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Filibuster War

The Filibuster War or Walker affair was a military conflict between filibustering multinational troops stationed in Nicaragua and a coalition of Central American armies. An American mercenary, William Walker, invaded Nicaragua in 1855 with a small private army. He seized control of the country by 1856, but was ousted the following year.

Background
Nicaragua's independence from Spain, Mexico, and then from the United Provinces of Central America in 1838 did not free it from foreign interference.

The 1850s California Gold Rush created interest in the United States in finding a quicker route between the American east and west coasts. However, Great Britain had long been present on the coast of Nicaragua, which created tension between the two countries. The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty was signed in 1850, in which both sides "agreed that neither would claim exclusive power over a future canal in Central America nor gain exclusive control over any part of the region." Many Nicaraguans originally welcomed this treaty because of the potential financial benefits a canal could bring.

Following Nicaraguan independence from Spain, a conflict over power developed between the liberal party, based in León, and the conservative party, based in Granada.

Initial stages
In 1854, a civil war erupted in Nicaragua between the Legitimist Party (also called the 'Conservative party'), and the Democratic Party (also called the 'Liberal party'). The liberal elite of León was losing the struggle to unseat the conservative elite of Granada and turned for help to a San Francisco-based soldier of fortune named William Walker. Walker was known as an adventurer who sought to take control of Latin American countries with the purpose of making them a part of the United States.

To circumvent American neutrality laws, Walker obtained a contract from Democratic president Francisco Castellón to bring as many as three hundred "colonists" to Nicaragua. Walker sailed from San Francisco on 3 May 1855, with approximately 60 men. Upon landing, the force was reinforced by 170 locals and about 100 Americans.

Establishment of Walker
With Castellón's consent, Walker attacked the Legitimists in the town of Rivas, near the trans-isthmian route. He was driven off, but not without inflicting heavy casualties. On 4 September, during the Battle of La Virgen, Walker defeated the Legitimist army. On 13 October, he conquered the Legitimist capital of Granada and took effective control of the country. Initially, as commander of the army, Walker ruled Nicaragua through puppet President Patricio Rivas. U.S. President Franklin Pierce recognized Walker's regime as the legitimate government of Nicaragua on 20 May 1856.

Walker declared himself president, re-instituted slavery, and made English the official language.

Central American counterattack
Walker had scared his neighbors with talk of further military conquests in Central America. Juan Rafael Mora, President of Costa Rica, rejected Walker's diplomatic overtures and instead declared war on his regime. Walker sent Colonel Schlessinger to invade Costa Rica in a preemptive action, but his forces were defeated at the Battle of Santa Rosa in March 1856. In April 1856, Costa Rican troops penetrated into Nicaraguan territory and inflicted a defeat on Walker's men at the Second Battle of Rivas, in which Juan Santamaría, later to be recognized as one of Costa Rica's national heroes, sacrificed himself to burn down the place where the Filibusters were staying. Walker set himself up as President of Nicaragua, after conducting an uncontested election. He was inaugurated on 12 July 1856, and soon launched an Americanization program, reinstating slavery, declaring English an official language and reorganizing currency and fiscal policy to encourage immigration from the United States of America.

Meanwhile, government representatives from Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala signed in the City of Guatemala a Treaty of Alliance on 18 July 1856, for "defense of its sovereignty and independence" also recognized Patricio Rivas as president of Nicaragua. Costa Rica could not attend at that time to the alliance because of the havoc that cholera disease had caused in their troops, but would resume actions later. Also, democratic and loyalist factions allied to Patricio Rivas, signed on 12 September, a "Providential Pact" declaring war against William Walker. On 14 September, Septentrión Army (as the allied army was called) forces managed the first victory of the patriotic Nicaraguans in the so-called Battle of San Jacinto.

By the end of 1856, Walker ordered the destruction of Granada.

The Costa Rican government resumed action in late 1856, and developed plans to take over the San Juan River in order to cut Walker's supply of weapons and new recruits. Cornelius Vanderbilt sent one of his agents, Sylvanus Spencer, to collaborate with the Costa Rican army in order to recover the possession of the Transit Company he had lost to Walker. Spencer arrived to San Jose in November 1856 and was assigned to a company under Major Maximo Blanco to take over the steamers of the Transit Company. By January 1857, the Costa Rican army was in control of the San Juan River and all the steamers of the Transit Company.

Meanwhile, Walker was expelled from Granada by the rest of the allied armies. Some reinforcements under the command of Lockridge and Titus tried to recover the control of the River from the Costa Ricans, unsuccessfully. By April 1857, Walker had taken Rivas again, and the allies had laid siege to the city, in what became known as the Third Battle of Rivas.

Walker's surrender
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out in 1857. During this time, Granada was burned and thousands of Central Americans lost their lives. The final battle of what Nicaraguans called the "National War" (1856–1857) took place in the spring of 1857 in the town of Rivas, Nicaragua. Walker beat off the attacks, but the effort diminished the strength and morale of his forces and he soon succumbed.

The National War made for the cooperation between the Liberal and Conservative parties, which had brought Walker to Nicaragua. On 1 May 1857, Walker surrendered to Commander Charles Henry Davis of the United States Navy and was repatriated. Upon disembarking in New York City, he was greeted as a hero, but he alienated public opinion when he blamed his defeat on the U.S. Navy.

Chronology

 * 1855
 * 29 June: First Battle of Rivas, Nicaraguan troops of the legitimista band are victorious over Walker.
 * 18 August: Battle of El Sauce, General José Trinidad Muñoz is killed, ending 18 years of de facto military rule in Nicaragua
 * 30 August: Filibuster troops take the port of San Juan del Sur. The action by the teacher, Enmanuel Mongalo y Rubio, stands out.
 * 3 September: Battle of La Virgen, Walker defeats Jose Santos Guardiola's troops.
 * 13 October: Filibusters capture of the city of Granada with help from Nicaraguan troops of the democratico band.

 * 1856
 * 20 March: Battle of Santa Rosa in Costa Rican territory.
 * 11 April: Second Battle of Rivas: Costa Rican troops repel the attack. The soldier, Juan Santamaría, stands out.
 * 26 April: Costa Rican troops leave Nicaragua, decimated by cholera.
 * 14 September: Victory of Nicaraguan patriots against the filibusters in the Battle of San Jacinto.
 * 22 September: William Walker decrees the legalization of slavery in the country.
 * 7 November: Costa Rican troops, under the command of José María Cañas, occupy San Juan del Sur.
 * 11 to 13 October: First Battle of Masaya: The Allied Central American Army repels the filibuster troops.
 * 11 November: Battle of the Transit: William Walker's troops defeat José María Cañas.
 * 15 to 17 November: Second Battle of Masaya, the Central American allies reject William Walker's troops.
 * 23 November: schooner Granada vs. brig Once de Abril. (See Action of 23 November 1856.)
 * 24 November to 14 December: destruction of Granada.
 * 16 December: Walker occupies the city of Rivas.
 * December: Costa Rican troops began a series of attacks that take river steamers in San Juan del Norte and the river San Juan, as well as the fortresses of El Castillo and San Carlos.

 * 1857
 * 3 January: Costa Rican troops take the steamer "San Carlos", isolating William Walker's government from the Atlantic Ocean.
 * 28 January: Allied troops occupy the lake port of San Jorge.
 * 5 March: Nicaraguan and Central American troops under the command of Fernando Chamorro Alfaro and Florencio Xatruch, respectively, defeat the filibusters in the Battle of El Jocote.
 * 23 March: Third Battle of Rivas, Central American allies attack the town without results.
 * 11 April: Fourth Battle of Rivas, Central American allies, again, attack the town without results.
 * 17 April: Central American Allied troops occupy San Juan del Sur.
 * 1 May: William Walker surrenders to U.S. Captain Charles H. Davis.
 * 5 May: William Walker abandons Nicaragua in the sloop St. Mary's.

title: Filibuster War


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Talk:Najwa Karam

Photo
Thank you for your positive respond about the tone issue. A lot of new users ignore these kind of remarks. It's also great that you uploaded and tagged all the Album Covers with the Albumcover. I'm just worried about Image:Najwa5.JPG which has no Image copyright tag. If you could tell me the place where you brought it, I could help you.

