text:
Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939

The Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 (2 & 3 Geo. 6. c. 62) was emergency legislation passed just prior to the outbreak of World War II by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to enable the British government to take up emergency powers to prosecute the war effectively. It contained clauses giving the government wide powers to create Defence Regulations by Order in Council. These regulations governed almost every aspect of everyday life in the country during the War. Two offences under the regulations (forcing safeguards and looting) were punishable with death. Following the conclusion of the war, the 1939 Act was repealed, with the individual regulations gradually following suit. As of 2023, at least one Regulation (relating to the use of service personnel to perform agricultural and other "urgent work of national importance") remains in force.

Passage and effect
On 24 August 1939, following the announcement of the Nazi–Soviet Pact the previous day, the House of Commons was recalled from its summer recess to pass the Emergency Powers (Defence) Bill, which gave authority to implement the Defence Regulations. The Act was originally intended to be in force for only one year, and made general provision for prosecuting the war effort. In particular, it provided for the following:1. (1) Subject to the provisions of this section, His Majesty may by Order in Council make such Regulations (in this Act referred to as "Defence Regulations") as appear to him to be necessary or expedient for securing the public safety, the defence of the realm, the maintenance of public order and the efficient prosecution of any war [in which] His Majesty may be engaged, and for maintaining supplies and services essential to the life of the community.

(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the powers conferred by the preceding subsection, Defence Regulations may, so far as appears to His Majesty in Council to be necessary or expedient for any of the purposes mentioned in that subsection:-

(a) Make provision for the apprehension, trial, and punishment of persons offending against the Regulations and for the detention of persons whose detention appears to the Secretary of State to be expedient in the interests of the public safety or the defence of the realm;

(b) authorise -
 * (i) the taking of possession or control, on behalf of His Majesty, of any property or undertaking;
 * (ii) the acquisition, on behalf of His Majesty, of any property other than land;

(c) authorise the entering and searching of any premises; and

(d) provide for amending any enactment, for suspending the operation of any enactment, and for applying any enactment with or without modification.

[...]

(5) Nothing in this section shall authorise the imposition of any form of compulsory naval, military or air force service or any form of industrial conscription, or the making of provision for the trial by courts martial of persons not being persons subject to the Naval Discipline Act, to military law or to the Air Force Act.

The bill completed all its parliamentary stages, including royal assent, on that day. The question of compensation was not directly addressed by the bill, but the subsequent Compensation (Defence) Act 1939 (2 & 3 Geo. 6. c. 75) established a statutory compensation scheme in respect of land, vessels, vehicles, aircraft and other property a week later.

Defence Regulations
The Defence Regulations were Orders in Council and could amend any primary or secondary legislation within the limits of the enabling Acts to allow the effective prosecution of the war.

The regulations existed in draft form, constantly revised, throughout the years between the world wars. In early 1939 it was decided that since a war might break out without warning or without time to pass an act of Parliament to bring in emergency regulations, the regulations should be split into two codes. Code A would be needed immediately if war broke out and could be passed in peacetime, while Code B, containing more severe restrictions on civil liberties, would be brought in later. In order not to alert the public to the existence of Code B, Code A was simply numbered consecutively.

The main Defence Regulations were the Defence (General) Regulations 1939 (SR&O 1939/927), which implemented Code A and were brought into effect immediately. Code B followed on 1 September (the same day Nazi Germany invaded Poland) in the form of the Defence (General) Regulations (Miscellaneous Amendments) Order 1939 (SR&O 1939/978) and included Defence Regulation 18B, which provided a framework for internment. The 1939 regulations were amended dozens of times throughout the war, including by the Defence (General) Regulations (Miscellaneous Amendments) Order 1939 (SR&O 1939/1681), Defence (General) Regulations (Amendment) Regulations 1940 (SR&O 1940/1134), in 1941 (adding Regulation 78 ) and in 1945 (adding Regulation 69D ). By May 1945, some 377 Defence (General) Regulations had been created.

