December 2010, that the Government is now looking at developing non-gaming projects in Cotai. He emphasized that the Sands China application procedure for Plots 7 and 8 was not fully complete and that the Government would announce the result at the most convenient time.

Galaxy Entertainment Group who was building Galaxy Macau had also stated that after having a very slow construction in 2009, it will try to get its first phase of development open in the first quarter of 2011. Phase 1 of the Galaxy Macau was eventually opened on May 15, 2011, followed by Phase 2 on May 27, 2015.

Recent Developments
The Plaza Macao, housing the Four Seasons Macao, opened a 40-story all-suite tower in October 2020. The tower, associated with the Four Seasons Macao, is branded as the Grand Suites at Four Seasons, comprising 289 suites. Sands Cotai Central was officially rebranded to The Londoner Macao when its first phase of rebranding works was completed on February 8, 2021. As of 2023, several new hotel-casinos have opened in Cotai, including the Grand Lisboa Palace and the Lisboeta Macau.

Bus
Other than a number of public bus services serving the area, many of the hotels in Cotai provide free shuttle buses for guests and visitors. These shuttle buses ferry passengers from the Border Gate, Macau International Airport, Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal, and Taipa Ferry Terminal, to the hotels, and vice versa.

Macau Light Rapid Transit
Opened on December 10, 2019, the Taipa section of the Macau Light Rapid Transit serves the Cotai Strip and the larger area of Cotai. The line has stations at nearly every hotel casino as it meanders through the peripheral road of the Cotai Strip.

Stations serving adjacent hotel casinos are as follows:

 * Pai Kok Station - Galaxy Macau
 * Cotai West Station - Galaxy Macau, Cotai Arena, Cotai Expo, The Venetian Macao, The Plaza Macao, The Parisian Macao, The Londoner Macao
 * Lotus Checkpoint Station - Studio City Macau
 * Cotai East Station - MGM Cotai, City of Dreams, Wynn Palace, The Londoner Macao

Galaxy International Convention Centre (Phase 3)
Scheduled to be completed in the second half of 2021, Galaxy Macau will see the addition of a large-scale 16,000-seat arena named Galaxy Arena, a 650-seat auditorium, 40,000 square meters of MICE space, including a 10,000-square meter pillarless exhibition hall, and a 700-room hotel tower to be operated by Andaz as part of its Phase 3 expansion - Galaxy International Convention Centre (GICC). Built adjacent to Macau Light Rapid Transit's Cotai West Station, GICC will be seamlessly integrated with the existing Galaxy Macau resort.

Raffles at Galaxy Macau (Phase 3)
Announced on 1 March 2021, Galaxy Macau will be adding the Raffles brand to its hotel portfolio as part of its Phase 3 expansion. To be housed in a new all-suites tower, the Raffles at Galaxy Macau will feature a glass airbridge connecting the two towers on every floor, a Mediterranean-inspired garden, an infinity edge pool, a luxury spa, and a fine dining restaurant. The hotel is scheduled to open in the second half of 2021.

Phase 4
Scheduled to be completed in 2022, Phase 4 of Galaxy Macau's expansion will primarily be non-gaming focused and will add approximately 2,000 hotel rooms to the resort.

Studio City Macau Expansion Phase 2
Scheduled to be completed by mid-2022, Phase 2 expansion of Studio City Macau will include two new hotel towers. Additional gaming space, a cineplex, an indoor water park, and facilities for meetings and exhibitions are also part of the expansion plans.

Under the terms of its land concession with the Macau SAR Government, Studio City Macau must complete its expansion by 31 May 2022. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, construction is likely to be delayed and Melco Resorts & Entertainment Limited has stated that the expansion is unlikely to be completed by the deadline.

Wynn Palace Expansion
Announced by Wynn Resorts Limited in 2019, the expansion of Wynn Palace will focus on adding non-gaming assets and two new hotel towers with a total of approximately 1,300 rooms.

A large glass and steel structure, named the Crystal Pavilion, housing an immersive performance space will be built adjacent to the existing Wynn Palace. Furthermore, a 650-room hotel tower will be erected alongside. Non-gaming assets such as interactive sculptures, gardens, and a gourmet food pavilion are also part of the expansion plans.

Phase 1 is estimated to cost US$2 billion, with construction expected to begin in 2021 and completed by 2024.

Another hotel tower will be built as part of Phase 2. Further details on this phase have yet to be released.

MGM Cotai Expansion Phase 2
First mentioned by MGM China Holdings Limited in 2018, a few months after the inauguration of MGM Cotai, an all-new additional south hotel tower has been planned as part of MGM Cotai's expansion plans. The existing retail podium will also be expanded to allow for more recreation and entertainment options. The foundations for the expansion have already been built when constructing the MGM Cotai previously.

In 2019, the chief executive of MGM China Holdings Limited, Grant Bowie, announced that the expansion will only be likely from 2021 or beyond.

Redevelopment of City of Dreams
Announced by Melco Resorts & Entertainment Limited in 2019, City of Dreams will undergo a makeover with a revamp of its hotel properties. With renovation works begun, Nüwa Hotel will be extensively refurbished after being renamed and rebranded from the former Crown Towers. In addition, three new villas will be added to the Morpheus Hotel. The Countdown Hotel, formerly Hard Rock Hotel, will also be revamped and renamed Libertine. Works for these redevelopments are scheduled to be completed in 2021.

Theme Park and Resort
The Macau Theme Park and Resort Ltd, controlled by Angela Leong On Kei, has said that it intends to build a MOP 10.4 billion family-oriented amusement resort and hotels in Cotai. According to a press statement, the integrated resort project will be developed in three phases and each of them will take about two and a half to three years to complete.

SJM Holdings is in talks with Macau Theme Park and Resort Ltd to try to find a way for both companies to cooperate on Cotai, chief executive officer, Ambrose So Shu Fai, revealed on 16 December 2010. Stanley Ho's SJM is still waiting for the Government to approve the application for a plot in Cotai, which sits just beside the Macau Dome and the land where the company, headed by businesswoman and lawmaker Angela Leong On Kei – who is also Stanley Ho's fourth wife and SJM's director –, is set to build the theme park. "We are not a shareholder in the theme park development, but we did talk with Angela Leong, who is developing that theme park, to see if there is a synergy between the two plots of land," So told reporters.

As of 2021, a portion of the land has been developed as Lisboeta Macau, a Macau-themed integrated resort, by Macau Theme Park and Resort Ltd.

The Jumeirah Macau Hotel
First announced in 2008 by Shun Tak Group, Dubai-based Jumeirah Group will manage and operate Macau's first ultra luxury hotel. The Jumeirah Macau Hotel is a 250-room five-star hotel to be located across from the Macau East Asian Games Dome. Initially scheduled to be opened in 2013, the site remains unused and there have been no further information on the project as of date.

Plots 7 and 8
Sands China's application for Cotai plots 7 and 8 was submitted after a freeze on gaming land concession was announced back in 2008, secretary for Economy and Finance, Francis Tam Pak Yuen, explained on 15 December 2010 on the sidelines of a meeting at the Legislative Assembly. On the other hand, the three gaming operators Wynn Macau, MGM Macau and SJM Holdings who are yet to be granted plots in Cotai have filed applications before that policy was stated. As such it is likely the land concession requests of will be approved, the secretary said. But the Land, Public Works and Transport Bureau (DSSOPT) director Jaime Carion told local media on Thursday 16 December 2010 that the plots 7 and 8 in Cotai will not be granted to either gaming operators SJM Holdings or Sands China. After the Government snub, Las Vegas Sands (LVS) has dropped its interest in developing plots 7 and 8 in Cotai. "If somebody else builds on [parcels] 7 and 8, I will be happy. Happier than if I were going to build on it," LVS chairman Sheldon Adelson said at the Bank of America Merrill Lynch Global Gaming Conference in Las Vegas, on 9 January 2011.

title: Cotai Strip


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Aberlady Bay

Aberlady Bay in East Lothian, Scotland lies between Aberlady and Gullane.

In 1952, Aberlady Bay became the UK's first Local Nature Reserve (LNR) and is served by the East Lothian Council Rangers.

The Scottish Ornithologists' Club has Waterston House as its headquarters at Aberlady, with panoramic views of the bay.

Aberlady Bay is part of the John Muir Way, a long distance footpath from Fisherrow (Musselburgh) to Dunglass. It is also the East Lothian Section of the transnational North Sea Trail, a path network connecting seven countries and 26 areas.

Wrecks
The wrecks of eight historic (19th or early 20th century) fishing vessels at Kilspindie have been designated as maritime scheduled ancient monuments.

Two wrecks of XT-craft, training versions of the X craft, can be seen. In 1946, the craft were towed to the bay, then moored to a concrete block and used for target practice by aircraft of the Royal Air Force. The wrecks of the submarines lie much closer to the low-water mark than the high-water mark, and tides in the bay rise very quickly.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aberlady Bay


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Madhabi Mukherjee

Madhabi Chakraborty (née Mukherjee) is an Indian actress. She won the National Film Award for Best Actress for her performance in the Bengali film Dibratrir Kabya. She has acted in some of the most critically acclaimed films in Bengali cinema and is considered one of the great actresses of Bengali cinema.

She made her on-screen debut in Premendra Mitra's Kankantola Light Railway (1950). Her first leading role came with Tapan Sinha's Tonsil (1956). Her name was later changed into "Madhabi" by Mrinal Sen in his Baishe Sraban (1960).

Early life
Her mother raised her daughters Madhabi and Manjari in Kolkata, in what was then Bengal, India. As a young girl, she became involved in the theater.

She worked on stage with doyens such as Sisir Bhaduri, Ahindra Choudhury, Nirmalendu Lahiri and Chhabi Biswas. Some of the plays she acted in included Naa and Kalarah. She made her film debut as a child artist in Premendra Mitra's Dui beaee.