One last thing :), Please consider to put ~ in order to sign everytime you write in a talk page. CG 20:14, September 5, 2005 (UTC)

Ps lebbo 08:36, 6 September 2005 (UTC) So is the tone better now? Can i get rid of the little message at the top of the page concerning the tone yet? And also, the picture is taken from najwakaram.com

 * It's a lot better now. I've removed the tone template.
 * About the picture of Najwa, do you have the right to use it? Have you asked the site before using this photo? CG 09:23, September 6, 2005 (UTC)

Well first of all, the site is under construction still and doesnt have an email for contact. Secondly, this particular photo is everywhere on the net and in magazines so I'm not sure who the original source is. Thirdly, I'm not even sure that her photos r copyrighted.... Ps lebbo 12:11, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I know your new to Wikipedia, but Wikipedia policies states that each image should be tagged with a Image copyright tags, or it will be deleted. In the case of this photo, I'll tag it as fairuse until you get more information about it. But if it is taken from a magazine cover or poster, it would make the problem easier. Thank you. CG 14:15, September 6, 2005 (UTC)

I think I'll just change the picture all together, because I can't get the proper source for it... Otherwise, how can this article becomre a Featured Article??? Ps lebbo 00:44, 12 September 2005 (UTC)

To a featured article
One more time, your work on improving this article is just great. I'm glad that you though about improving it to the Featured article status.

First, I recommend you to check the page What is a featured article for the criterias. I also recommend to take a look a the Featured article candidates, to see what kind of criticism an article would get. Also why not checking some featured articles about singers to get some examples?

I really have a limited time to surf through the net every week, so I don't have the time to read the entire article. But I can say that at least there's no problems concerning the images (unless you upload some new).

ps: I'm glad that you removed the Image:Najwa5.JPG for copyrights issues, but being the uploader of the image, could you give me the permission to delete it? I also liked the new image, it makes Najwa look gorgeous CG 17:28, September 12, 2005 (UTC)

Her nick name is Najwa karam Shams Al Gheniyah Al Lebnaniyah NOT Al Arabiya. Radiant 17:26, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Badawie 10:48, 10 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Good of you to take the initiative to do this. I must say I agree somewhat about the tone. Perfect for a press release (I've written enough of those to know) but not an encyclopedia. The excessive use of exclamation points! towards the end of the article are something I don't see in an encyclopedia (free or otherwise). Last thing is, please run a spell check. There are various, either sp errors or grammatical ones I attribute to English possibly not being a first language or to the article being changed many times to appease people. Again, great job, we should strive for perfection in all articles, so that scholars can feel secure using not only pages on splitting the atom, but also those on Lebanese pop stars ;-)

Too many photos
This article has too many photos. This isn't a photo gallery; some of these photos should be removed. The Behnam 02:32, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Maronite Christian?
Najwa Karam is listed in the Arab Christians article. However, I am not sure what the source is for the assertion. Can somebody familiar with the topic add a strong reference for this? I am considering adding her picture to the Women in Arab societies article as a significant non-Muslim woman, but I need a source. By the way, the Women in Arab societies article needs a lot of work, so please feel free to help out there. I'm not very familiar with the whole topic so I haven't been able to do very much except minor fixes. Thanks for any help. The Behnam 02:36, 26 February 2007 (UTC). yes shes a maronite christan, but i havent a quelle.But I search.

hi ya amar na ba7ebek keter bas 7abeb nikek be lablob kesek —Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.58.76.15 (talk) 04:37, 16 January 2009 (UTC)
 * They label her as an Arab but say she was of Maronite parents. Doesn't that make her Aramean-Syriac?-- Schnitzel MannGreek . 02:30, 19 July 2009 (UTC)

Bias/"fluff" article. NPOV guideline violations.. FIX IMMEDIATELY..otherwise I am flagging this article for NPOV violations.
This is an ENCYCLOPEDIC article. It should be COMPLETELY factual and neutral, WITHOUT containing praise and whatnot. This sounds like a promotional piece taken from a fansite (the introduction, for example, talking about how she's an icon and all that...etc.: that is an opinion. I ADORE this singer too, by the way, but such praise does NOT belong in an ENCYCLOPEDIC article, as it violates NPOV guidelines). If this is not changed/removed IMMEDIATELY, I WILL take the time to do it myself. It is completely unacceptable. Please edit this article immediately to preclude praise and fan-site sounding fluff. This is an enclycopedic article that is supposed to contain INFORMATION only, un-biased and completely neutral with NO opinions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.175.235.253 (talk) 09:58, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

Tone
This article is very complete and very-well written (Finally a good article about a lebanese personnality), which with some changes could be a featured article.

The problem concerns the wikipedia guideline Avoid peacock terms (please read it, it's short). A lot of peacock terms are used in this articles beginning with the introduction:
 * Her awards and achievements are vast...
 * If anyone was responsible of raising the Lebanese song upon the world in the 1990’s, it would be Najwa Karam. She is one of the most famous and most active Lebanese singers. Her talent, strong voice, looks, intelligence and management team have made her unique, which has made her fans agree that no one can compete with her and her talent.

I neither agree or disagree, but please, these kind of terms should be avoided, though they're inappropriate in an encyclopedia article. See some other artists articles like Kylie Minogue to compare. The article justifies its importance and success without adding such terms she is the best, no one is like her... and it also have some critics about Minogue, which the article of Najwa Karam doesn't have. CG 13:12, September 3, 2005 (UTC)

Oh I see... I'll fix it up, no problem. It's still not finished anyway: there are more parts to add still - like contraversies, personal life etc

i like her الببغاء الازرق (talk) 03:08, 27 March 2017 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 13:52, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Najwa Karam, New Year's Eve (1).jpg

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:06, 28 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Najwa Karam 1.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Najwa Karam


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User:Xiong/tobydemo3

 •

title: User:Xiong/tobydemo3


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Yarbls

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Merge with A Clockwork Orange. Ryan Norton T 09:54, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

Yarbls
Not a dictionary Ryan Norton T 09:31, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge to Clockwork Orange page, and correct spelling to "yarbles."   Paul Klenk 09:48, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Yarbls


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Statistical randomness

A numeric sequence is said to be statistically random when it contains no recognizable patterns or regularities; sequences such as the results of an ideal dice roll or the digits of π exhibit statistical randomness.

Statistical randomness does not necessarily imply "true" randomness, i.e., objective unpredictability. Pseudorandomness is sufficient for many uses, such as statistics, hence the name statistical randomness.

Global randomness and local randomness are different. Most philosophical conceptions of randomness are global—because they are based on the idea that "in the long run" a sequence looks truly random, even if certain sub-sequences would not look random. In a "truly" random sequence of numbers of sufficient length, for example, it is probable there would be long sequences of nothing but repeating numbers, though on the whole the sequence might be random. Local randomness refers to the idea that there can be minimum sequence lengths in which random distributions are approximated. Long stretches of the same numbers, even those generated by "truly" random processes, would diminish the "local randomness" of a sample (it might only be locally random for sequences of 10,000 numbers; taking sequences of less than 1,000 might not appear random at all, for example).

A sequence exhibiting a pattern is not thereby proved not statistically random. According to principles of Ramsey theory, sufficiently large objects must necessarily contain a given substructure ("complete disorder is impossible").

Legislation concerning gambling imposes certain standards of statistical randomness to slot machines.

Tests
The first tests for random numbers were published by M.G. Kendall and Bernard Babington Smith in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society in 1938. They were built on statistical tools such as Pearson's chi-squared test that were developed to distinguish whether experimental phenomena matched their theoretical probabilities. Pearson developed his test originally by showing that a number of dice experiments by W.F.R. Weldon did not display "random" behavior.

Kendall and Smith's original four tests were hypothesis tests, which took as their null hypothesis the idea that each number in a given random sequence had an equal chance of occurring, and that various other patterns in the data should be also distributed equiprobably.

 * The frequency test, was very basic: checking to make sure that there were roughly the same number of 0s, 1s, 2s, 3s, etc.
 * The serial test, did the same thing but for sequences of two digits at a time (00, 01, 02, etc.), comparing their observed frequencies with their hypothetical predictions were they equally distributed.
 * The poker test, tested for certain sequences of five numbers at a time (AAAAA, AAAAB, AAABB, etc.) based on hands in the game poker.
 * The gap test, looked at the distances between zeroes (00 would be a distance of 0, 030 would be a distance of 1, 02250 would be a distance of 3, etc.).

If a given sequence was able to pass all of these tests within a given degree of significance (generally 5%), then it was judged to be, in their words "locally random". Kendall and Smith differentiated "local randomness" from "true randomness" in that many sequences generated with truly random methods might not display "local randomness" to a given degree — very large sequences might contain many rows of a single digit. This might be "random" on the scale of the entire sequence, but in a smaller block it would not be "random" (it would not pass their tests), and would be useless for a number of statistical applications.