Other Defence Regulations covered narrower fields of life such as the Defence (Finance) Regulations 1939 (SR&O 1939/1620), the Defence (Armed Forces) Regulations 1939 (SR&O 1939/1304), Defence (Administration of Justice) Regulations 1940 (SR&O 1940/1028), Defence (Summer Time) Regulations 1939 (SR&O 1939/1379) and Defence (Trading with the Enemy) Regulations 1940 (SR&O 1940/1092). Some Regulations included powers for a minister to make further provision by way of orders.

Taken together, the Defence Regulations provided the legal basis for a number of measures aimed at the Home Front including the establishment of the Home Guard, the institution of rationing, and nighttime blackouts.

Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1940
The Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1940 (3 & 4 Geo. 6. c. 20) extended the 1939 Act for another year, and provided for annual extensions by parliamentary resolution. It also extended the government's powers under the Defence Regulations to require persons "to place themselves, their services and their property at the disposal of His Majesty" though the practical significance of this extension is unclear given the Government had already passed the National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939 and the Control of Employment Act 1939 (2 & 3 Geo. 6. c. 104).

Enforcement
Originally the regulations did not create any capital offences, since the law of treason was thought to be sufficient. Defence Regulation 2A provided that "If, with intent to assist the enemy, any person does any act which is likely to assist the enemy or to prejudice the public safety, the defence of the realm or the efficient prosecution of the war, he shall be liable to penal servitude for life."

However, in 1940 amendments to the regulations created two capital offences: "forcing safeguards" (breaking through roadblocks etc.) under regulation 1B, and looting under regulation 38A. A third new capital offence, called treachery, was created soon afterwards by the Treachery Act 1940.

The Emergency Powers (Defence) (No. 2) Act 1940 (3 & 4 Geo. 6. c. 45) enabled the creation of special courts to administer criminal justice in war zones, as well as authorizing them to punish offenders for violating the Defence Regulations.

Continuance and repeal
After the end of the war, the Defence Regulations were continued in force by the Supplies and Services (Transitional Powers) Act 1945 (9 & 10 Geo. 6. c. 10) and later by the Emergency Laws (Transitional Provisions) Act 1946 (9 & 10 Geo. 6. c. 26). They continued to be amended periodically, including by the Defence Regulations (No. 2) Order 1949 and the Defence Regulations (No. 3) Order 1949. Some were repealed, for example by the Land Powers (Defence) Act 1958.

The Emergency Laws (Repeal) Act 1959 (7 & 8 Eliz. 2. c. 19) repealed most of the Defence (General) Regulations, with the exception of:

 * No. 55 (giving general power to control industry for wide purposes);
 * No. 55AA (empowering the government to secure the necessary information for these purposes); and
 * No. 55AB (giving power to impose price control of goods and services).

The 1959 Act also preserved Regulation 2A of the Defence (Finance) Regulations 1939 (power of Treasury to prohibit action on certain orders as to gold, etc.) and the Regulation 6 of the Defence (Armed Forces) Regulations 1939 (power to employ troops on agricultural or other urgent work of national importance). Under the terms of the 1959 Act, the last of the Defence Regulations were due to expire on 31 December 1964. However, Regulation 6 of the Defence (Armed Forces) Regulations 1939 was made permanent by the Emergency Powers Act 1964, and several of the other regulations were re-enacted on a permanent basis by the Emergency Laws (Re-enactments and Repeals) Act 1964 (c. 60). As of 2023, Regulation 6 (which authorises the use of service personnel to perform agricultural and other "urgent work of national importance") remains in force.

title: Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939


text:
User:Philopanda

Hello all wikipedians !I'm new among you.

I'm currently studying Ancient Philosophy in France, I'm in my 5th year. My main research field is Socrates and the evolution of his different portraits, in ancient times and more modern.