Early stage of career (1950-1962)
Mukherjee first made a major impact with Mrinal Sen's Baishey Shravan (Wedding Day) in 1960. The film is set in a Bengal village before and during the horrific famine of 1943 in Bengal that saw over 5 million die. Mukherjee plays a 16-year-old girl who marries a middle-aged man. Initially, she brightens his life but then World War II and the Bengal Famine hits them. The couple's marriage disintegrates.

Her next major film was Ritwik Ghatak's Subarnarekha (The Golden Thread ) made in 1962, but released in 1965 – the last in a trilogy examining the socio-economic implications of partition, the other two being Meghe Dhaka Tara (The Cloud-Capped Star) (1960) and Komal Gandhar (E-Flat) (1961). In the film, Ghatak depicts the economic and socio-political crisis of Bengal from 1948 to 1962; how the crisis has first and foremost left one bereft of one's conscience. Mukherjee plays Sita, the younger sister of Ishwar (Abhi Bhattacharya), who kills herself when—as a prostitute waiting for her first customer—she finds out the customer is none other than her estranged brother.

Collaboration with Satyajit Ray (1963-1965)
In the early 1960s, she was recruited by Satyajit Ray to portray the role of Arati in the 1963 film Mahanagar (The Big City).

Recalling her meeting with Ray, Mukherjee wrote: "He read me the entire story, Mahanagar. I was stunned. This was the first woman-centered screenplay I had encountered. I was not going to play second fiddle to the main male character as in all plays and films I had acted in or was familiar with. (p.20)"

In Mahanagar, Mukherjee plays Arati, who takes a job as a saleswoman due to financial constraints in the family. The large joint family is horrified at the thought of a working woman. For Arati, going door to door selling knitting machines opens up a whole new world and new friends and acquaintances, including an Anglo-Indian friend, Edith. Earning money also raises Arati's status in the family especially when her husband (Anil Chatterjee) loses his job. When Edith is sacked unfairly, Arati resigns in protest...Mukherjee's towering performance as Arati dominates the film. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote: "It might be useful to see the performance of Madhabi Mukherjee in this film. She is a beautiful deep, wonderful actress who simply surpasses all ordinary standards of judgment."

This film was followed by her portrayals of Charu in Charulata (The Lonely Wife), the 1964 film based on Rabindranath Tagore's novella Nashtanir (The Broken Nest, 1901). Mukherjee's stunning portrayal of Charulata, a bored and neglected housewife of Calcutta in the 19th century, is a towering performance in the history of Indian cinema.

Mukherjee reached the peak of her career with this film. It is said that when Ray returned to Tagore with Ghare Baire (1984) (The Home and the World), he stylised Swatilekha Chatterjee in a manner similar to Madhabi in Charulata. Mukherjee's third and last film with Ray was Kapurush (The Coward) in 1965. The film looks at Amitabha Roy (Soumitra Chatterjee), a screenwriter whose car breaks down in a small town. He lodges with a local resident, Bimal Gupta (Haradhan Bannerjee). Bimal is married to Karuna (Mukherjee), who was a former girlfriend of Amitabha, a fact of which Bimal is unaware.

After Satyajit Ray
Although she remained a big star in the Bengali commercial film industry, after Kapurush, Mukherjee failed to reach the critical heights as her films with Ritwik Ghatak and Satyajit Ray again.

Her major films after Kapurush include Calcutta 71 in 1972 by Mrinal Sen, Biraj Bou in 1972 by Manu Sen, Strir Patra in 1972 by Purnendu Patri, Ganadevata in 1978 by Tarun Majumdar, Bancharamer Bagan in 1980 by Tapan Sinha, Chokh in 1982, Chhandaneer in 1989 by Utpalendu Chakrabarty and Utsab in 2000 by Rituparno Ghosh.

Personal life
Mukherjee is married to Bengali film actor Nirmal Kumar. They have two daughters, but are currently separated.

She wrote her autobiography Ami Madhabi in 1995.

Filmography

 * Aabesh (2021)
 * Borunbabur Bondhu (2019)
 * Kushumitar Gappo (2018)
 * Bakita Byaktigato (2013)
 * Hing Ting Chot (2010)
 * Mayer Adar (2002)
 * Utsab (2000) as Bhagabati
 * Rangin Basanta (1995)
 * Artikram (1994)
 * Prithibir Shesh Station (1993)
 * Mon Mane Na (1993) as Dipak's mother
 * Daan Pratidaan (1992)
 * Antarer Bhalobasha (1991)
 * Agni Trishna (1989)
 * Chandaneer (1989)
 * Kari Diye Kinlam (1989)
 * Aghaton Ajo Ghatey (1989)
 * Anjali (1988)
 * Ekti Jiban (1988)
 * Hirer Shikal (1988)
 * Pratikar (1987)
 * Uttar Lipi (1986)
 * Anurager Choa (1986)
 * Bhalobasa Bhalobasa (1985)
 * Putulghar (1985)
 * Jog Biyog (1984)
 * Samapti (1983)
 * Chhoto Maa (1983)
 * Chokh (1983)
 * Matir Swarga (1982)
 * Prafulla (1982)
 * Subarnalata (1981)
 * Manikchand (1981) as Baroboudi
 * Saheb (1981)
 * Bancharamer Bagan (1980) as Chhakari's wife
 * Ganadevata (1979) as Padma
 * Yugo Manab Kabir (1976)
 * Phool Sajya (1975)
 * Natun Surya (1975)
 * Agnishwar (1975)
 * Bindur Chheley (1973) as Bindubasini
 * Bon Palashir Padabali (1973)
 * Strir Patra (1972)
 * Chinna Patra (1972)
 * Biraj Bou (1972)
 * Jiban Rahasya (1972)
 * Calcutta 71 (1971)
 * Chhadmabeshi (1971) as Sulekha
 * Samantaral (1970)
 * Duranta Charai (1969)
 * Adwitiya (1968)
 * Garh Nasimpur (1968)
 * Chhotto Jignasa (1968)
 * Kheya (1967)
 * Ajana Shapath  (1967)
 * Shankhabela (1966)
 * Swapna Niye (1966)
 * Joradighir Chowdhury Paribar (1966)
 * Kapurush (1965) as Karuna Gupta
 * Ghoom Bhangar Gaan (1965)
 * Subarnarekha (1965) as Sita
 * Thana Theke Aschi (1965)
 * Godhuli Belaye (1964)
 * Binsati Janani (1964)
 * Charulata (1964) as Charulata
 * Mahanagar (1963) as Arati Mazumder
 * Aaj Kal Parshu (1961)
 * Baishey Shravana (1960)
 * Tonsil (1956)
 * Kankantala Light Railway (1950)

Television

 * Ishti Kutum
 * Hiyar Majhe
 * Chokher Tara Tui
 * Kusum Dola
 * Gachkouto
 * Sanyasi Raja
 * Nokshi Kantha
 * Bajijhor
 * Roshnai

Awards and nominations

 * 2017: WBFJA Lifetime Achievement Award
 * 2014: Filmfare East Lifetime achievement award
 * 1970: National Film Award for Best Actress for Dibratrir Kabya
 * 1965: BFJA Award for Best Actress for Charulata
 * 1966: BFJA Award for Best Actress for Dholgobinder Karcha
 * 1967: BFJA Award for Best Actress Award for Joradighir Chowdhury Paribar
 * 1971: BFJA Award for Best Actress Award for Dibaratir Kabya
 * 2012: Kalakar Awards
 * 2022: ABP Ananda Sera Bangali Award (Lifetime Achievement)

title: Madhabi Mukherjee


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James Godday

James Godday (born 9 January 1984) is a Nigerian athlete who specializes in 400 metres. He was born in Kaduna.

Godday was a part of the Nigerian team that won the bronze medal in the 2004 Olympics 4 x 400 metres relay. In the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki, he competed in 400 metres where he was knocked out in the semi-finals with 46.62. He achieved a personal best in the heats with 45.30. He later improved this to 44.99 seconds, in February 2006 in Abuja.

He finished fifth at the 2006 African Championships and fourth at the 2007 All-Africa Games.

title: James Godday


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Woolwich (disambiguation)

Woolwich is a district of London, England.

Woolwich may also refer to:

Places

 * Woolwich, London, England, and its local features or administrative areas:
 * Woolwich (parish)
 * Woolwich (UK Parliament constituency), now incorporated in Greenwich and Woolwich
 * Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich, a former London borough 1899-1965
 * Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
 * Woolwich Common
 * Woolwich Dockyard
 * Woolwich Arsenal station
 * Woolwich railway station
 * Woolwich Dockyard railway station
 * Woolwich Ferry
 * Woolwich foot tunnel
 * Woolwich, Ontario, Canada
 * Woolwich, Maine, United States of America
 * Woolwich, New South Wales, Australia
 * Woolwich Dock, former dry dock and shipyard in Woolwich, New South Wales
 * Woolwich ferry wharf, also known informally as Valentia Street ferry wharf, a passenger ferry wharf in Woolwich, New South Wales
 * Woolwich Township, New Jersey, United States of America
 * North Woolwich, London, England
 * North Woolwich, Ontario, Canada

Geologic formations

 * Woolwich-and-Reading Beds, geological deposits in southern England
 * Woolwich Formation, in southeast England

People

 * Madlyn-Ann C. Woolwich (born 1937), American pastel painter and author
 * Bishop of Woolwich, an office in the Anglican church

Organizations

 * The Woolwich, a former British bank, previously a building society
 * Woolwich Polytechnic (disambiguation)
 * Woolwich Steam Packet Company
 * Woolwich Boys, a drug-trafficking gang

Other uses

 * HMS Woolwich, the name of nine ships of the Royal Navy
 * Woolwich Equitable Building Society v IRC [1993] AC 70, a judicial decision of the House of Lords
 * Woolwich beheading, the murder of Lee Rigby

title: Woolwich (disambiguation)


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Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a statistical analysis, via time correlation, of stationary fluctuations of the fluorescence intensity. Its theoretical underpinning originated from L. Onsager's regression hypothesis. The analysis provides kinetic parameters of the physical processes underlying the fluctuations. One of the interesting applications of this is an analysis of the concentration fluctuations of fluorescent particles (molecules) in solution. In this application, the fluorescence emitted from a very tiny space in solution containing a small number of fluorescent particles (molecules) is observed. The fluorescence intensity is fluctuating due to Brownian motion of the particles. In other words, the number of the particles in the sub-space defined by the optical system is randomly changing around the average number. The analysis gives the average number of fluorescent particles and average diffusion time, when the particle is passing through the space. Eventually, both the concentration and size of the particle (molecule) are determined. Both parameters are important in biochemical research, biophysics, and chemistry.