As random number sets became more and more common, more tests, of increasing sophistication were used. Some modern tests plot random digits as points on a three-dimensional plane, which can then be rotated to look for hidden patterns. In 1995, the statistician George Marsaglia created a set of tests known as the diehard tests, which he distributes with a CD-ROM of 5 billion pseudorandom numbers. In 2015, Yongge Wang distributed a Java software package for statistically distance based randomness testing.

Pseudorandom number generators require tests as exclusive verifications for their "randomness," as they are decidedly not produced by "truly random" processes, but rather by deterministic algorithms. Over the history of random number generation, many sources of numbers thought to appear "random" under testing have later been discovered to be very non-random when subjected to certain types of tests. The notion of quasi-random numbers was developed to circumvent some of these problems, though pseudorandom number generators are still extensively used in many applications (even ones known to be extremely "non-random"), as they are "good enough" for most applications.

Other tests:
 * The Monobit test treats each output bit of the random number generator as a coin flip test, and determine if the observed number of heads and tails are close to the expected 50% frequency. The number of heads in a coin flip trail forms a binomial distribution.
 * The Wald–Wolfowitz runs test tests for the number of bit transitions between 0 bits, and 1 bits, comparing the observed frequencies with expected frequency of a random bit sequence.
 * Information entropy
 * Autocorrelation test
 * Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
 * Statistically distance based randomness test. Yongge Wang showed that NIST SP800-22 testing standards are not sufficient to detect some weakness in randomness generators and proposed statistically distance based randomness test.
 * Spectral Density Estimation - performing a Fourier transform on a "random" signal transforms it into a sum of periodic functions in order to detect non random repetitive trends
 * Maurer's Universal Statistical Test
 * The Diehard tests

title: Statistical randomness


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Metal lathe

In machining, a metal lathe or metalworking lathe is a large class of lathes designed for precisely machining relatively hard materials. They were originally designed to machine metals; however, with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their inherent versatility, they are used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range of materials. In machining jargon, where the larger context is already understood, they are usually simply called lathes, or else referred to by more-specific subtype names (toolroom lathe, turret lathe, etc.). These rigid machine tools remove material from a rotating workpiece via the (typically linear) movements of various cutting tools, such as tool bits and drill bits.

Construction
The design of lathes can vary greatly depending on the intended application; however, basic features are common to most types. These machines consist of (at the least) a headstock, bed, carriage, and tailstock. Better machines are solidly constructed with broad bearing surfaces (slide-ways) for stability, and manufactured with great precision. This helps ensure the components manufactured on the machines can meet the required tolerances and repeatability.

Headstock
The headstock (H1) houses the main spindle (H4), speed change mechanism (H2, H3), and change gears (H10). The headstock is required to be made as robust as possible due to the cutting forces involved, which can distort a lightly built housing, and induce harmonic vibrations that will transfer through to the workpiece, reducing the quality of the finished workpiece.

The main spindle is generally hollow to allow long bars to extend through to the work area. This reduces preparation and waste of material. The spindle runs in precision bearings and is fitted with some means of attaching workholding devices such as chucks or faceplates. This end of the spindle usually also has an included taper, frequently a Morse taper, to allow the insertion of hollow tubular (Morse standard) tapers to reduce the size of the tapered hole, and permit use of centers. On older machines ('50s) the spindle was directly driven by a flat belt pulley with lower speeds available by manipulating the bull gear. Later machines use a gear box driven by a dedicated electric motor. A fully 'geared head' allows the operator to select suitable speeds entirely through the gearbox.

Beds
The bed is a robust base that connects to the headstock and permits the carriage and tailstock to be moved parallel with the axis of the spindle. This is facilitated by hardened and ground bedways which restrain the carriage and tailstock in a set track. The carriage travels by means of a rack and pinion system. The leadscrew of accurate pitch, drives the carriage holding the cutting tool via a gearbox driven from the headstock.

Types of beds include inverted "V" beds, flat beds, and combination "V" and flat beds. "V" and combination beds are used for precision and light duty work, while flat beds are used for heavy duty work.

When a lathe is installed, the first step is to level it, which refers to making sure the bed is not twisted or bowed. There is no need to make the machine exactly horizontal, but it must be entirely untwisted to achieve accurate cutting geometry. A precision level is a useful tool for identifying and removing any twist. It is advisable also to use such a level along the bed to detect bending, in the case of a lathe with more than four mounting points. In both instances the level is used as a comparator rather than an absolute reference.

Feed and lead screws
The feedscrew (H8) is a long driveshaft that allows a series of gears to drive the carriage mechanisms. These gears are located in the apron of the carriage. Both the feedscrew and leadscrew (H7) are driven by either the change gears (on the quadrant) or an intermediate gearbox known as a quick change gearbox (H6) or Norton gearbox. These intermediate gears allow the correct ratio and direction to be set for cutting threads or worm gears. Tumbler gears (operated by H5) are provided between the spindle and gear train along with a quadrant plate that enables a gear train of the correct ratio and direction to be introduced. This provides a constant relationship between the number of turns the spindle makes, to the number of turns the leadscrew makes. This ratio allows screwthreads to be cut on the workpiece without the aid of a die.

Some lathes have only one leadscrew that serves all carriage-moving purposes. For screw cutting, a half nut is engaged to be driven by the leadscrew's thread; and for general power feed, a key engages with a keyway cut into the leadscrew to drive a pinion along a rack that is mounted along the lathe bed.

The leadscrew will be manufactured to either imperial or metric standards and will require a conversion ratio to be introduced to create thread forms from a different family. To accurately convert from one thread form to the other requires a 127-tooth gear, or on lathes not large enough to mount one, an approximation may be used. Multiples of 3 and 7 giving a ratio of 63:1 can be used to cut fairly loose threads. This conversion ratio is often built into the quick change gearboxes.

The precise ratio required to convert a lathe with an Imperial (inch) leadscrew to metric (millimeter) threading is 100 / 127 = 0.7874... . The best approximation with the fewest total teeth is very often 37 / 47 = 0.7872... . This transposition gives a constant -0.020 percent error over all customary and model-maker's metric pitches (0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, 2.50, 3.00, 3.50, 4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.50 and 6.00 mm).

Carriage
In its simplest form the carriage holds the tool bit and moves it longitudinally (turning) or perpendicularly (facing) under the control of the operator. The operator moves the carriage manually via the handwheel (5a) or automatically by engaging the feed shaft with the carriage feed mechanism (5c). This provides some relief for the operator as the movement of the carriage becomes power assisted. The handwheels (2a, 3b, 5a) on the carriage and its related slides are usually calibrated, both for ease of use and to assist in making reproducible cuts. The carriage typically comprises a top casting, known as the saddle (4), and a side casting, known as the apron (5).

Cross-slide
The cross-slide (3) rides on the carriage and has a feedscrew which travels at right angles to the main spindle axis. This permits facing operations to be performed, and the depth of cut to be adjusted. This feedscrew can be engaged, through a gear train, to the feed shaft (mentioned previously) to provide automated 'power feed' movement to the cross-slide. On most lathes, only one direction can be engaged at a time as an interlock mechanism will shut out the second gear train.

Cross-slide handwheels are usually marked in terms of the part's diameter, so one graduation representing .001 inches of diameter corresponds to .0005 inches of cross-slide motion.

Compound rest
The compound rest (or top slide) (2) is usually where the tool post is mounted. It provides a smaller amount of movement (less than the cross-slide) along its axis via another feedscrew. The compound rest axis can be adjusted independently of the carriage or cross-slide. It is used for turning tapers, to control depth of cut when screwcutting or precision facing, or to obtain finer feeds (under manual control) than the feed shaft permits. Usually, the compound rest has a protractor marked in its base (2b), enabling the operator to adjust its axis to precise angles.

The slide rest (as the earliest forms of carriage were known) can be traced to the fifteenth century. In 1718 the tool-supporting slide rest with a set of gears was introduced by a Russian inventor Andrey Nartov and had limited usage in the Russian industry.

The first fully documented, all-metal slide rest lathe was invented by Jacques de Vaucanson around 1751. It was described in the Encyclopédie a long time before Maudslay invented and perfected his version. It is likely that Maudslay was not aware of Vaucanson's work, since his first versions of the slide rest had many errors that were not present in the Vaucanson lathe.

In the eighteenth century the slide rest was also used on French ornamental turning lathes.