I like Pandas, here's some of the reasons why :Giant Panda

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Philopanda


text:
User talk:Wylie440

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:46, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
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title: User talk:Wylie440


text:
User talk:YGBerserker

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:46, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
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Image Tagging Image:Necronomicon.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Necronomicon.jpg. I notice the image page currently doesn't specify who created the image, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created the image yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the image on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the image yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the image also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the image qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other images, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of image pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. --OrphanBot 12:19, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:YGBerserker


text:
User talk:Sunil Mohan

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:47, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
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India related links
Hi. i thought it might help you. . Sauron 11:45, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

Hello
Greetings, the holi-hangover continues! --Bhadani 07:21, 16 March 2006 (UTC)

Telugu script needed
Hi, can you add the Telugu script at Chaunk? Thank you, Badagnani (talk) 17:49, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sunil Mohan


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ethiopian Commercial Revolution

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Delete --Allen3 talk 21:20, August 28, 2005 (UTC)

Ethiopian Commercial Revolution
Hoax. Yes, Ethiopia did enjoy significant economic growth between 1950 to 1970; however Google returns no hits for this phrase independent of Wikipedia; this growth was fuelled by exports of coffee, not "kimavi cha kuku" (which appears to be Swahili for Ageratum conyzoides, a wild flower); I can find no explanation for "kashi-kawu" (Google provides no hits independent of Wikipedia). Another contribution from an anon editor, whose IP resolves to another Ameritech DSL router. Delete. llywrch 20:47, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Zero hits other than a WP mirror. Niteowlneils 21:35, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete agree with Llywrch, looks like a hoax. -- MicahMN | Talk 22:21, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete looks like a hoax. --Apyule 04:36, 22 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Ziyang

Ziyang prefecture-level city in eastern Sichuan province, China. It is bordered by the provincial capital of Chengdu to the northwest, Deyang to the north, Suining to the northeast, Chongqing municipality to the east, and Neijiang to the west. Its development is going to be very important because of the proximity of Chengdu new Airport and economic zone. As of the 2020 Chinese census, Ziyang's total population was 2,308,631 inhabitants whom 867,119 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of Yanjiang District.

Government and infrastructure
Sichuan Provincial Women's Prison is in Yangma Town (养马镇), Jianyang, which was previously under the jurisdiction of Ziyang.

Demographics
Ziyang's permanent population is approximately 2.503 million in 2019. Ziyang's population has been experiencing a steady decline during the 2010s, with its population in 2010 standing at approximately 3.665 million people.

Ziyang's hukou/registered population is substantially higher than its permanent population, with its hukou population standing at 3.422 million in 2019. This is likely due to migration to other regions, where higher wages can be earned. Similar to how Ziyang's permanent population has declined throughout the 2010s, Ziyang's hukou population has also fallen from 5.011 million in 2010.

Urbanization
As of 2019, 44.15% of Ziyang's population lives in urban areas, below Sichuan's total of 53.79%. Ziyang's urbanization rate has experienced substantial growth in the 2010s, rising from 32.73% in 2010. This reflects a broader trend of urbanization in China, and also within Sichuan, which saw its own urbanization rate stand at 40.18% in 2010. At the county-level, 54.25% of Yanjiang District is urbanized as of 2019, 39.39% of Lezhi County is urbanized, and 37.63% of Anyue County is urbanized.

Vital statistics
Ziyang's birth rate in 2019 is 6.33‰ (per thousand), well below the Sichuan rate of 10.70‰; however, Ziyang's death rate of 5.64‰ is also below the Sichuan total of 7.09‰. This gives Ziyang a rate of natural increase of 0.69‰, below Sichuan's rate of 3.61‰.