FCS is such a sensitive analytical tool because it observes a small number of molecules (nanomolar to picomolar concentrations) in a small volume (~1 μm3). In contrast to other methods (such as HPLC analysis) FCS has no physical separation process; instead, it achieves its spatial resolution through its optics. Furthermore, FCS enables observation of fluorescence-tagged molecules in the biochemical pathway in intact living cells. This opens a new area, "in situ or in vivo biochemistry": tracing the biochemical pathway in intact cells and organs.

Commonly, FCS is employed in the context of optical microscopy, in particular confocal microscopy or two-photon excitation microscopy. In these techniques light is focused on a sample and the measured fluorescence intensity fluctuations (due to diffusion, physical or chemical reactions, aggregation, etc.) are analyzed using the temporal autocorrelation. Because the measured property is essentially related to the magnitude and/or the amount of fluctuations, there is an optimum measurement regime at the level when individual species enter or exit the observation volume (or turn on and off in the volume). When too many entities are measured at the same time the overall fluctuations are small in comparison to the total signal and may not be resolvable – in the other direction, if the individual fluctuation-events are too sparse in time, one measurement may take prohibitively too long. FCS is in a way the fluorescent counterpart to dynamic light scattering, which uses coherent light scattering, instead of (incoherent) fluorescence.

When an appropriate model is known, FCS can be used to obtain quantitative information such as
 * diffusion coefficients
 * hydrodynamic radii
 * average concentrations
 * kinetic chemical reaction rates
 * singlet-triplet dynamics

Because fluorescent markers come in a variety of colors and can be specifically bound to a particular molecule (e.g. proteins, polymers, metal-complexes, etc.), it is possible to study the behavior of individual molecules (in rapid succession in composite solutions). With the development of sensitive detectors such as avalanche photodiodes the detection of the fluorescence signal coming from individual molecules in highly dilute samples has become practical. With this emerged the possibility to conduct FCS experiments in a wide variety of specimens, ranging from materials science to biology. The advent of engineered cells with genetically tagged proteins (like green fluorescent protein) has made FCS a common tool for studying molecular dynamics in living cells.

History
Signal-correlation techniques were first experimentally applied to fluorescence in 1972 by Magde, Elson, and Webb, who are therefore commonly credited as the "inventors" of FCS. The technique was further developed in a group of papers by these and other authors soon after, establishing the theoretical foundations and types of applications. Around 1990, with the ability of detecting sufficiently small number of fluorescence particles, two issues emerged: A non-Gaussian distribution of the fluorescence intensity and the three-dimensional confocal Measurement Volume of a laser-microscopy system. The former led to an analysis of distributions and moments of the fluorescent signals for extracting molecular information, which eventually became a collection of methods known as Brightness Analyses. See Thompson (1991) for a review of that period.

Beginning in 1993, a number of improvements in the measurement techniques—notably using confocal microscopy, and then two-photon microscopy—to better define the measurement volume and reject background—greatly improved the signal-to-noise ratio and allowed single molecule sensitivity. Since then, there has been a renewed interest in FCS, and as of August 2007 there have been over 3,000 papers using FCS found in Web of Science. See Krichevsky and Bonnet for a review. In addition, there has been a flurry of activity extending FCS in various ways, for instance to laser scanning and spinning-disk confocal microscopy (from a stationary, single point measurement), in using cross-correlation (FCCS) between two fluorescent channels instead of autocorrelation, and in using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) instead of fluorescence.

Typical setup

The typical FCS setup consists of a laser line (wavelengths ranging typically from 405–633 nm (cw), and from 690–1100 nm (pulsed)), which is reflected into a microscope objective by a dichroic mirror. The laser beam is focused in the sample, which contains fluorescent particles (molecules) in such high dilution, that only a few are within the focal spot (usually 1–100 molecules in one fL). When the particles cross the focal volume, they fluoresce. This light is collected by the same objective and, because it is red-shifted with respect to the excitation light it passes the dichroic mirror reaching a detector, typically a photomultiplier tube, an avalanche photodiode detector or a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector. The resulting electronic signal can be stored either directly as an intensity versus time trace to be analyzed at a later point, or computed to generate the autocorrelation directly (which requires special acquisition cards). The FCS curve by itself only represents a time-spectrum. Conclusions on physical phenomena have to be extracted from there with appropriate models. The parameters of interest are found after fitting the autocorrelation curve to modeled functional forms.

Measurement volume
The measurement volume is a convolution of illumination (excitation) and detection geometries, which result from the optical elements involved. The resulting volume is described mathematically by the point spread function (or PSF), it is essentially the image of a point source. The PSF is often described as an ellipsoid (with unsharp boundaries) of few hundred nanometers in focus diameter, and almost one micrometer along the optical axis. The shape varies significantly (and has a large impact on the resulting FCS curves) depending on the quality of the optical elements (it is crucial to avoid astigmatism and to check the real shape of the PSF on the instrument). In the case of confocal microscopy, and for small pinholes (around one Airy unit), the PSF is well approximated by Gaussians:

 * $$ PSF(r,z)= I_0 e^{- 2 r^2/\omega_{xy}^2} e^{-2 z^2/\omega_{z}^2} $$

where $$I_0$$ is the peak intensity, r and z are radial and axial position, and $$\omega_{xy}$$ and $$\omega_{z}$$ are the radial and axial radii, and $$ \omega_{z} > \omega_{xy}$$. This Gaussian form is assumed in deriving the functional form of the autocorrelation.

Typically $$\omega_{xy}$$ is 200–300 nm, and $$\omega_{z}$$ is 2–6 times larger. One common way of calibrating the measurement volume parameters is to perform FCS on a species with known diffusion coefficient and concentration (see below). Diffusion coefficients for common fluorophores in water are given in a later section.

The Gaussian approximation works to varying degrees depending on the optical details, and corrections can sometimes be applied to offset the errors in approximation.

Autocorrelation function

The (temporal) autocorrelation function is the correlation of a time series with itself shifted by time $$\tau$$, as a function of $$\tau$$:
 * $$G(\tau)=\frac{\langle\delta I(t)\delta I(t+\tau)\rangle}{\langle I(t) \rangle^2}=\frac{\langle I(t)I(t+\tau) \rangle}{\langle I(t)\rangle^2}-1$$

where $$\delta I(t)=I(t)-\langle I(t)\rangle $$ is the deviation from the mean intensity. The normalization (denominator) here is the most commonly used for FCS, because then the correlation at $$\tau=0$$, G(0), is related to the average number of particles in the measurement volume.

As an example, raw FCS data and its autocorrelation for freely diffusing Rhodamine 6G are shown in the figure to the right. The plot on top shows the fluorescent intensity versus time. The intensity fluctuates as Rhodamine 6G moves in and out of the focal volume. In the bottom plot is the autocorrelation on the same data. Information about the diffusion rate and concentration can be obtained using one of the models described below.

For a Gaussian illumination profile $$PSF(r, z)$$, the autocorrelation function is given by the general master formula
 * $$ G(\tau) = \frac{1}{\langle N \rangle} \left\langle \exp\left(-\frac{\Delta X(\tau)^2 + \Delta Y(\tau)^2}{w_{xy}^2} - \frac{\Delta Z(\tau)^2}{w_z^2} \right) \right\rangle ,

$$ where the vector $$\Delta \vec R(\tau) = (\Delta X(\tau), \Delta Y(\tau), \Delta Z(\tau))$$ denotes the stochastic displacement in space of a fluorophore after time $$ \tau $$. The expression is valid if the average number $$\langle N \rangle$$ of fluorophores in the focal volume is low and if dark states, etc., of the fluorophore can be ignored. In particular, no assumption was made on the type of diffusive motion under investigation. The formula allows for an interpretation of $$ G(\tau) $$ as (i) a return probability for small beam parameters $$w_{xy}, w_z$$ and (ii) the moment-generating function of $$|\Delta \vec R(\tau)|^2 $$ if $$w_{xy}, w_z$$ are varied.

Interpreting the autocorrelation function
To extract quantities of interest, the autocorrelation data can be fitted, typically using a nonlinear least squares algorithm. The fit's functional form depends on the type of dynamics (and the optical geometry in question).

Normal diffusion

The fluorescent particles used in FCS are small and thus experience thermal motions in solution. The simplest FCS experiment is thus normal 3D diffusion, for which the autocorrelation is:

 * $$\ G(\tau)=G(0)\frac{1}{(1+(\tau/\tau_D ))(1+a^{-2}(\tau/\tau_D ))^{1/2}} +G(\infty)$$

where $$ a=\omega_z/\omega_{xy}$$ is the ratio of axial to radial $$e^{-2}$$ radii of the measurement volume, and $$\tau_{D}$$ is the characteristic residence time. This form was derived assuming a Gaussian measurement volume. Typically, the fit would have three free parameters—G(0), $$G(\infty)$$, and $$\tau_D$$—from which the diffusion coefficient and fluorophore concentration can be obtained.