The suite of gun boring mills at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, in the 1780s by the Verbruggan family also had slide rests. The story has long circulated that Henry Maudslay invented it, but he did not (and never claimed so). The legend that Maudslay invented the slide rest originated with James Nasmyth, who wrote ambiguously about it in his Remarks on the Introduction of the Slide Principle, 1841; later writers misunderstood, and propagated the error. However, Maudslay did help to disseminate the idea widely. It is highly probable that he saw it when he was working at the Arsenal as a boy. In 1794, whilst he was working for Joseph Bramah, he made one, and when he had his own workshop used it extensively in the lathes he made and sold there. Coupled with the network of engineers he trained, this ensured the slide rest became widely known and copied by other lathe makers, and so diffused throughout British engineering workshops. A practical and versatile screw-cutting lathe incorporating the trio of leadscrew, change gears, and slide rest was Maudslay's most important achievement.

Toolpost
The tool bit is mounted in the toolpost (1) which may be of the American lantern style, traditional four-sided square style, or a quick-change style such as the multi-fix arrangement pictured. The advantage of a quick change set-up is to allow an unlimited number of tools to be used (up to the number of holders available) rather than being limited to one tool with the lantern style, or to four tools with the four-sided type. Interchangeable tool holders allow all tools to be preset to a center height that does not change, even if the holder is removed from the machine.

Tailstock

The tailstock is a tool (drill), and center mount, opposite the headstock. The spindle (T5) does not rotate but does travel longitudinally under the action of a leadscrew and handwheel (T1). The spindle includes a taper to hold drill bits, centers and other tooling. The tailstock can be positioned along the bed and clamped (T6) in position as dictated by the work piece. There is also provision to offset the tailstock (T4) from the spindles axis, this is useful for turning small tapers, and when re-aligning the tailstock to the axis of the bed.

The image shows a reduction gear box (T2) between the handwheel and spindle, where large drills may necessitate the extra leverage. The tool bit is normally made of HSS, cobalt steel or carbide.

Steady, follower and other rests
Long workpieces often need to be supported in the middle, as cutting tools can push (bend) the work piece away from where the centers can support them, because cutting metal produces tremendous forces that tend to vibrate or even bend the workpiece. This extra support can be provided by a steady rest (also called a steady, a fixed steady, a center rest, or sometimes, confusingly, a center). It stands stationary from a rigid mounting on the bed, and it supports the workpiece at the rest's center, typically with three contact points 120° apart. A follower rest (also called a follower or a travelling steady) is similar, but it is mounted to the carriage rather than the bed, which means that as the tool bit moves, the follower rest "follows along" (because they are both rigidly connected to the same moving carriage).

Follower rests can provide support that directly counteracts the springing force of the tool bit, right at the region of the workpiece being cut at any moment. In this respect they are analogous to a box tool. Any rest transfers some workpiece geometry errors from base (bearing surface) to processing surface. It depends on the rest design. For minimum transfer rate correcting rests are used. Rest rollers typically cause some additional geometry errors on the processing surface.

Types of metal lathes
There are many variants of lathes within the metalworking field. Some variations are not all that obvious, and others are more a niche area. For example, a centering lathe is a dual head machine where the work remains fixed and the heads move towards the workpiece and machine a center drill hole into each end. The resulting workpiece may then be used "between centers" in another operation. The usage of the term metal lathe may also be considered somewhat outdated these days. Plastics and other composite materials are in wide use and, with appropriate modifications, the same principles and techniques may be applied to their machining as that used for metal.

Center lathe / engine lathe / bench lathe
The terms center lathe, engine lathe, and bench lathe all refer to a basic type of lathe that may be considered the archetypical class of metalworking lathe most often used by the general machinist or machining hobbyist. The name bench lathe implies a version of this class small enough to be mounted on a workbench (but still full-featured, and larger than mini-lathes or micro-lathes). The construction of a center lathe is detailed above, but depending on the year of manufacture, size, price range or desired features, even these lathes can vary widely between models.

Engine lathe is the name applied to a traditional late-19th-century or 20th-century lathe with automatic feed to the cutting tool, as opposed to early lathes which were used with hand-held tools, or lathes with manual feed only. The usage of "engine" here is in the mechanical-device sense, not the prime-mover sense, as in the steam engines which were the standard industrial power source for many years. The works would have one large steam engine which would provide power to all the machines via a line shaft system of belts. Therefore, early engine lathes were generally 'cone heads', in that the spindle usually had attached to it a multi-step pulley called a cone pulley designed to accept a flat belt. Different spindle speeds could be obtained by moving the flat belt to different steps on the cone pulley. Cone-head lathes usually had a countershaft (layshaft) on the back side of the cone which could be engaged to provide a lower set of speeds than was obtainable by direct belt drive. These gears were called back gears. Larger lathes sometimes had two-speed back gears which could be shifted to provide a still lower set of speeds.

When electric motors started to become common in the early 20th century, many cone-head lathes were converted to electric power. At the same time the state of the art in gear and bearing practice was advancing to the point that manufacturers began to make fully geared headstocks, using gearboxes analogous to automobile transmissions to obtain various spindle speeds and feed rates while transmitting the higher amounts of power needed to take full advantage of high-speed steel tools. Cutting tools evolved once again, with the introduction of man-made carbides, and became widely introduced to general industry in the 1970s. Early carbides were attached to toolholders by brazing them into a machined 'nest' in the tool holders. Later designs allowed tips to be replaceable and multi faceted, allowing them to be reused. Carbides tolerate much higher machining speeds without wearing. This has led to machining times shortening, and therefore production growing. The demand for faster and more powerful lathes controlled the direction of lathe development. The availability of inexpensive electronics has again changed the way speed control may be applied by allowing continuously variable motor speed from the maximum down to almost zero RPM. This had been tried in the late 19th century but was not found satisfactory at the time. Subsequent improvements in electric circuitry have made it viable again.

Toolroom lathe
A toolroom lathe is a lathe optimized for toolroom work. It is essentially just a top-of-the-line center lathe, with all of the best optional features that may be omitted from less expensive models, such as a collet closer, taper attachment, and others. The bed of a toolroom lathe is generally wider than that of a standard center lathe. There has also been an implication over the years of selective assembly and extra fitting, with every care taken in the building of a toolroom model to make it the smoothest-running, most-accurate version of the machine that can be built. However, within one brand, the quality difference between a regular model and its corresponding toolroom model depends on the builder and in some cases has been partly marketing psychology. For name-brand machine tool builders who made only high-quality tools, there wasn't necessarily any lack of quality in the base-model product for the "luxury model" to improve upon. In other cases, especially when comparing different brands, the quality differential between (1) an entry-level center lathe built to compete on price, and (2) a toolroom lathe meant to compete only on quality and not on price, can be objectively demonstrated by measuring TIR, vibration, etc. In any case, because of their fully ticked-off option list and (real or implied) higher quality, toolroom lathes are more expensive than entry-level center lathes.

Turret lathe and capstan lathe
Turret lathes and capstan lathes are members of a class of lathes that are used for repetitive production of duplicate parts (which by the nature of their cutting process are usually interchangeable). It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret, which is an indexable tool holder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the operator to perform setup tasks in between (such as installing or uninstalling tools) nor to control the toolpath. (The latter is due to the toolpath being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion via the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via computer-directed servo mechanisms on CNC lathes.)

There is a tremendous variety of turret lathe and capstan lathe designs, reflecting the variety of work that they do.

Gang-tool lathe
A gang-tool lathe is one that has a row of tools set up on its cross-slide, which is long and flat and is similar to a milling machine table. The idea is essentially the same as with turret lathes: to set up multiple tools and then easily index between them for each part-cutting cycle. Instead of being rotary like a turret, the indexable tool group is linear.

Multispindle lathe
Multispindle lathes have more than one spindle and automated control (whether via cams or CNC). They are production machines specializing in high-volume production. The smaller types are usually called screw machines, while the larger variants are usually called automatic chucking machines, automatic chuckers, or simply chuckers. Screw machines usually work from bar stock, while chuckers automatically chuck up individual blanks from a magazine. Typical minimum profitable production lot size on a screw machine is in the thousands of parts due to the large setup time. Once set up, a screw machine can rapidly and efficiently produce thousands of parts on a continuous basis with high accuracy, low cycle time, and very little human intervention. (The latter two points drive down the unit cost per interchangeable part much lower than could be achieved without these machines.)

CNC lathe / CNC turning center

Computer numerical controlled (CNC) lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes (multispindle, etc.) due to their ease of set up, operation, repeatability and accuracy. A CNC Turning Lathe is a Computer Controlled piece of machinery. It allows basic machining operations such as turning and drilling to be carried out as on a conventional lathe. They are designed to use modern carbide tooling and fully use modern processes. The part may be designed and the tool paths programmed by the CAD/CAM process or manually by the programmer, and the resulting file uploaded to the machine, and once set and trialled the machine will continue to turn out parts under the occasional supervision of an operator.