Economy
As of 2019, Ziyang has a gross domestic product (GDP) of 77.780 billion RMB, of which, 14.206 billion RMB (18.26%) comes from the city's primary sector, 23.765 billion RMB (30.55%) comes from the city's secondary sector, and 39.809 billion RMB (51.18%) comes from the city's tertiary sector. Compared to Sichuan as a whole, Ziyang is more reliant on its primary sector, which makes up just 10.31% of Sichuan's GDP, less reliant on its secondary sector, which makes up 37.25% of Sichuan's GDP, and about as equally reliant on its tertiary sector, which makes up about 52.46% of Sichuan's GDP. Despite comprising just 18.26% of Ziyang's GDP, the city's primary sector employs 49.1% of Ziyang's 1.7794 million workers, with the secondary sector and tertiary sector employing 23.4% and 27.5% of Ziyang's workforce, respectively. As of 2019, Ziyang's gross domestic product per capita totals 31,019 RMB, well below Sichuan's total of 55,774 RMB per capita. Yanjiang District has a GDP per capita of 36,713 RMB, Lezhi County has a GDP per capita of 37,514 RMB, and Anyue County has a GDP per capita of 23,209.

Wages in Ziyang are also slightly below the Sichuan average, with wages in Ziyang averaging 62,340 RMB per year, compared to an average of 69,267 RMB for Sichuan as a whole. State-owned enterprises in Ziyang pay significantly better than their private sector counterparts, paying an average of 81,018 RMB per year, although this too is below the Sichuan average of 97,330 RMB per year. The average disposable income of Ziyang's urban residents is 36,236 RMB, significantly higher than the rural average of 17,592 RMB.

The total retail sales of consumer goods in Ziyang totaled 38.705 billion RMB in 2019.

Ziyang's gross domestic product growth is largely in line with Sichuan as a whole, growing by 7.0% in 2019, compared to 7.5% for Sichuan as a whole. Like Sichuan as a whole, Ziyang's GDP rose by double-digit percentages in the early 2010s, before slowing down to high single-digit growth during the latter half of the decade.

Major sources of employment in Ziyang outside of the primary sector include construction, manufacturing, and in hotels and catering. The highest paying industry in Ziyang is the health and social services industry, which pays an average of 98,134 RMB per year, slightly below the Sichuan average of 102,904 RMB.

In 2019, Ziyang had an urban unemployment rate of 3.7%, slightly higher than the Sichuan total of 3.3%.

The city operated at a trade surplus in 2019, exporting 139.76 million RMB worth of goods and services out of China, and importing 82.65 million RMB worth of goods and services from outside of China.

Education
Ziyang is home to 172 primary schools, which are staffed by 7,191 teachers, and serve 166,798 students. The city also has 197 regular secondary schools, which are staffed by 12,067 teachers, and serve 149,862 students.

Highway
China National Highway 321,China National Highway 351 transit.

title: Ziyang


text:
1881 New Zealand general election

The 1881 New Zealand general election was held on 8 and 9 December in the Māori and European electorates, respectively, to elect 95 MPs to the 8th session of the New Zealand Parliament.

1881 was the first time a general election was held under universal male suffrage; all MPs were elected in single-member electorates; and the country quota was introduced, allowing rural electorates to have 25% fewer voters than urban electorates. Beginning with the 1881 election, all elections in European electorates were to be held on the same day, a measure not introduced for Māori electorates until 1951.

1881 electoral redistribution
The previous electoral redistribution was undertaken in 1875 for the 1875–1876 election. In the six years since, New Zealand's European population had increased by 65%. In the 1881 electoral redistribution, the House of Representatives increased the number of European representatives to 91 (up from 84 since the 1875–76 election). The number of Māori electorates was held at four. The House further decided that electorates should not have more than one representative, which led to 35 new electorates being formed:, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and. In addition, two electorates that had previously been abolished were recreated: and.

These changes necessitated a major disruption to existing boundaries. Only six electorates remained unchanged:, , , , , and.

The electoral distribution was the first that formally acknowledged the existence of a country quota, where country electorates contained 25% fewer voters than town electorates.

The election
The 1881 election was held on Thursday, 8 December, in the Māori electorates and on Friday, 9 December, in the European electorates to elect a total of 95 MPs to the 8th Parliament. A total number of 120,972 (66.5%) voters turned out to vote. In 11 seats there was only one candidate. 36 and 55 seats were in the North Island and South Island, respectively, plus the 4 Māori electorates.