With the normalization used in the previous section, G(0) gives the mean number of diffusers in the volume , or equivalently—with knowledge of the observation volume size—the mean concentration:

 * $$\ G(0)=\frac{1}{\langle N\rangle}=\frac{1}{V_\text{eff}\langle C\rangle},$$

where the effective volume is found from integrating the Gaussian form of the measurement volume and is given by:

 * $$\ V_\text{eff}=\pi^{3/2}\omega_{xy}^2\omega_z .\, $$

 * D gives the diffusion coefficient:
 * $$\ D=\omega_{xy}^2/{4\tau_D}.$$

Anomalous diffusion
If the diffusing particles are hindered by obstacles or pushed by a force (molecular motors, flow, etc.) the dynamics is often not sufficiently well-described by the normal diffusion model, where the mean squared displacement (MSD) grows linearly with time. Instead the diffusion may be better described as anomalous diffusion, where the temporal dependence of the MSD is non-linear as in the power-law:

 * $$\ MSD= 6 D_a t^\alpha \, $$

where $$D_a$$ is an anomalous diffusion coefficient. "Anomalous diffusion" commonly refers only to this very generic model, and not the many other possibilities that might be described as anomalous. Also, a power law is, in a strict sense, the expected form only for a narrow range of rigorously defined systems, for instance when the distribution of obstacles is fractal. Nonetheless a power law can be a useful approximation for a wider range of systems.

The FCS autocorrelation function for anomalous diffusion is:

 * $$ G(\tau)=G(0)\frac{1}{(1+(\tau/\tau_D)^\alpha)(1+a^{-2}(\tau/\tau_D)^\alpha)^{1/2}} +G(\infty),$$

where the anomalous exponent $$ \alpha $$ is the same as above, and becomes a free parameter in the fitting.

Using FCS, the anomalous exponent has been shown to be an indication of the degree of molecular crowding (it is less than one and smaller for greater degrees of crowding).

Polydisperse diffusion
If there are diffusing particles with different sizes (diffusion coefficients), it is common to fit to a function that is the sum of single component forms:

 * $$\ G(\tau)=G(0)\sum_i \frac{\alpha_i}{(1+(\tau/\tau_{D,i}))(1+a^{-2}(\tau/\tau_{D,i}))^{1/2}} +G(\infty)$$

where the sum is over the number different sizes of particle, indexed by i, and $$\alpha_i$$ gives the weighting, which is related to the quantum yield and concentration of each type. This introduces new parameters, which makes the fitting more difficult as a higher-dimensional space must be searched. Nonlinear least square fitting typically becomes unstable with even a small number of $$\tau_{D,i}$$s. A more robust fitting scheme, especially useful for polydisperse samples, is the Maximum Entropy Method.

Diffusion with flow
With diffusion together with a uniform flow with velocity $$v$$ in the lateral direction, the autocorrelation is:
 * $$\ G(\tau)=G(0)\frac{1}{(1+(\tau/\tau_{D}))(1+a^{-2}(\tau/\tau_{D}))^{1/2}} \times \exp[-(\tau/\tau_v)^2 \times \frac{1}{1+\tau/\tau_D}] +G(\infty)$$

where $$\tau_v=\omega_{xy}/v$$ is the average residence time if there is only a flow (no diffusion).

Chemical relaxation
A wide range of possible FCS experiments involve chemical reactions that continually fluctuate from equilibrium because of thermal motions (and then "relax"). In contrast to diffusion, which is also a relaxation process, the fluctuations cause changes between states of different energies. One very simple system showing chemical relaxation would be a stationary binding site in the measurement volume, where particles only produce signal when bound (e.g. by FRET, or if the diffusion time is much faster than the sampling interval). In this case the autocorrelation is:

 * $$\ G(\tau)=G(0) \exp(-\tau/\tau_B) +G(\infty)$$

where

 * $$\ \tau_B=(k_\text{on}+k_\text{off} )^{-1}$$

is the relaxation time and depends on the reaction kinetics (on and off rates), and:

 * $$ G(0) = \frac{1}{\langle N\rangle} \frac{k_{on}}{k_{off}} = \frac{1}{\langle N\rangle} K$$

is related to the equilibrium constant K.

Most systems with chemical relaxation also show measurable diffusion as well, and the autocorrelation function will depend on the details of the system. If the diffusion and chemical reaction are decoupled, the combined autocorrelation is the product of the chemical and diffusive autocorrelations.

Triplet state correction
The autocorrelations above assume that the fluctuations are not due to changes in the fluorescent properties of the particles. However, for the majority of (bio)organic fluorophores—e.g. green fluorescent protein, rhodamine, Cy3 and Alexa Fluor dyes—some fraction of illuminated particles are excited to a triplet state (or other non-radiative decaying states) and then do not emit photons for a characteristic relaxation time $$\tau_F$$. Typically $$\tau_F$$ is on the order of microseconds, which is usually smaller than the dynamics of interest (e.g. $$\tau_D$$) but large enough to be measured. A multiplicative term is added to the autocorrelation to account for the triplet state. For normal diffusion:

 * $$\ G(\tau)=G(0)\frac{(1-F+Fe^{-\tau/\tau_F})}{(1-F)}\frac{1}{(1+(\tau/\tau_{D,i}))(1+a^{-2}(\tau/\tau_{D,i}))^{1/2}}+G(\infty)$$

where $$\ F$$ is the fraction of particles that have entered the triplet state and $$\ \tau_F$$ is the corresponding triplet state relaxation time. If the dynamics of interest are much slower than the triplet state relaxation, the short time component of the autocorrelation can simply be truncated and the triplet term is unnecessary.

Common fluorescent probes
The fluorescent species used in FCS is typically a biomolecule of interest that has been tagged with a fluorophore (using immunohistochemistry for instance), or is a naked fluorophore that is used to probe some environment of interest (e.g. the cytoskeleton of a cell). The following table gives diffusion coefficients of some common fluorophores in water at room temperature, and their excitation wavelengths.

Variations
FCS almost always refers to the single point, single channel, temporal autocorrelation measurement, although the term "fluorescence correlation spectroscopy" out of its historical scientific context implies no such restriction. FCS has been extended in a number of variations by different researchers, with each extension generating another name (usually an acronym).

Spot variation fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (svFCS)
Whereas FCS is a point measurement providing diffusion time at a given observation volume, svFCS is a technique where the observation spot is varied in order to measure diffusion times at different spot sizes. The relationship between the diffusion time and the spot area is linear and could be plotted in order to decipher the major contribution of confinement. The resulting curve is called the diffusion law. This technique is used in Biology to study the plasma membrane organization on living cells.
 * $$\ \omega_{xy}^2=4D\tau_D+t_{0}$$

where $$t_{0}$$ is the y axis intercept. In case of Brownian diffusion, $$t_{0}=0$$. In case of a confinement due to isolated domains, $$t_{0}>0$$ whereas in case of isolated domains, $$t_{0}<0$$.

svFCS studies on living cells and simulation papers

Sampling-Volume-Controlled Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (SVC-FCS):

z-scan FCS

FCS with Nano-apertures: breaking the diffraction barrier

STED-FCS:

Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS)
FCS is sometimes used to study molecular interactions using differences in diffusion times (e.g. the product of an association reaction will be larger and thus have larger diffusion times than the reactants individually); however, FCS is relatively insensitive to molecular mass as can be seen from the following equation relating molecular mass to the diffusion time of globular particles (e.g. proteins):

 * $$\ \tau_D=\frac{3\pi\omega_{xy}^2\eta}{2kT}(M)^{1/3}$$

where $$\ \eta$$ is the viscosity of the sample and $$\ M$$ is the molecular mass of the fluorescent species. In practice, the diffusion times need to be sufficiently different—a factor of at least 1.6—which means the molecular masses must differ by a factor of 4. Dual color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) measures interactions by cross-correlating two or more fluorescent channels (one channel for each reactant), which distinguishes interactions more sensitively than FCS, particularly when the mass change in the reaction is small.

Brightness analysis methods
This set of methods include number and brightness (N&B), photon counting histogram (PCH), fluorescence intensity distribution analysis (FIDA), and Cumulant Analysis. and Spatial Intensity Distribution Analysis. Combination of multiple methods is also reported. Fluorescence cross correlation spectroscopy overcomes the weak dependence of diffusion rate on molecular mass by looking at multicolor coincidence. What about homo-interactions? The solution lies in brightness analysis. These methods use the heterogeneity in the intensity distribution of fluorescence to measure the molecular brightness of different species in a sample. Since dimers will contain twice the number of fluorescent labels as monomers, their molecular brightness will be approximately double that of monomers. As a result, the relative brightness is sensitive a measure of oligomerization. The average molecular brightness ($$\langle \epsilon\rangle$$) is related to the variance ($$\sigma^2$$) and the average intensity ($$\langle I\rangle $$) as follows:

 * $$\ \langle \varepsilon\rangle =\frac{\sigma^2 - \langle I\rangle}{\langle I\rangle} = \sum_i f_i \varepsilon_i$$

Here $$f_i$$ and $$\epsilon_i$$ are the fractional intensity and molecular brightness, respectively, of species $$i$$.

FRET-FCS
Another FCS based approach to studying molecular interactions uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) instead of fluorescence, and is called FRET-FCS. With FRET, there are two types of probes, as with FCCS; however, there is only one channel and light is only detected when the two probes are very close—close enough to ensure an interaction. The FRET signal is weaker than with fluorescence, but has the advantage that there is only signal during a reaction (aside from autofluorescence).