The machine is controlled electronically via a computer menu style interface, the program may be modified and displayed at the machine, along with a simulated view of the process. The setter/operator needs a high level of skill to perform the process. However, the knowledge base is broader compared to the older production machines where intimate knowledge of each machine was considered essential. These machines are often set and operated by the same person, where the operator will supervise a small number of machines (cell).

The design of a CNC lathe varies with different manufacturers, but they all have some common elements. The turret holds the tool holders and indexes them as needed, the spindle holds the workpiece and there are slides that let the turret move in multiple axes simultaneously. The machines are often totally enclosed, due in large part to occupational health and safety (OH&S) issues.

With rapid growth in this industry, different CNC lathe manufacturers use different user interfaces which sometimes makes it difficult for operators as they have to be acquainted with them. With the advent of cheap computers, free operating systems such as Linux, and open source CNC software, the entry price of CNC machines has plummeted.

Swiss-style lathe / Swiss turning center
A Swiss-style lathe is a specific design of lathe providing extreme accuracy (sometimes holding tolerances as small as a few tenths of a thousandth of an inch—a few micrometers). A Swiss-style lathe holds the workpiece with both a collet and a guide bushing. The collet sits behind the guide bushing, and the tools sit in front of the guide bushing, holding stationary on the Z axis. To cut lengthwise along the part, the tools will move in and the material itself will move back and forth along the Z axis. This allows all the work to be done on the material near the guide bushing where it is more rigid, making them ideal for working on slender workpieces as the part is held firmly with little chance of deflection or vibration occurring. This style of lathe is commonly used under CNC control.

Most CNC Swiss-style lathes today use one or two main spindles plus one or two back spindles (secondary spindles). The main spindle is used with the guide bushing for the main machining operations. The secondary spindle is located behind the part, aligned on the Z axis. In simple operation it picks up the part as it is cut off, and accepts it for second operations, then ejects it into a bin, eliminating the need to have an operator manually change each part, as is often the case with standard CNC turning centers. This makes them very efficient, as these machines are capable of fast cycle times, producing simple parts in one cycle (i.e., no need for a second machine to finish the part with second operations), in as little as 10–15 seconds. This makes them ideal for large production runs of small-diameter parts.

Swiss-style Lathes and Live Tooling
As many Swiss lathes incorporate a secondary spindle, or 'sub-spindle', they also incorporate 'live tooling '. Live tools are rotary cutting tools that are powered by a small motor independently of the spindle motor. Live tools increase the intricacy of components that can be manufactured by the Swiss lathe. For instance, automatically producing a part with a hole drilled perpendicular to the main axis (the axis of rotation of the spindles) is very economical with live tooling, and similarly uneconomical if done as a secondary operation after machining by the Swiss lathe is complete. A 'secondary operation' is a machining operation requiring a partially completed part to be secured in a second machine to complete the manufacturing process. Generally, advanced CAD/CAM software uses live tools in addition to the main spindles so that most parts that can be drawn by a CAD system can actually be manufactured by the machines that the CAD/CAM software support.

Combination lathe / 3-in-1 machine
A combination lathe, often known as a 3-in-1 machine, introduces drilling or milling operations into the design of the lathe. These machines have a milling column rising up above the lathe bed, and they utilize the carriage and topslide as the X and Y axes for the milling column. The 3-in-1 name comes from the idea of having a lathe, milling machine, and drill press all in one affordable machine tool. These are exclusive to the hobbyist and MRO markets, as they inevitably involve compromises in size, features, rigidity, and precision in order to remain affordable. Nevertheless, they meet the demand of their niche quite well, and are capable of high accuracy given enough time and skill. They may be found in smaller, non-machine-oriented businesses where the occasional small part must be machined, especially where the exacting tolerances of expensive toolroom machines, besides being unaffordable, would be overkill for the application from an engineering perspective.

Mini-lathe and micro-lathe
Mini-lathes and micro-lathes are miniature versions of a general-purpose center lathe (engine lathe). They typically only handle work of 3 to 7 in diameter (in other words, 1.5 to 3.5 in radius). They are small and affordable lathes for the home workshop or MRO shop. The same advantages and disadvantages apply to these machines as explained earlier regarding 3-in-1 machines.

As found elsewhere in English-language orthography, there is variation in the styling of the prefixes in these machines' names. They are alternately styled as mini lathe, minilathe, and mini-lathe and as micro lathe, microlathe, and micro-lathe''.

Brake lathe
A lathe specialized for the task of resurfacing brake drums and discs in automotive or truck garages.

Wheel lathe
Wheel lathes are machines used to manufacture and resurface the wheels of railway rolling stock. When wheels become worn or compromised from excessive use, this tool can be used to re-cut and recondition the wheel. There are a number of different wheel lathes available including underfloor variations for resurfacing wheels that are still attached to the rail car, portable types that are easily transported for emergency wheel repairs, and CNC versions which utilize computer-based operating systems to complete the wheel repair.

Pit lathe
A lathe for large diameter, though short work, built over a recess in the floor to admit the lower part of the workpiece thus allowing the toolrest to stand at the turner's waist height. An example is on display at the London Science Museum, Kensington.

Vertical lathe
For even larger diameter and heavier work, such as pressure vessels or marine engines, the lathe is rotated so it takes the form of a turntable on which parts are placed. This orientation is less convenient for the operator, but makes it easier to support large parts. In the largest, the turntable is installed flush with the floor, with the headstock recessed below, to facilitate loading and unloading workpieces.

Because operator access is less of an issue for them, CNC vertical turning machines are more popular than manual vertical lathes.

Oil country lathe
Specialised lathes for machining long workpieces such as segments of drill strings. Oil country lathes are equipped with large-bore hollow spindles, a second chuck on the opposite side of the headstock, and frequently outboard steadies for supporting long workpieces.

Feed mechanisms
Various feed mechanisms exist to feed material into a lathe at a defined rate. The aim of these mechanisms is to automate part of the production process with the end goal of improving productivity.

Bar feeder
A bar feeder feeds a single piece of bar stock into the cutting machine. As each part is machined, the cutting tool creates a final cut to separate the part from the bar stock, and the feeder continues to feed the bar for the next part, allowing for continual operation of the machine. There are two types of bar feeds used in lathe machining: Hydrodynamic bar feeds, which rest the bar stock in a series of channels whilst clamping down on the top and bottom of the bar, and hydrostatic bar feeds, which hold the bar stock in a feed tube using pressurized oil.

Bar loader
A bar loader is a variation on the bar feeder concept in that multiple pieces of bar stock may be fed into a hopper, and the loader feeds each piece as necessary.

title: Metal lathe


text:
Tughlugh Timur

Tughlugh Timur Khan (also Tughluq Tömür or Tughluk Timur) (1312/13–1363) was the Khan of Moghulistan from c. 1347 and Khan of the whole Chagatai Khanate from c. 1360 until his death. Esen Buqa (a direct descendant of Chagatai Khan) is believed to be his father. His reign is known for his conversion to Islam and his invasions of Transoxiana.

Background
After the Chagatayid Qazan Khan was killed in 1346, the Chagatai Khanate underwent a transformation. In the west (Transoxiana), the mostly Turko-Mongol tribes, led by the Qara'unas amirs, seized control. In order to maintain a link to the house of Genghis Khan, the amirs set several of his descendants on the throne, though these khans ruled in name only and had no real power.

The eastern part of the khanate, meanwhile, had been largely autonomous for several years as a result of the khans' weakening power. This eastern portion (most of which was known as "Moghulistan") was, in contrast to Transoxiana, primarily inhabited by Mongols and was largely Buddhist and Shamanist.

The most powerful family in the eastern part of the khanate during this time was a Mongol one, that of the Dughlat amirs. The Dughlats held several important towns as vassals to the khans, including Kashgar, Aksu, Yarkand, and Khotan. In around 1347, the Dughlat amir Bulaji, after seeing the situation in Transoxiana, decided to raise a khan of his own choosing. His choice fell on Tughlugh Timur, who was at that time little more than an adventurer.