The incumbent government led by John Hall retained office having support from 45 members with 39 "Greyites" (supporters of George Grey) and 11 Independents not affiliated with either faction.

Results
The following table shows the successful candidate for each electorate.

title: 1881 New Zealand general election


text:
User talk:Parallel or Together?/Archive 1

from jayanthv
thanx,i dont know wat a admin does anyway.but please dont block me.--Jayanthv86 14:59, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:48, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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Wikiproject Calendars
If you have any questions, comments, or ideas, please feel free to leave a messaage on my talk page. --Munchkinguy 02:20, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

Intelligent Design
I tried to explain the difference. Ask questions if it is not clear. --Swmeyer 21:37, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Moving a page
Hi, please use a 'move' button if you want to move a page to a different title. By copy-pasting it, like you did with Television crew, the history of that page does not move with it. To fix this, the new page has to be deleted for a short while (an admin can do that, I'll ask), and after that the move can be executed. It'd be probably a good idea to wait with new edits until that has happened, for they might get lost in the process... --JoanneB 10:14, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Thanks and please stick around!
Sanity and reason is a nice thing on the ID and IDMovement talk pages - please stick around if you can manage the time. KillerChihuahua 14:25, 24 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Replied on KC's talk page. - P or T? 15:04, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

The Bogrolls
I've speedied the other article, but I think it's better to AFD The Bogrolls instead. (I explained on the article's talk.) Johnleemk | Talk 11:14, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on Johnleemk's talk page. -- P or T? 11:18, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

S. R. Crown Hall/Crown Hall
I moved "Crown Hall" to "S.R. Crown Hall" because that is the official name of the building, and thus I thought should be the main page. A redirect from "Crown Hall" can easily take care of the common name, as should be the standard here.

I can understand either one though. New signage on the IIT campus (where I work) uses the full name, as does the new signage on the building itself (from the Summer 2005 rennovation) and the recently placed National historical marker. The Chicago marker, though, does just say "Crown Hall." I count that as an error on the city's part, an omission most likely due to no other buildings on IIT's campus (except the Paul V. Galvin Library) taking the whole name of the namesake. I'd defer to the Park Service before the City of Chicago. The national marker does refer to the building as "Crown Hall" within the plaque, so I think that again shows that while Crown Hall is the common name, S.R. Crown Hall is the official name and should be used first.

Also, please see the Crown Hall entry in the IIT Editorial Style Guide. In matters of naming, IIT should get the primary say since they are the owners. Here, it is preferred that the name "S.R. Crown Hall" is used in the first reference, then "Crown Hall" later. Apparently the Crown family has their name on many buildings at many universities, but this is the only "S.R." - Duncanr

 * Replied on Duncanr's talk page. -P or T 00:48, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I'll make sure and message first next time. I've been working on some IIT pages recently and had some random people changing things without reason or that didn't need to be changed.  I appreciate your comments though.  The article could have gone either way, I just preferred the full name since it seems to be making a comeback on campus and in case other Crown Halls were written about.  Sorry for the surprise move.  Take care. - Duncanr

 * Replied on Duncanr's talk page. -P or T 02:48, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of bands
Hi there, Thanks for voting on Articles for deletion/Ghosts of modern man. You mentioned that it was a possible speedy candidate. As PJM already mentioned, the criteria for speedy deletion don't include non-notable bands (lamentably in my opinion), only articles about people that do not assert notability.

While I hope that we will soon be able to take non-notable band articles to speedy deletion, for the moment we have to grit our teeth and send them through AFD. Stifle 22:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on Stifle's talk page - P or T? 23:46, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, I fully agree that they should be speediable; it missed passing by 1% in the last vote :( Stifle 23:47, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

Intelligent Archive
You appear to have deleted a large and mostly tedious lump from Talk:Intelligent design to move to Talk:Intelligent design/Archive 22, which seems to be somewhat missing. Any problem? ...dave souza 15:10, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on dave souza's talk page. -P or T? 00:16, 9 December 2005 (UTC)
 * My apologies, got FM's archiving mixed up with your edits. As you say, it seems to have been sorted out now. All well. ...dave souza 01:04, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