Scanning FCS
In Scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (sFCS) the measurement volume is moved across the sample in a defined way. The introduction of scanning is motivated by its ability to alleviate or remove several distinct problems often encountered in standard FCS, and thus, to extend the range of applicability of fluorescence correlation methods in biological systems.

Some variations of FCS are only applicable to serial scanning laser microscopes. Image Correlation Spectroscopy and its variations all were implemented on a scanning confocal or scanning two photon microscope, but transfer to other microscopes, like a spinning disk confocal microscope. Raster ICS (RICS), and position sensitive FCS (PSFCS) incorporate the time delay between parts of the image scan into the analysis. Also, low-dimensional scans (e.g. a circular ring) —only possible on a scanning system—can access time scales between single point and full image measurements. Scanning path has also been made to adaptively follow particles.

Spinning disk FCS and spatial mapping
Any of the image correlation spectroscopy methods can also be performed on a spinning disk confocal microscope, which in practice can obtain faster imaging speeds compared to a laser scanning confocal microscope. This approach has recently been applied to diffusion in a spatially varying complex environment, producing a pixel resolution map of a diffusion coefficient. The spatial mapping of diffusion with FCS has subsequently been extended to the TIRF system. Spatial mapping of dynamics using correlation techniques had been applied before, but only at sparse points or at coarse resolution.

Image correlation spectroscopy (ICS)
When the motion is slow (in biology, for example, diffusion in a membrane), getting adequate statistics from a single-point FCS experiment may take a prohibitively long time. More data can be obtained by performing the experiment in multiple spatial points in parallel, using a laser scanning confocal microscope. This approach has been called Image Correlation Spectroscopy (ICS). The measurements can then be averaged together.

Another variation of ICS performs a spatial autocorrelation on images, which gives information about the concentration of particles. The correlation is then averaged in time. While camera white noise does not autocorrelate over time, it does over space - this creates a white noise amplitude in the spatial autocorrelation function which must be accounted for when fitting the autocorrelation amplitude in order to find the concentration of fluorescent molecules.

A natural extension of the temporal and spatial correlation versions is spatio-temporal ICS (STICS). In STICS there is no explicit averaging in space or time (only the averaging inherent in correlation). In systems with non-isotropic motion (e.g. directed flow, asymmetric diffusion), STICS can extract the directional information. A variation that is closely related to STICS (by the Fourier transform) is k-space Image Correlation Spectroscopy (kICS).

There are cross-correlation versions of ICS as well, which can yield the concentration, distribution and dynamics of co-localized fluorescent molecules. Molecules are considered co-localized when individual fluorescence contributions are indistinguishable due to overlapping point-spread functions of fluorescence intensities.

Particle image correlation spectroscopy (PICS)
Source:

PICS is a powerful analysis tool that resolves correlations on the nanometer length and millisecond timescale. Adapted from methods of spatio-temporal image correlation spectroscopy, it exploits the high positional accuracy of single-particle tracking. While conventional tracking methods break down if multiple particle trajectories intersect, this method works in principle for arbitrarily large molecule densities and dynamical parameters (e.g. diffusion coefficients, velocities) as long as individual molecules can be identified. It is computationally cheap and robust and allows one to identify and quantify motions (e.g. diffusion, active transport, confined diffusion) within an ensemble of particles, without any a priori knowledge about the dynamics.

A particle image cross-correlation spectroscopy (PICCS) extension is available for biological processes that involve multiple interaction partners, as can observed by two-color microscopy.

FCS Super-resolution Optical Fluctuation Imaging (fcsSOFI)
Super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) is a super-resolution technique that achieves spatial resolutions below the diffraction limit by post-processing analysis with correlation equations, similar to FCS. While original reports of SOFI used fluctuations from stationary, blinking of fluorophores, FCS has been combined with SOFI where fluctuations are produced from diffusing probes to produce super-resolution spatial maps of diffusion coefficients. This has been applied to understand diffusion and spatial properties of porous and confined materials. This includes agarose and temperature-responsive PNIPAM hydrogels, liquid crystals, and phase-separated polymers and RNA/protein condensates.

Total internal reflection FCS
Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) is a microscopy approach that is only sensitive to a thin layer near the surface of a coverslip, which greatly minimizes background fluorescence. FCS has been extended to that type of microscope, and is called TIR-FCS. Because the fluorescence intensity in TIRF falls off exponentially with distance from the coverslip (instead of as a Gaussian with a confocal), the autocorrelation function is different.

FCS imaging using Light sheet fluorescence microscopy
Light sheet fluorescence microscopy or selective plane imaging microscopy (SPIM) uses illumination that is done perpendicularly to the direction of observation, by using a thin sheet of (laser) light. Under certain conditions, this illumination principle can be combined with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, to allow spatially resolved imaging of the mobility and interactions of fluorescing particles such as GFP labelled proteins inside living biological samples.

Other fluorescent dynamical approaches
There are two main non-correlation alternatives to FCS that are widely used to study the dynamics of fluorescent species.

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)
In FRAP, a region is briefly exposed to intense light, irrecoverably photobleaching fluorophores, and the fluorescence recovery due to diffusion of nearby (non-bleached) fluorophores is imaged. A primary advantage of FRAP over FCS is the ease of interpreting qualitative experiments common in cell biology. Differences between cell lines, or regions of a cell, or before and after application of drug, can often be characterized by simple inspection of movies. FCS experiments require a level of processing and are more sensitive to potentially confounding influences like: rotational diffusion, vibrations, photobleaching, dependence on illumination and fluorescence color, inadequate statistics, etc. It is much easier to change the measurement volume in FRAP, which allows greater control. In practice, the volumes are typically larger than in FCS. While FRAP experiments are typically more qualitative, some researchers are studying FRAP quantitatively and including binding dynamics. A disadvantage of FRAP in cell biology is the free radical perturbation of the cell caused by the photobleaching. It is also less versatile, as it cannot measure concentration or rotational diffusion, or co-localization. FRAP requires a significantly higher concentration of fluorophores than FCS.

Particle tracking
In particle tracking, the trajectories of a set of particles are measured, typically by applying particle tracking algorithms to movies. Particle tracking has the advantage that all the dynamical information is maintained in the measurement, unlike FCS where correlation averages the dynamics to a single smooth curve. The advantage is apparent in systems showing complex diffusion, where directly computing the mean squared displacement allows straightforward comparison to normal or power law diffusion. To apply particle tracking, the particles have to be distinguishable and thus at lower concentration than required of FCS. Also, particle tracking is more sensitive to noise, which can sometimes affect the results unpredictably.

Auto-fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Recent advances in ultraviolet nanophotonics has led to development of single molecule study on label-free protein by exciting them with deep ultraviolet light and studying the dynamic processes.

Two- and three-photon FCS excitation
Several advantages in both spatial resolution and minimizing photodamage/photobleaching in organic and/or biological samples are obtained by two-photon or three-photon excitation FCS.

title: Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy


text:
User talk:Normannormal~enwiki

Welcome!

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Hola Montevideo!!
Hi Norman! Im Antonio, how are you? I wanted to invite you to participate at my new project, WikiProject Uruguay. I am from Puerto Rico, but I am working on making several projects for countries across Latin America (and I am a member of the Cuban, Mexican, Mexican-American and Colombian projects as well), because I believe in uniting our Hispanic people through writing and reading.

I also wanted to invite you to visit WikiProject Puerto Rico and join us there as well if you want to.

We Latinoamericanos are the strongest race in the world with the greatest people, don't you agree ? :)

Bueno che, whatcha think? I hope you join those projects! I hope to hear from you soon! Thanks and God bless you!

Sincerely yours, Antonio Loco Phenomenum Martin

Join our project
Hello there, I noticed you are Uruguayan. Would you happen to be interested in joining the Uruguay Project? It's a project meant to expand and organize all Uruguay-related pages, and since we are a little short of people, we could certainly use your help. Wesborland 02:37, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Normannormal~enwiki


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Talk:Main Street Hall

This article should not be merged with the Phillips Exeter Academy article, it is established wikipedia precedent that notable dormitories and halls of residence have their own article, see Bancroft Hall or Bishop Julius Hall for some well written residential hall stubs. Although perhaps this article ought to be linked from the main Phillips Exeter Academy article, the information found herein is likely irrelevent and of little interest to most of that article's readers.

It should be linked to the Phillips Exeter Academy article. It should also be linked to Tiankai Liu's article, a former resident of Main Street Hall.

title: Talk:Main Street Hall


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User:AFD Bot

I am the new Articles for deletion bot. I am maintained and run by AllyUnion.

Bot Purpose

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Zelda fan game central

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete. Nufy8 17:50, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

Zelda fan game central
nn fan forum. 112 unique Google hits. ZFGC gets a grand total of 4 (other hits for that acronym are for other things). Zoe 07:25, September 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, being made with Game Maker doesn't mean a game is not notable, but being briefly released then taken down for being buggy and never returning does. Since this is the forum related to such game, I think it should be deleted. - Mgm|(talk) 08:28, September 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn -- realwingus  10:04, 1 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete forumcruft DV8 2XL 13:14, 1 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Cruft. / Peter Isotalo 08:10, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

The forum has sturred away from OoT 2D. It's now about all different fangames. This isn't a good reason for deletion.

what does 'nn' mean?

-- I agree, not a good reason to remove the page at all. The forum's not related to OOT2D at all anymore.