Conversion to Islam
Tughlugh was converted by a Muslim cleric Mauláná Arshad-ud-Din, who unwittingly trespassed on the game-preserves of Tughlugh. Tughlugh ordered the cleric before him and demanded to know the reason for the cleric's interference with his hunting. The cleric answered that he wasn't aware that he was trespassing. At this point, Tughlugh noticed that the cleric was Persian, and Tughlugh said that "a dog was worth more than a Persian." The cleric responded, "Yes, if we had not the true faith, we should indeed be worse than dogs." Puzzled, Tughlugh ordered the cleric to explain the "true faith"; thus was Tughlugh taught the doctrines of Islam. Thereafter, Tughlugh embraced Islam. This act resulted in the amirs of Moghulistan doing the same, although the general population of the region was slower in converting. According to an account He received circumcision, and on the same day 160,000 people shaved their heads and confessed Islam.

Khanship
Meanwhile, in Transoxiana the Qara'unas lost their status as de facto leaders of the Chagatai ulus; they were replaced by Buyan Suldus, an easygoing and ineffective amir. Tughlugh Timur judged that he would face little resistance in Transoxiana and invaded in March 1360. As predicted, most of the tribal amirs declared their support for him; those that didn't (notably Hajji Beg of the Barlas tribe) decided to flee. The Moghuls decided to find someone else to administer Hajji Beg's former territories; they agreed on Hajji Beg's young nephew Timur, who had submitted to them. This, incidentally, was the first step in Timur's rise to power as amir of the Timurid Empire.

The Moghuls soon left Transoxiana after a dispute ensued amongst their amirs. In 1361, however, Tughlugh Timur and his army rode into the region for the second time. This time the khan seems to have decided to depose the Transoxianan amirs and centralize power in his own hands. He executed several amirs, including Amir Bayazid and Buyan Suldus, while Hajji Beg, who had returned following the departure of the Moghuls in 1360, again retreated. When the Qara'unas Amir Husayn opposed him, Tughlugh Timur invaded his extensive territories located south of the Amu Darya and defeated him in battle. Amir Husayn fled; the Moghul army advanced as far south as Kunduz in pursuit of him and plundered the region.

Having destroyed the power of the Transoxianan amirs and reunified the Chagatai Khanate, Tughlugh Timur appointed his son Ilyas Khoja as viceroy of Transoxiana and departed for Moghulistan.

Unlike 'Ali-Sultan who murdered the Franciscan missionaries, Tughlugh Timur appears to have been tolerant towards other religions and intellectuals and shared his Chagatayid and Yuan predecessors' interests in Buddhism. In around 1363 he invited the Tibetan lama, Rol-pai Dorji, who was going back from the court of the Yuan Dynasty headquartered in Dadu (modern Beijing). However, the latter politely declined the invitation due to the distance and the Khan's conversion to Islam.

During his reign, the Moghuls (Persian designation of Mongols) still preserved their Mongol identity and spoke in Mongolian language.

Not long after this he died at the age of 34. His tomb is located in Almaliq. His conquest of Transoxiana proved to be short-lived, as Amir Husayn and Timur quickly wrested it from Ilyas Khoja.

Genealogy of Chaghatai Khanate

In Babr Nama written by Babur, Page 19, Chapter 1; described genealogy of his maternal grandfather Yunas Khan as:

"Yunas Khan descended from Chaghatal Khan, the second son of Chlngiz Khan (as follows,) Yunas Khan, son of Wais Khan, son of Sher-'ali Aughldn, son of Muhammad Khan, son of Khizr Khwaja Khan, son of Tughluq-timur Khan, son of Aisan-bugha Khan, son of Dawa Khan, son of Baraq Khan, son of Yesuntawa Khan, son of Muatukan, son of Chaghatal Khan, son of Chingiz Khan"

title: Tughlugh Timur


text:
Talk:List of Russian artists

Reshaping the list
I'm going to make the format of this list similar to that of List of Russian inventors. As a part of this, I'm deleting the red links in the current list and put them here: Perhaps I'll add here some other painters from this that are of minor importance and can't be illustrated good enough. For the full list without pictures we have Category:Russian artists. Greyhood (talk) 23:16, 2 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Ivan Golikov (1886-1937) - Palekh miniature painter (see Голиков, Иван Иванович (художник))
 * Nikifor Krylov (1802–1831), painter
 * Nikolai Dmitrievich Kuznetsov (1850–1929), painter
 * Ernst Lipgart (of German descent) (1847–1932), painter
 * Dmitri Nalbandian, Kremlin's painter of Armenian descent
 * Aleksandr Nikulin (1878–1945), painter
 * Anna Zinkovsky (1972), fantasy painter

Minor painters deleted from the list: That's it. When there will be enough illustrative material on Wikipedia regarding these artists, they may be returned on the list. Greyhood (talk) 23:43, 2 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Nikolay Andreyev, (1873–1932), sculptor, graphic artist, stage designer
 * Fedor Leontyevich Argunov,(1716-1754), painter
 * Constantin Astori, (1889–1975), painter
 * Boris Artzybasheff, (1899–1965), painter
 * Sergei Bongart (1918–1985)
 * Ksenia Boguslavskaya (1892–1972), painter
 * Aleksandra Ekster (of Belarusian descent) (1882–1949), painter, one of the founders of Art Deco
 * Robert Falk (of Jewish descent) (1886–1958), painter
 * Nina Genke-Meller (of Dutch descent) avant-garde artist (suprematist)
 * Alexej von Jawlensky, painter
 * Andrei Kolkoutine (born 1957)
 * Pyotr Konchalovsky, painter
 * Alexander V. Kuprin (1880–1960), painter
 * Igor Kufayev (1966 - ) artist, painter
 * Arnold Borisovich Lakhovsky (1880 - 1937), painter
 * Ilya Mashkov (1881–1944), painter
 * Vadym Meller (of Swedish-Italian-Greek descent) (1884–1962), painter (constructivist),theatrical designer
 * Serge Poliakoff (1900–1969), painter
 * Prokhor, medieval icon-painter
 * Konstantin Rodko (1908–1995), naïve painter
 * Svetoslav Roerich (1904–1993), painter
 * Georgy Shishkin (1948), painter
 * Anatoly Sivkov
 * Boris Smirnov-Rusetsky (1905–1993), painter
 * Kirill Sokolov (1930-2004), painter, sculptor and illustrator
 * Pavel Tchelitchew (1898–1957), painter
 * Vasiliy Yermilov avant-garde artist (constructivist)
 * Konstantin Vasiliev (1942–1976), painter
 * Alexandr Zhdanov (1938–2006), painter and sculptor

Artists to add
Please, help me with expanding this list. The following Russian artists on Wikipedia are either especially famous ones or just have enough illustrative material (at least 2-3 works in the article or in Commons, see also pictures on Russian Wikipedia when the artist is in italics), or both: NOTE: AVOID THE USE OF FAIR USE IMAGES Greyhood (talk) 20:03, 5 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Ivan Akimov
 * Alexander Bourganov
 * Boris Anrep
 * Alexander Archipenko
 * Abram Arkhipov
 * Seraphima Blonskaya
 * Konstantin Bogaevsky
 * Alexey Bogolyubov
 * Alexander Bogomazov
 * Elisabeth Bohm
 * Vladimir Bougrine
 * Isaak Brodsky
 * Mykola Burachek
 * David Burliuk
 * Oleg Buryan
 * Boris Chorikov
 * Louis Choris
 * Carl-Ludwig Christinek
 * Mikhail Konstantinovich Clodt
 * Aleksandr Drevin
 * Nikolay Nikanorovich Dubovskoy
 * Lucien Dulfan
 * Natalia Duritskaya
 * Pavel Filonov
 * Philip Firsov
 * Grigory Gagarin
 * Valentin Galochkin
 * Sergey Vasilyevich Gerasimov
 * Aleksandr Golovin (artist)
 * Anna Golubkina
 * Natalia Goncharova
 * Yuri Gorbachev
 * Konstantin Gorbatov
 * Gavriil Gorelov
 * Igor Grabar
 * Boris Grigoriev
 * Pyotr Gruzinsky
 * Lev Lvovich Kamenev
 * Fyodor Kamensky
 * Nikolay Karazin
 * Lev Kerbel
 * Pavel Kolendas
 * Pyotr Konchalovsky
 * Nikolay Koshelev
 * Lev Lagorio
 * Felix Lembersky
 * Lena Hades
 * Ivan Leonidov
 * Alexander Liberman
 * Alexander Litovchenko
 * Aleksandr Makovsky
 * Vladimir Makovsky
 * Andrey Yefimovich Martynov
 * Alexander Matveyev
 * Vassily Maximov
 * Sergey Merkurov
 * Grigoriis Musikiysky
 * Grigoriy Myasoyedov
 * Koryun Nahapetyan
 * Heorhiy Narbut
 * Nikolai Nevrev
 * Pyotr Nilus
 * Amshey Nurenberg
 * Aleksander Orłowski
 * Grigory Ostrovsky
 * Yehuda Pen
 * Antoine Pevsner
 * Mykola Pymonenko
 * Arkady Plastov
 * Yelena Polenova
 * Illarion Pryanishnikov
 * Fyodor Pavlovich Reshetnikov
 * Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia
 * Franz Roubaud
 * Olga Rozanova
 * Arkady Rylov
 * Igor Sacharow-Ross
 * Fiodor Sakharovitch Sakharov
 * Nikolay Sauerweid
 * Sergey Zagraevsky
 * Semyon Shchedrin
 * Nikolay Shilder
 * Mykola Shmatko
 * Vadim Sidur
 * Dmitri Sinodi-Popov
 * Fyodor Slavyansky
 * Pyotr Fyodorovich Sokolov
 * Ivan Soshenko
 * Lyubov Speranskaya
 * Pyotr Subbotin-Permyak
 * Léopold Survage
 * Pavel Svedomsky
 * Nikolai Sverchkov
 * Vladimir Tatlin
 * Paolo Troubetzkoy
 * Konstiantyn Trutovsky
 * Leonard Turzhansky
 * Ivan Tvorozhnikov
 * Alexey Tyranov
 * Vasily Sadovnikov
 * Marie Vassilieff
 * Serhii Vasylkivsky
 * Maxim Vorobiev
 * Maria Yakunchikova
 * Boris Yefimov
 * Ossip Zadkine
 * Slava Zaitsev
 * Eugeniusz Żak
 * Kapiton Zelentsov