Please see
User_talk:KillerChihuahua

KillerChihuahua?!? 14:29, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on KC's talk page. -P or T 14:37, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Anti-vandal
Thanks! Everyking 06:30, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

re: talk message
Thanks for the message and the apology, I didn't mean to come across harsh if it seemed that way. As for me, I'm not really all that turned off from here because a few people said the things they did, I'm more turned off because of the general environment around here. A few of the reasons are in my "farewell address" if you want to call it that, but that article isn't exactly the place that I need to be spending my time if things are going to go like that. I'm im process of growing my own business and speaking across the country, plus work a full time job on top of that, with a family, and am in the beginning stages of writing a book, so it's just one more thing to take me away from what I'm focused on, and since I can't see anything productive coming from my time there, I've got to focus on other things.

At any rate, thanks for the message though, and good luck with the page. Barwick 14:59, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on Barwick's talk page. - P or T? 09:55, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Block My IP Address?
You threaten me by stating "maybe we could block his IP Address?" Why would you suggest something like that? Are you suggesting some sort of attack on my computer?

You forget, sir, that this site is about contributing information or deleting bogus information from articles. If it quacks like a duck, looks like a duck, and smells like a duck, it is a duck. And that is why I presented the facts that I found, since egg-heads such as yourself have trouble seeing the forest for the trees.

Francis Crick was an atheist, and is appropriate for the Religious Beliefs section of the article. It is not appropriate to talk about a "talk show hosts" freudian analysis of him (which I attempted to delete since it is not appropriate, poorly written, boring, and was pointless). It was deleted by myself. If you have a problem with it, then you can change it back if that makes you feel good about yourself. Francis Crick also felt it was impossible for life to have come into being out of a primordial soup, and is appropriate for the Panspermia section of the article. It is not appropriate to say that he didn't have a belief or interest in it especially given the fact that he cowrote a book about it. These are facts, sir, not opinions.

I am not surprised, however, that a handful of "know it alls" such as yourself would threaten me with "we will find him and intimidate him with our knowledge of his IP address." Are you perhaps going to try to initiate an attack on my computer? Just let me say that I am not afraid of egg-heads such as yourself who spend their lives trying to destroy the only hope that billions of people have (i.e. God or some other universal spirit). So go ahead, egghead, do what you gotta do... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.207.83.81 (talk • contribs)

 * Comment: My actual edit to anonymous user's talk page can be found here. User was later blocked for one month by Zoe. - P or T? 10:12, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Merry Christmas
I would like to wish you and your family a Merry Christmas and all the best for the New Year. Guettarda 17:09, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Sandbox
Could you check it over, we can do it now. Or tomorrow... I'm actually getting kinda tired. :"D - RoyBoy 800 06:22, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Replied on RB's talk page. -P or T? 06:28, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * One thing though; should I add a note to the template to encourage people to add their signatures after its awarded... hmmmmmm. Might need to propose that to the others on meta. - RoyBoy 800 06:33, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Coo, yeah I'll propose it now, but the if its adopted we can add it in after the fact; with FM's permission of course. I just posted it on meta, thanks for your support; you're well wishes... many without a computer for weeks... I hope the Wikiwithdraw isn't too bad! :"D Have a good one! - RoyBoy 800 06:48, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

Thanks so much
When I think of all of us who worked together so hard for so long, I think of the line from Henry V We few, we happy few, we band of brothers...

It was a fun ride, wasn't it? So thanks you guys, that meant a lot to me.

Who did the Thelonious with a mop artwork? Brilliant! FeloniousMonk 08:17, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Tagging pages proposal
Hi there, I'm writing because at some point you showed interest in a proposal to solve the problems related to national varieties of English. There is a discussion and a vote ongoing here. Please take a look and let us know what you think. Thanks. PizzaMargherita 14:53, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

Barnstar templates
Work continues on further templates. - RoyBoy 800 03:24, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Replied on RB's talk page. -P or T? 02:44, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

KC's RFA
Just wanted to let you know that you forgot to sign your vote. Guettarda 13:50, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

 * You might want to change "sysop" to "admin" too. Just a thought. How was your vacation, btw? Wonderful I hope? KillerChihuahua?!? 02:18, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Replied on Guettarda and KC's talk pages. -P or T? 02:23, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

Bullying
PoT? you might want to take a look at this...