 * "nn" means non notable. --66.168.115.159 01:37, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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User talk:AFD Bot

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This is a automated to all bot operators
Please take a few moments and fill in the data for your bot on Bots/Status Thank you Betacommand (talk • contribs • Bot) 18:43, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

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hi
hi i know that you and someone want delete this : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheik_Abdur_Rahman_Madani what could i do? I have created it with so much effortby adding references and reliable sources. There are many article which haven't got realiable sources and all of them are not deleted, but my one shoul be deleted? Thanks. Highermafs (talk) 14:53, 6 April 2014 (UTC)
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Aberlemno

Aberlemno (Obar Leamhnach, IPA:[ˈopəɾˈʎɛunəx]) is a parish and small village in the Scottish council area of Angus. It is noted for three large carved Pictish stones (and one fragment) dating from the 7th and 8th centuries AD (Historic Scotland); the stones can be viewed at any time in spring-autumn, but are covered by wooden boxes in the winter to prevent frost damage. Two stones (and the fragment) stand by the B9134 Forfar-Brechin road, the Kirkyard Stone stands in the nearby graveyard of the parish church.

The parish of Aberlemno had a population of 544 at the 2011 Census.

A genus of fossil plants first found in a nearby quarry is named Aberlemnia in honour of the location.

A notable Scottish-American poet, engineer, and editor, James Mackintosh Kennedy, was born in Aberlemno in 1848, and developed his interest in literature through books lent to him by the Aberlemno church.

The Parish was the location of a Royal Observer Corps monitoring bunker between 1961 and 1968. It remains mostly intact and as of 2015, it was being restored.

Sculptured Stones
Aberlemno is notable for the presence of four early Medieval standing stones, as well as a fifth that is currently on display at McManus Galleries in Dundee.

title: Aberlemno


text:
Talk:Pedro Almodóvar/to do

 * Request an image from his official website
 * Add fair-use images with rationale
 * Add quotes at wikiquotes
 * Add stubs for all his films
 * Format filmography as in Kadee Strickland
 * Contact Pedro Almodovar or some of his agents to confirm his birthdate

title: Talk:Pedro Almodóvar/to do


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User talk:Astrolillo

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Saludos. --Mnts 07:27, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Guaky.jpg
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Talk:Banana cream pie

Restore
''(restore, never listed on VfD moving recipe\
 * ? Maikel (talk) 22:47, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Absolute beginner
I am truly a beginner in editing Wikipedia and find it difficult to absorb all at once all the various rules for editing and adding. I do know, however, a great deal about food, and think I can make a useful contribution to that part of Wikipedia.

I have added a bit about the banana-flavoured crust mentioned in the beginning of the article, and realize that it should be somehow a redirect, but I have had real difficulty in figuring out which all the different redirect types would apply here.

I have also quoted a recipe with questions about copyright which I would be very glad to receive guidance on. Tjaart1 10:54, 27 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Everyone starts as a beginner, especially here on Wikipedia, and I'm glad you made the jump. Best of luck.
 * I guess what you mean by redirect is an internal link. A term such as crust doesn't have to be linked, however.
 * If you have any questions contact me on my talk page. Maikel (talk) 22:47, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Banana cream pie


text:
Category:EC 1.17

Oxidoreductases acting on CH or CH(2) groups

title: Category:EC 1.17


text:
Talk:Harry Rosen

Validity of this article
This bogus entry exists to trash Harry Rosen. VfD is too cumbersome to attempt however. --Wetman 07:28, 1 September 2005 (UTC)
 * The article has been fixed up. Everything in the body of the article comes from either the Harry Rosen Inc. website or the story from Business Edge. The trivia section is unsourced. If you think the trivia is an attack, please delete it. If you have any alternative sources, please provide them. MRoberts <> 04:24, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

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text: User talk:82.34.243.74

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text:
Moment (Speed album)

Moment is Japanese J-pop band Speed's greatest hits album following their first album, Starting Over and second album, Rise. Moment was released on December 16, 1998 and contains all the commercially released singles from their first and second albums along with additional tracks. Debuting at number 1 on the Oricon charts and eventually selling 2.32 million copies, Moment is the best-selling album by a female group in Japanese music history.

Track listing

 * 1) White Love
 * 2) All My True Love
 * 3) Steady
 * 4) Wake Me Up! (Growin' Up Mix)
 * 5) Alive
 * 6) Body & Soul
 * 7) Namaiki (Aishiteru Version) (ナマイキ(愛ヴァージョン)) — (Sassy (Love Version))
 * 8) Go! Go! Heaven
 * 9) Nettaiya (熱帯夜) — (Tropical Night)
 * 10) Luv Vibration
 * 11) My Graduation
 * 12) White Love (Christmas Standard)
 * 13) White Love (Christmas Standard) ~Instrumental~

title: Moment (Speed album)


text:
John Steffensen

John William Steffensen (born 30 August 1982) is an Australian former track and field athlete, who specialised in 200 and 400 metres. He won silver at the 2004 Olympics in Athens. His personal bests were 20.79 and 44.73.

Biography
Born in Perth, Western Australia, to South African immigrant parents, Steffensen competed in the 2004 Olympics, and was a part of the Australian team that won the silver medal in the 4 × 400 metres relay.

Steffensen won the gold medal in the 400 m at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, with a time of 44.73, setting a new personal best. This has often been referred to as the greatest race of all time. He won a second gold medal as the first runner in the 4 × 400 m Australian relay team at the 2006 Commonwealth Games.

He boycotted the 2010 Commonwealth Games after a series of disputes with Athletics Australia, which he accused of mismanaging athletes.

He is an old boy of Trinity College, Perth, and Guildford Grammar School, Perth (92-96).

He was runner up to Stephanie Rice in the 2013 Australian version of the television program Celebrity Apprentice. Since then, he has been making regular appearances on Nine Network's Wide World of Sports as a co-host.

Steffensen collaborated with Athletics Australia to develop the Nitro Athletics track and field series, which included variations on the traditional one-day athletics meeting with the intention of widening the sport's fanbase.

Steffensen made his first step into motor racing at Sandown in 2017 driving a Porsche 997 GT3 Cup in the Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge series with Zagame Motorsport backed by Repair Management Australia. He finished the championship in eighth and moved immediately into the Porsche Carrera Cup Australia in 2018 driving in the Porsche Centre Melbourne team.

title: John Steffensen


text:
Andrew MacDonald

Andrew MacDonald may refer to:

 * Andrew MacDonald (ice hockey) (born 1986), Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman
 * Andrew Macdonald (producer) (born 1966), Scottish film producer
 * Duck MacDonald (born 1953), real name Andrew MacDonald, American rock guitarist
 * Andrew Archibald Macdonald (1829–1912), Canadian politician
 * Andrew Paul MacDonald (born 1958), Canadian composer
 * Andrew Macdonald (poet) (1757–1790), Scottish poet
 * Andy Macdonald (skateboarder) (born 1973), American professional skateboarder
 * Andy MacDonald (American football) (1930–1985), American football player and coach
 * Andrew MacDonald (rugby union) (born 1966), Scottish rugby union international
 * Andrew Macdonald, pseudonym of William Luther Pierce (1933–2002), American leader of the white separatist National Alliance organization and author of The Turner Diaries

title: Andrew MacDonald


text:
Talk:Asrat Woldeyes

VFD notification
This article was nominated for Articles for deletion on Aug. 26, 2005. The result of the discussion was that the article should be KEPT but completely REWRITTEN (at present, it reads like a 1-paragraph essay). I closed the discussion and placed a cleanup tag on the article instead of a rewrite tag, because the "rewrite" template says that the article is being written somewhere, and specifies a location. I don't see any evidence that that's the case, so since the biggest problem I see with the article at present is its journalistic prose and paucity of encyclopedic content, I think cleanup is the best option here. Also, depending on how contributors feel, it might be prudent to add expand as well, but I'll leave that up to those contributing to the article itself. A record of the VFD discussion can be found here. Tomer TALK 07:33, September 1, 2005 (UTC)

No citations
This article has a lot of information, but no inline citations, which means it fails to meet Wikipedia's policy on verifiability. Probably this article needs to simply be rewritten from the ground up. In the next few days, I intend to do this, but if anyone's watching this talk page who wants to start referencing what's here instead, please feel free. Khazar2 (talk) 07:07, 1 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Since I haven't heard from anyone above, I've attempted a rewrite from scratch of this article based primarily on the NYT and Guardian obituaries. This is still a bit skeletal and other (sourced) additions would be welcome if anybody's watching. Khazar2 (talk) 20:53, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Asrat Woldeyes


text:
Talk:Sigmund Rascher

Untitled
translation in progress :)Lectonar 07:34, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

PICTURE USE
I have reverted deletion of the picture since it is of educational and instructive use, and relevant to the article. Peterlewis (talk) 17:02, 1 February 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Sigmund Rascher


text:
Operation K

Operation K (K作戦) was a Japanese naval operation in World War II, intended as reconnaissance of Pearl Harbor and disruption of repair and salvage operations following the surprise attack on 7 December 1941. It culminated on 4 March 1942, with an unsuccessful attack carried out by two Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boats. This was the longest distance ever undertaken by a two-plane bombing mission, and one of the longest bombing sorties ever planned without fighter escort.

Planning
The planning for Operation K began in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor, when the Imperial Japanese Navy high command considered how to take advantage of the capabilities of the long-range Kawanishi H8K flying boats. Plans to bomb California and Texas were being discussed, when the need for updated information regarding the repairs to US Navy facilities at Pearl Harbor took precedence. An assessment of the repairs to the docks, yards and airfields of Oahu would help the IJN staff to determine American ability to project power for months to come.

Initial plans called for the use of five H8K aircraft. They would fly to French Frigate Shoals, the largest atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, to be refueled by submarines prior to taking off for Oahu. The raid was planned to coincide with the full moon to illuminate the Pearl Harbor target area, but the actual date of execution would depend on calm weather for refueling at French Frigate Shoals and clear skies over Pearl Harbor. If the first raid was successful, additional raids would be made.