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Too many self PR modern Russian painters in the list, not famous at all

 * Nikolay Anokhin
 * Evgenia Antipova
 * Nikolai Baskakov
 * Mikhail Chapiro
 * Julia Dolgorukova
 * Andrey Esionov
 * Mikhail Evstafiev
 * Nikolai Galakhov
 * Fyodor Gavrilov
 * Ivan Godlevsky
 * Mikhail Kaneev
 * Boris Kocheishvili
 * Stepan Kolesnikoff (painter)
 * Sergei Arksentevich Kolyada
 * Vladimir Lisunov
 * Leonid Mezheritski
 * Yevgeniy Migunov
 * Alexey Novikov
 * Igor Novikov
 * Sergei Osipov
 * Gennady Ivanovich Pasko
 * Andrew Pavlovsky
 * Ilyas Phaizulline
 * Charles Radoff
 * Lev Russov
 * Alexander Semionov
 * Iuliia Semkovskaia
 * Anatolii Ivanovich Sivkov
 * Rafael Stupin
 * Alevtina Tchalova
 * Nikolai Timkov
 * Israel Tsvaygenbaum
 * Nina Tokhtaman Valetova
 * Ekaterina Vorona
 * Constantin Alexandrovich Westchiloff

Better to remove them. It shouldn't be "List of uncelebrated Russian painters". --Kazimierz Malewicz (talk) 20:44, 3 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Agreed. There are a lot of 'lists' of the same (lack of) calibre on dozens of ethnic group and diasporic ethnic group articles. If it's clearly WP:PROMO, they don't belong. No reliable secondary sources = no entry on the notables list. --Iryna Harpy (talk) 21:12, 3 March 2018 (UTC)

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text:
Rare Symmetry Violating Processes

The Rare Symmetry Violating Processes (RSVP) was a physics project terminated by the National Science Foundation, in August, 2005, originally meant for construction in the same year, at Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island.

The Experiments
The project's two experiments were to investigate the relation between the electron and its heavier cousin the muon, and to examine differences in the behavior of matter and antimatter, which were to utilize the existing Brookhaven particle accelerator called the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS).

The project had been budgeted at approximately $145 million for construction, between fiscal year 2005 and 2010.

title: Rare Symmetry Violating Processes


text:
Artificial gills (human)

Artificial gills are unproven conceptualised devices to allow a human to be able to take in oxygen from surrounding water. This is speculative technology that has not been demonstrated in a documented fashion. Natural gills work because nearly all animals with gills are thermoconformers (cold-blooded), so they need much less oxygen than a thermoregulator (warm-blood) of the same size. As a practical matter, it is unclear that a usable artificial gill could be created because of the large amount of oxygen a human would need extracted from the water.

Methods
Several potential methods exist for the development of artificial gills. One proposed method is the use of liquid breathing with a membrane oxygenator to solve the problem of carbon dioxide retention, the major limiting factor in liquid breathing. It is thought that a system such as this would allow for diving without risk of decompression sickness.

They are generally thought to be unwieldy and bulky, because of the massive amount of water that would have to be processed to extract enough oxygen to supply an active diver, as an alternative to a scuba set.

An average diver with a fully closed-circuit rebreather needs 1.5 L of oxygen per minute while swimming or 0.64 L per minute while resting. At least 192 L of sea water per minute would have to be passed through the system, and this system would not work in anoxic water. Seawater in tropical regions with abundant plant life contains 5 – of oxygen per liter of water. These calculations are based on the dissolved oxygen content of water.

title: Artificial gills (human)


text: File:Witchaven.jpg

title: File:Witchaven.jpg


text:
Talk:Nikah halala

POV
Just like that? No motivation? --Striver 09:37, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The above comment is too short to be meaningful. Perhaps you could elaborate? Kragen Sitaker 21:18:43, 2005-09-12 (UTC)

 * somebody added a pov signed and did not motivate why. I removed it. --Striver 20:27, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

hadith
Jami’ Tirmidhi, Chapter : About the Muhil and Muhalal.

Hadith n 1120 : From Abdallah ibn Mas’ud who said : “The Prophet saw cursed ( la’ana) the Muhil ( the one who makes halal) and the Muhalal lahu ( for the one it is made halal)”

Abu Issa ( Imam Tirmidhi) said : “ This hadith is Hassan Saheeh” …This hadeeth has been reported from the Prophet saw from other way than this, and the people of knowledge acted on this hadeeth from the companions of the Prophet saw among them : Umar ibnul Khattab, Uthman ibnu ‘Affan, ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Amr and other, and this is the saying of Fuqahas from Tabi’in, and this has been said by Sufyan Thawri, ibnul Mubarak, Shafi’I, Ahmad, Ishaq

--Striver 16:40, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

addition of well referenced information
I have added a verse along with commentary from secondary source that is When iddah has passed in case of 1st or 2nd divorce "And when you divorce your wives and they have completed their iddah then do not ban them from marrying their husbands when they both (spouses) agree in recognise manner; through this He guides those who believe in God and hereafter; this is more righteous and purer for you; and God knows and you do not know. (Al-Quran 2:232)"

"This (instruction) is an admonition for him among you who believes in Allah and the Last Day.) meaning, prohibiting you from preventing the women from marrying their ex-husbands, if they both agree to it."

Smatrah (talk) 14:45, 29 September 2018 (UTC)

more authentic information
I’ve now added more comprehensive information with reference. The Quran states: "Do not make(the name of) God the subject of your oaths against your doing good, fearing God and setting things right between people. God is All-Hearing, All-Knowing. God does not hold you accountable for what is ineffectual in your oaths, but He holds you accountable for what your hearts have produced. God is Forgiving, Forbearing. Those who swear to abstain from their wives have four months of waiting. Therefore, if they revert back, Allah is Most-Forgiving, Very- Merciful, and if they resolve to divorce, Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing. Divorced women shall keep themselves waiting for three periods, and it is not permissible for them to conceal what God has created in their wombs,if they believe in God and in the Last Day. Their husbands are best entitled to take them back in the meantime, if they want a settlement. Women have rights similar to what they owe in recognized manner though for men there is a step above them. Allah is Mighty, Wise. Divorce is twice; then either to retain in all fairness, or to release nicely. It is not lawful for you to take back anything from what you have given them, unless both apprehend that they would not be able to maintain the limits set by God. Now, if you apprehend that they would not maintain the limits set by Allah, then, there is no sin on them in what she gives up to secure her release. These are the limits set by God. Therefore, do not exceed them. Whosoever exceeds the limits set by God, then, those are the transgressors. Thereafter, if he divorces her, she shall no longer remain lawful for him unless she marries a man other than him. Should he too divorce her, then there is no sin on them in their returning to each other, if they think they would maintain the limits set by God. These are the limits set by God that He makes clear to apeople who know. When you have divorced women, and theyhave approached(the end of) their waiting periods, then, either retain them with fairness or release them with fairness. Do not retain them with wrongful intent, resulting in cruelty on your part, and whoever does this, actually wrongs himself. Do not take the verses of God in jest, and remember the grace of God on you and what He has revealed to you of the Book and the wisdom, giving you good counsel thereby, and fear God, and be sure that God is the One who knows everything. When you have divorced women, and they have reached (the end of) their waiting period, do not prevent them from marrying their husbands when they mutually agree with fairness. Thus the advice is given to everyone of you who believes in God and in the Hereafter. This is more pure and clean for you. God knows and you do not know. (Al-Quran 2:224-232)"

According to well known commentary bu Ibn Kathir "Hence, the husband who divorces his wife can take her back, providing she is still in her `Iddah (time spent before a divorced woman or a widow can remarry) and that his aim, by taking her back, is righteous and for the purpose of bringing things back to normal. However, this ruling applies where the husband is eligible to take his divorced wife back."

"Allah made the divorce thrice, where the husband is allowed to take back his wife after the first and the second divorce (as long as she is still in her `Iddah). The divorce becomes irrevocable after the third divorce,..,after that, either you retain her on reasonable terms or release her with kindness.) meaning, `If you divorce her once or twice, you have the choice to take her back, as long as she is still in her `Iddah, intending to be kind to her and to mend differences. Otherwise, await the end of her term of `Iddah, when the divorce becomes final, and let her go her own way in peace, without committing any harm or injustice against her.'"

"This Ayah indicates that if the man divorces his wife for the third time after he divorced her twice, then she will no longer be allowed for marriage to him. Allah said"Taking the Wife back after the third (Divorce) is an abrogated practice," that Ibn `Abbas commented on the Ayah:if she marries an other husband and then the other husband divorces her ,it is no sin on both of them that they reunite) meaning, the wife and her first husband, (provided they feel that they can keep the limits ordained by Allah.) meaning, they live together honorably. Mujahid said, "If they are convinced that the aim behind their marriage is honorable"

"Ali bin Abu Talhah reported that Ibn `Abbas said, "This Ayah was revealed about the man who divorces his wife once or twice and her `Iddah finishes. He later thinks about taking her back in marriage and the woman also wishes that, yet, her family prevents her from remarrying him. Hence, Allah prohibited her family from preventing her. Masruq, Ibrahim An-Nakha`i, Az-Zuhri and Ad-Dahhak stated that this is the reason behind revealing the Ayah (2:232). These statements clearly conform to the apparent meaning of the AyahThis (instruction) is an admonition for him among you who believes in Allah and the Last Day.) meaning, prohibiting you from preventing the women from marrying their ex-husbands, if they both agree to it."

Smatrah (talk) 09:45, 7 April 2019 (UTC)

Halala Concern
Quran elucidate it in Surah Baqarah, verse number 230 like this,

If a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably), he can't after that, re-marry her until she is married to another husband and he divorces her.

When a man divorces his wife thrice, she completes her iddah. When she is done with her iddah, she can marry with another man. After sexual intercourse, if this man divorces her too, now she can return to her first husband by tying again the knot of Nikah.

People make bypasses everywhere. Sometimes husbands after divorcing thrice their wives, hire a man to marry their wives and divorce her after. So that they might return to them. This is called Halala or Hulla.

Holy Prophet disliked Halala and said, “May Allah damn those who make Hulla and those for whom Hulla is made.” (Ibn e Majah, Nikah 33; Abu Dawud, Nikah 14). Therefore Neither it is part of Islam nor it’s mentioned in Quran. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 103.72.75.58 (talk) 19:43, 10 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Moved by me to bottom (new sections go at bottom on wikipedia), and given a relevant header, feel free to change it Nosebagbear (talk) 19:57, 10 May 2020 (UTC)

Prohibited in Islam?
The Quran is interpreted as prohibiting the consumption of alcohol but some Muslims do anyway so "prohibited in Islam" is not a valid reason to remove content. –Skywatcher68 (talk) 16:30, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nikah halala


text:
KDTV-DT

KDTV-DT (channel 14) is a television station licensed to San Francisco, California, United States, serving as the Spanish-language Univision network outlet for the San Francisco Bay Area. It is owned and operated by TelevisaUnivision alongside Vallejo-licensed UniMás outlet KFSF-DT (channel 66). The two stations share studios on Zanker Road near the North San Jose Innovation District in San Jose; KDTV-DT's transmitter is located on Mount Allison in Fremont.

KDTV-CD (channel 28) in Santa Rosa operates as a Class A translator of KDTV relaying the station's signal into the northern half of the market; this station's transmitter is located atop Mount Saint Helena.

History
The Bahía de San Francisco Television Company, owned by principals of the Spanish International Network including Rene Anselmo and Danny Villanueva, applied on July 20, 1973, for a construction permit to build a new television station on San Francisco's channel 60. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted the application on November 13, 1974. Channel 60 had originally been assigned for noncommercial use in San Francisco, and KQED held a permit for it, but when that station accepted a gift from Metromedia of the facility for channel 32, the noncommercial reservation was switched to channel 32, changing channel 60 to commercial.

From studios on Palou Avenue in San Francisco and the former transmitting facilities of KBHK-TV on San Bruno Mountain, channel 60 made its debut on August 10, 1975. KDTV was the Bay Area's first full-time Spanish station; two other channels broadcast Spanish-language programs, KEMO channel 20 and KGSC channel 36.

KDTV did not remain on channel 60 for long. Desirous of a lower channel number, in early 1977, the station approached the College of San Mateo, which owned KCSM-TV, a small educational station in San Mateo. The trade, which the college approved that March, gave KDTV a lower channel number and KCSM-TV, then with anemic technical facilities, full-power coverage of the Bay Area and $400,000 in equipment. The swap took place on the morning of March 5, 1979.

The station grew in the 1980s with Emilio Nicolas Jr., son of Emilio Nicolas Sr., as general manager. Its relief efforts in the aftermath of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake won the station a Peabody Award and an Emmy nomination for community service, the first one for a Spanish-language TV station in the United States.

In 1997, prompted by the growing Hispanic population in the Bay Area and the need to expand, KDTV moved its studios and offices to the 41st floor of 50 Fremont Center in downtown San Francisco (today known as Salesforce West), a relocation that one Univision executive noted changed San Francisco from the worst facility in the network to its best. The station's current transmitter sites also took shape, with the opening of the then-KDTV-LP in Santa Rosa and the move of the main transmitter to Mount Allison that year. In 2001, Univision further expanded its Santa Rosa presence and opened an office there.

In 2016, the station moved into a new, state-of-the-art studio facility in San Jose to reduce the cost of doing business (which had become prohibitive in the city of San Francisco) and increase its focus on the expanding Hispanic population to the south in Santa Clara County. KDTV had previously maintained a bureau on Old Oakland Road. The station retains a smaller bureau in San Francisco covering news in the city, along with the northern and eastern portions of the region.

News operation
The station's lone local programming at launch was an early evening local newscast. When Luis Echegoyén—who became one of KDTV's longtime anchors—arrived for an interview before the station launched in 1975, he instead found Anselmo painting a wall. In 1976, Enrique Gratas—later the anchor of Univision's network late news and Ocurrió Así on Telemundo—was named news director, being promoted to KMEX in 1978. His replacement, Guillermo Descalzi, later left KDTV for various SIN network posts, including head of the network's census registration program, national correspondent, and an eight-year stint as the host of Temas y Debates, the network's Sunday morning political program.

It was not until December 1996 that KDTV launched an 11 p.m. newscast. By 2000, the station's news ratings were on the rise and beating the English-language stations among younger viewers. In November 2007, KDTV had the highest-rated newscast in the Bay Area among adults 25 to 54 in the 6 p.m. timeslot. This was the first occurrence in the market in which a Spanish-language news program earned higher ratings than those of its English-language counterparts.

Subchannels
The stations' signals are multiplexed, with KDTV-CD additionally carrying two subchannels of KFSF-DT:

{{legend|#E6FFF7|Simulcast of subchannels of another station}}

Analog-to-digital conversion
KDTV shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 14, on June 12, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 51, using virtual channel 14.

After the 2016 incentive auction, multicultural independent station KTSF entered a channel sharing agreement with KDTV, after the station sold its spectrum in 2018.

title: KDTV-DT


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/AlShaya Group International

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was speedy deleted --cesarb 16:51, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

AlShaya Group International
Seems like Advertizing or Vanity. — Kjammer ⌂  09:38, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Speedy spam - tagged. Ryan Norton T 09:40, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. Nigerian letter.  Paul Klenk 09:41, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy, probably being used to scam someone right now. Quicksandish 14:20, August 27, 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.