In a repeat of events just prior to the 7 December attack, American codebreakers warned that the Japanese were preparing for reconnaissance and disruption raids, refueling at French Frigate Shoals, and again were largely ignored by their superiors. The codebreakers had reason to correctly interpret the Japanese intent. Edwin T. Layton's staff included Lieutenant Jasper Holmes, who, writing under the pen name Alec Hudson, had a story entitled Rendezvous published in an August, 1941, Saturday Evening Post. His fictitious story about refueling United States planes from submarines at a remote island for an air attack on a target 3000 mi away had been withheld from publication for a year until the author convinced United States Navy censors the techniques described were known to other navies.

Execution
When time came for the raid, only two of the big flying boats were available. Pilot Lieutenant Hisao Hashizume was in command of the mission, with Ensign Shosuke Sasao flying the second airplane. They were sent to Wotje Atoll in the Marshall Islands, where each airplane was loaded with four 250 kg bombs. From there, they flew 1900 mi to French Frigate Shoals to refuel, then set off for Oahu, 560 mi distant. In addition to their reconnaissance mission, they were to bomb the "Ten-Ten" dock – named for its length, 1010 ft – at the Pearl Harbor naval base to disrupt salvage and repair efforts. However, errors ensued on both sides.

The Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-23 was supposed to station herself just south of Oahu as a "lifeguard" and weather spotter for the flying boats, but was lost sometime after 14 February. Japanese cryptanalysts had broken the United States Navy weather code, but a code change on 1 March eliminated that alternative source of weather information over Pearl Harbor. The mission proceeded on the assumption of clear skies over Pearl Harbor from knowledge of conditions at French Frigate Shoals.

American radar stations on Kauai (and later Oahu) picked up and tracked the two planes as they approached the main Hawaiian Islands, prompting a search by Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighters. Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats were also sent to seek Japanese aircraft carriers, which were assumed to have launched the two invaders. However, a thick layer of nimbus clouds over Pearl Harbor prevented the defenders from spotting the Japanese planes flying at an altitude of 15000 ft.

Those same clouds also confused the IJN pilots. Using the Kaena Point lighthouse for a position fix, Hashizume decided to attack from the north. Sasao, however, did not hear Hashizume's order and instead turned to skirt the southern coast of Oahu.

Hashizume, having lost sight of his wingman, and only able to see small patches of the island, dropped his four bombs on the slopes of Tantalus Peak, an extinct volcano cinder cone just north of Honolulu sometime between 02:00 and 02:15 HST. He was unable to see Pearl Harbor, the only lit facility on Oahu, due to blackout conditions intended to hinder air raids. Hashizume's bombs landed about 1000 ft from Roosevelt High School, creating craters 6 - 10 ft deep and 20 - 30 ft across. Damage was limited to shattered windows. Sasao is assumed by historians and officials to have eventually dropped his bombs into the ocean, either off the coast of Waianae or near the sea approach to Pearl Harbor. The two flying boats then flew southwest toward the Marshall Islands. Sasao returned as planned to Wotje atoll, but Hashizume's airplane had sustained hull damage while taking off from French Frigate Shoals. Fearing the primitive base at Wotje was insufficient to repair the damage, Hashizume proceeded non-stop all the way to their home base at Jaluit Atoll, also in the Marshall Islands. That made his flight the longest bombing mission in history up to that point.

Aftermath

There were no American casualties. The raid did raise new fears of a potential Japanese invasion of Hawaii.

Japanese media repeated an unsubstantiated Los Angeles radio report of "considerable damage to Pearl Harbor" with 30 dead sailors and civilians, with 70 wounded. Both the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy blamed each other for the explosions, accusing each other of jettisoning munitions into Tantalus.

Another armed reconnaissance mission, scheduled for 6 or 7 March, was canceled because of the delay in launching the first raid, damage to Hashizume's airplane, and the aircrews' exhaustion. It was carried out on 10 March, but Hashizume was killed when his flying boat was shot down by Brewster F2A Buffalo fighters near Midway Atoll.

A followup to Operation K was scheduled for 30 May, to gain intelligence on the whereabouts of U.S. aircraft carriers prior to the Battle of Midway. However, the Americans had become aware French Frigate Shoals was a possible IJN rendezvous point, and naval patrols were increased, per Admiral Chester Nimitz's orders. The Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-123 found the area mined and spotted two American warships at anchor there, prompting a cancellation of the plan, despite the proposed use of Necker Island as an alternative refueling site. This left the IJN unable to observe U.S. Navy activity or track the American carriers.

title: Operation K


text:
Talk:Kamboja horsemen

A better title: Kamboja horsemen. --Wetman 07:34, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kamboja horsemen


text:
Euchloe ausonides insulana

Euchloe ausonides insulanus, the island marble butterfly, is a subspecies of the Euchloe ausonides (large marble butterfly) and is found in the San Juan Islands in Washington in the northwestern United States. The butterfly was thought to be extinct and was last observed on Gabriola Island, British Columbia in 1908. The species was rediscovered during a prairie butterfly survey in San Juan Island National Historical Park in 1998. After this rediscovery, surveys were conducted throughout the presumed range and found a few populations on San Juan Island and Lopez Island, but no remaining populations in Canada.

Description
The Island Marble is medium sized butterfly that is distinguishable by its white and green mottled pattern under its hind wings.

Habitat
The Island Marble butterfly is primarily coastal prairie dwelling species and an indicator for the health of the prairie ecosystem. This species has three known host plants which are located in different ecosystems. Brassica rapa grows primarily in the prairies, Sisymbrium altissium grows in sandy habitats, and Lepidium virginicum grows in coastal areas. Previously, the Island Marble Butterly inhabited various areas in the San Juan and Lopez islands. However, it is currently only found in the American Camp site at San Juan Island National Historical Park.

Ecology
The Island Marble Butterfly spends on average 7 days in its butterfly stage. During this time the butterfly finds a mate, nectars, and lays eggs on a host plant. There are three known host plants for the Island Marble Butterfly: Brassica rapa, Sisymbrium altissimum, and Lepidium virginicum var. menziesii. The lifespan of an Island Marble Butterfly ranges from six to nine days.

Status
On May 5, 2020, the Island Marble butterfly was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) listed the island marble butterfly as being extirpated in Canada in May 2000 and again in April 2010. On August 22, 2012, the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation submitted a petition for protection with the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The island marble butterfly is currently noted on the Washington State Species of Concern List.

title: Euchloe ausonides insulana


text:
Euchloe ausonides

Euchloe ausonides, the large marble or creamy marblewing, is a species of butterfly that occurs in western North America. It lays eggs on the terminal flower buds of a variety of plants in the mustard family, including introduced Eurasian species, and the larvae feed on the buds, flowers and fruit of these plants. In California, it has witnessed population declines since the 1980s, especially in the Central Valley and the Bay Area. In Washington, subspecies the island marble butterfly (Euchloe ausonides ssp. insulanus) was listed as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act in 2020.

Description
The caterpillar is a dark green to a bluish gray color that is covered in black dots. It is marked with yellow and white stripes lengthwise along its back and sides. The size of the caterpillar reaches a length of 3/4 in.

The large marble is a medium-sized butterfly. It has white scales that are scattered in the forewing and a black pattern on the tip of the forewing. There is compact green marbling on the underside of the hindwing. The wingspan of this butterfly can go from 3.8 - 5.1 cm.

Females of E. ausonides are able to move at greater distances and speeds than males.

Distribution
Euchloe ausonides can be found in the west of North America. They can range from the south of Alaska to central California and northern New Mexico. The island marble subspecies is nonmigratory.

Habitat
Euchloe ausonides tend to live in open, sunny areas such as valleys, hillsides, fields and meadows. They often fly low next to streams and trails. A requirement of the marble butterfly's habitat is a “host” plant. This provides a place for the butterfly to lay its eggs, and provides food for the growing caterpillars. The subspecies, the island marble, is home to the San Juan Islands. Host plants, including the field mustard (Brassica rapa), are quite common in the San Juan Islands. Additional host plants that are important to the marble butterflies are tall tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum) and tall peppergrass (Lepidium virginicum).

Diet
The larva eats only on buds, flowers, and fruits. Adult large marbles like to drink nectar from the flowers of the mustard family and other plants.

Mating behaviors
Males will fly, or patrol, about 1 meter above the ground looking for females. The males will draw near white paper models, other light butterflies and other Euchloe individuals within about 20 cm. They will either turn away and continue flight, or hover in courtship. Both the males and females fly at a rapid rate of about 5 meters per second and will often travel 100 meters or more without resting. If a flying male encounters a flying female, they will first hover near each other with the male behind. The female will then land, and the male lands behind her and bends his abdomen to clasp hers. If the weather permits, mating can occur all throughout the day.

Reproduction
In the late spring, adult butterflies will appear from their chrysalis and will fly free for about 7–9 days. Within this time, they will feed on nectar plants, find a mate, fertilize their eggs, and finally lay their eggs on host plants. Euchloe ausonides' eggs are laid on terminal flower buds. After about 10–12 days, their eggs will hatch and a caterpillar is born. The caterpillars will eat the host plants.

Conservation status
Its subspecies, Euchloe ausonides insulanus, or the island marble, is an endangered species. Because of its rarity and fragility, this butterfly officially listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as of May 4, 2020. It was once thought to be extinct, but it has been rediscovered on San Juan Island in Washington.

Conservation efforts
There have been multiple organizations putting in efforts to try and conserve the island marble for many years. Organizations such as US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, the San Juan Preservation Trust, The National Park Service, and even a host of private landowners, schools, and concerned citizens have taken a stand to help conserve these endangered butterflies.

To help local landowners understand and distinguish island marble butterflies, USFWS and Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife worked together to develop information in order to provide voluntary guidelines for producing and managing island marble habitat.

Threats
Although the island marble has been listed and is now protected under the Endangered Species Act, the rare butterfly still faces many threats. Currently, grazing by deer is a big problem for the endangered species. The mustard plants that the island marble use for larval food and nectar are being eaten by the deer. This may reduce the number of host plants that are suitable for the butterflies to lay their eggs on. Along with this, the deer inadvertently eat the caterpillars, eggs, and pupae. In addition to the deer, there are also threats from non-native grazers introduced by people, including invasive European rabbits and snails, which also eat much of the native vegetation. There have been a few actions that have taken place to deal with this problem.

Subspecies

 * Euchloe ausonides coloradensis (H. Edwards, 1881)
 * Euchloe ausonides palaeoreios Johnson, 1977
 * Euchloe ausonides mayi F. & R. Chermock, 1940
 * Euchloe ausonides transmontana Austin & Emmel, 1998
 * Euchloe ausonides insulana Guppy & Shepard, 2001 – Island marble

title: Euchloe ausonides


text:
File:Moment (Speed album).jpg

Fair use in Moment (Speed album)
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It's a low resolution copy of a CD/album cover.
 * 2) It doesn't limit the copyright owner's rights to sell the CD/album in any way, in fact, it may encourage sales.
 * 3) Because of the low resolution, copies could not be used to make illegal copies of the album artwork on another CD.
 * 4) The image is itself a subject of discussion in the article or used in the infobox thereof.
 * 5) The image on the cover is significant because it was made by a famous artist.

Source

 * 1) Derived from a digital capture (scan/photo) of the album/CD cover (creator of this digital version is irrelevant as the copyright in all equivalent images is still held by the same party). Copyright held by the record company or the artist. Claimed as fair use regardless.

title: File:Moment (Speed album).jpg


text:
User:Rupankar

Objectionable words have been removed.

title: User:Rupankar


text:
Andrew Rock

Andrew Rock (born January 23, 1982) is an American sprinter who specializes in the 400 meter dash.

Early career
Rock was born in Marshfield, Wisconsin, and grew up in Stratford, Wisconsin, where he graduated from high school in 2000. His high school career concluded at the 2000 Wisconsin State Championships, where he became the first athlete in meet history to win four individual titles at the same championships by winning the 110 m hurdles, 300 m hurdles, 200 m dash, and long jump. Despite this success, he was not a heavily recruited athlete.

Rock attended the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse, where he was a nine-time National Champion and a 17-time All-American. After finishing runner-up seven times between the 2001 and 2002 seasons, Rock hit his stride in 2003 and 2004, winning eight consecutive titles in the 400 m dash and 4 × 400 m relay. Rock holds nine UW–LaCrosse records (four individual; five relays) and six WIAC records (three individual; three relays) and was twice named first-team Academic All-American by CoSIDA. In addition to these achievements, Rock also claimed the fastest 400 m time in Division III history, running a 44.66 at a USATF meet in Carson, California, thereby announcing his arrival onto the elite track scene. Rock turned professional soon after graduating from UW–La Crosse with a finance degree by signing a multi-year contract with Adidas.

As of 2017, Rock is head coach of the track and field teams at Bethel University.

Professional career
Rock finished 6th in the 400 m at the 2004 Olympic Trials, earning him a spot in the relay pool for the Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. In the 2004 Olympic Games, he ran for the American 4 × 400 m relay team in the qualifying heats, securing the team a place in the final. The relay took first in the final, securing Rock a gold medal. In the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki, he competed in 400m and won a silver medal, setting a new personal best of 44.35. Later in the meet, he led off the 4 × 400 m relay team to a World Championship gold medal. Rock followed his 2005 season with a 2006 campaign highlighted by his 400 m win at the AT&T USA Outdoor Championships in Indianapolis.

Career highlights

 * 2001-2004: 9-time NCAA Division III Champion, 17-time NCAA Division III All-American
 * 2004: Olympic 4x400m relay gold medalist, ranked #7 in the United States
 * 2005: World Outdoor 400m silver medalist, World Outdoor 4x400m gold medalist, ranked #2 in the United States and #3 in the World
 * 2006: USATF Outdoor Champion, 400 m, ranked #3 in the United States and #4 in the World
 * 2007: ranked #7 in the United States

Coaching career

 * 2010-2012: Carleton College (Assistant Cross Country and Track Coach)
 * Coached five conference champion sprinters/middle distance runners
 * Carleton 800m runners set two new school records
 * 2012-present: Bethel University (Head Men's & Women's Track & Field Coach)
 * 2015: Named the Women's Indoor MIAC Coach of the Year
 * 2016: Karl Olsen earned men's outdoor MIAC Elite 22 award
 * 2017: Named the Men's Indoor MIAC Coach of the Year
 * 2017: Men's 4x400-meter relay finished runner-up at NCAA national outdoor meet
 * 2017: Bethel men finished third at and MIAC Indoor meet—tied for highest finish in program history
 * 2017: Coached 10 All-Americans
 * 2018: Bethel men finished third at and MIAC Indoor meet—tied for highest finish in program history
 * 2018: Karl Olsen finished as the 400m runner-up at NCAA national indoor meet
 * 2018: Karl Olsen voted Academic All-American
 * 2018: Annika Halverson voted Academic All-American
 * 2018: Women's 4x400-meter relay recorded back-to-back Indoor & Outdoor All-American finishes
 * 2018: Coached 19 All-Americans
 * 2019: Women's 4x400-meter relay recorded back-to-back Indoor & Outdoor All-American finishes
 * 2019: Karl Olsen awarded NCAA Post Graduate Scholarship
 * 2019: Carl Klamm runner-up in 400m at NCAA national outdoor meet
 * 2019: Coached 18 All-Americans
 * 2020: Coached 10 All-Americans
 * 2021: Bethel women finished second at MIAC Outdoor meet—highest finish in program history
 * 2021: Coached 3 All-Americans
 * 2021: Joel Smith runner-up in 400m Hurdles at NCAA national outdoor meet
 * Coached 82 National Meet Qualifiers and 64 All-Americans, 149 MIAC Champions and 329 MIAC All-Conference winners
 * 47 school records broken since Coach Rock's tenure began in 2013

title: Andrew Rock


text: Category:Euchloe

title: Category:Euchloe


text:
Fatigue limit

The fatigue limit or endurance limit is the stress level below which an infinite number of loading cycles can be applied to a material without causing fatigue failure. Some metals such as ferrous alloys and titanium alloys have a distinct limit, whereas others such as aluminium and copper do not and will eventually fail even from small stress amplitudes. Where materials do not have a distinct limit the term fatigue strength or endurance strength is used and is defined as the maximum value of completely reversed bending stress that a material can withstand for a specified number of cycles without a fatigue failure.

Definitions
The ASTM defines fatigue strength, $$S_{N_f}$$, as "the value of stress at which failure occurs after $$N_f$$ cycles", and fatigue limit, $$S_f$$, as "the limiting value of stress at which failure occurs as $$N_f$$ becomes very large". ASTM does not define endurance limit, the stress value below which the material will withstand many load cycles, but implies that it is similar to fatigue limit.

Some authors use endurance limit, $$S_e$$, for the stress below which failure never occurs, even for an indefinitely large number of loading cycles, as in the case of steel; and fatigue limit or fatigue strength, $$S_f$$, for the stress at which failure occurs after a specified number of loading cycles, such as 500 million, as in the case of aluminium. Other authors do not differentiate between the expressions even if they do differentiate between the two types of materials.

Typical values
Typical values of the limit ($$S_e$$) for steels are one half the ultimate tensile strength, to a maximum of 290 MPa. For iron, aluminium, and copper alloys, $$S_e$$ is typically 0.4 times the ultimate tensile strength. Maximum typical values for irons are 24 ksi, aluminums 19 ksi, and coppers 14 ksi. Note that these values are for smooth "un-notched" test specimens. The endurance limit for notched specimens (and thus for many practical design situations) is significantly lower.

For polymeric materials, the fatigue limit has been shown to reflect the intrinsic strength of the covalent bonds in polymer chains that must be ruptured in order to extend a crack. So long as other thermo chemical processes do not break the polymer chain (i.e. ageing or ozone attack), a polymer may operate indefinitely without crack growth when loads are kept below the intrinsic strength.

The concept of fatigue limit, and thus standards based on a fatigue limit such as ISO 281:2007 rolling bearing lifetime prediction, remains controversial, at least in the US.

Modifying factors of fatigue limit
The fatigue limit of a machine component, Se, is influenced by a series of elements named modifying factors. Some of these factors are listed below.

Surface factor
The surface modifying factor, $$k_S$$, is related to both the tensile strength, $$S_{ut}$$, of the material and the surface finish of the machine component.

$$k_{S}=aS_{ut}^b$$

Where factor a and exponent b present in the equation are related to the surface finish.

Gradient factor
Besides taking into account the surface finish, it is also important to consider the size gradient factor $$k_{G}$$. When it comes to bending and torsional loading, the gradient factor is also taken into consideration.

Load factor
Load modifying factor can be identified as.

$$k_{L}=0.85 $$ for axial

$$k_{L}=1

$$ for bending

$$k_{L}=0.59 $$ for pure torsion

Temperature factor
The temperature factor is calculated as

$$k_{T}= \frac{S_{o}}{S_{r}} $$

$$S_o $$ is tensile strength at operating temperature

$$S_{r} $$ is tensile strength at room temperature

Reliability factor
We can calculate the reliability factor using the equation

$$k_{R}=1-0.08Z_{a} $$

$$z_{a}=0 $$ for 50% reliability

$$z_{a}=1.288 $$ for 90% reliability

$$z_{a}=1.645 $$ for 95% reliability

$$z_{a}=2.326 $$ for 99% reliability

History
The concept of endurance limit was introduced in 1870 by August Wöhler. However, recent research suggests that endurance limits do not exist for metallic materials, that if enough stress cycles are performed, even the smallest stress will eventually produce fatigue failure.

title: Fatigue limit