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Benapgar/Bullying

Jim62sch 11:13, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Replied on Jim's talk page and endorsed FeloniousMonk's outside opinion in the matter. -P or T? 02:35, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

PoT? -- thanks for the reply. I've tried using logic and reason with Ben, but to no avail -- although it is likely that anything I say to him falls on deaf ears anyway (the same applies to FM (obviously), KillerChihuahua, Guettarda, Dunc and now Ghost). And yes, I suppose that some things did get out of hand -- mostly because none of us were expecting the ad homs (we were kind of blind-sided) and reacted accordingly. The real issue though, is that Ben seems to either totally misunderstand how Wiki works, or more likely, wants to redefine the rules so they fit his idea of what they should be. OK, enough of my ranting, thanks for your assistance. Take care, Jim62sch 10:34, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

| | ⊕ ⊥
That's a splendid idea. ;) — Nightstallion (?) 13:36, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Check out Nightstallion's talk page for further comments.  ⇔    | | ⊕ ⊥ (t-c-e) 14:04, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

Wrong Jamie
Sorry, wrong Jamie. Sadly, I haven't been in a band for a long time. I did download an mp3 ("Openly") by Jenoah just for kicks; it's actually really good. The prog rock/punk fusion element reminds me of some of my favorite Rob Crow projects including Thingy and Heavy Vegetable.  Oh no  itsJamie Talk 05:00, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Thanks
for protecting my user page. Cheers. PJM 12:07, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Hi - I am seeking support for a user conduct RfC on User:24.55.228.56 (apparently also known as User:Mr j galt) over his conduct on the Plame pages and the Larry C. Johnson page - would you sign on? RfC requires that at least two users tried and failed to resolve the dispute with the user, and I believe that has happened in this case. Let me know and I will propose the RfC. --csloat 08:42, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

from jayanthv
Hello ,thanks for opening my eyes.I am such a loser,I dont even know what a admin does and i have nominated myself.from now on,i will leave edit summaries.I am barely two months old in wiki and i was audacious enough to ask for adminship.Sorry for wasting your time.--Jayanthv86 15:23, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

My RfA nom
Thank you for the reminder, I was called into work on an emergency situation and have only just got home. -- Francs2000 00:23, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Proposed policy
Hi, you recently commented on bible-verse articles, and may therefore be interested in commenting about a proposed policy covering roughly 50 specific verses:

 * Centralized discussion/Verses of 1 Kings 4 and 5

--Victim of signature fascism 20:13, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

My RfA
 '''Many thanks for participating in my RfA. Although you voted neutral, I appreciate the kind comments you made and hope we'll be able to collaborate on something in the future. All the best, Jamyskis Jamyskis Whisper, Contribs 16:23, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

Thank you!
I rather doubt any other association could overtake the one calling for a combination of humor and common sense, but my RfA succeeded anyway, 71/1/0! Thank you for your supporting vote, which propelled me onto the RfA records! ;) Ashibaka tock 00:22, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

User:Ohnoitsjamie's RfA
I really appreciate your support for my admin nomination, especially with me being a relatively new user. Cheers,  OhNo itsJamie Talk 04:08, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

My RFA
Hi, thanks for participating in my RfA discussion. Unfortunately, my fellow Wikipedians have decided at this time that I am not suitable to take on this additional responsibility, as the RfA failed with a result of 66/27/5 (71.0% support). If you voted in support of my request, thank you! If you decided to oppose me at this time, then I hope that if I do choose to reapply in the future, the effort I will make in the meantime to improve and expand my contributions to Wikipedia may persuade you to reconsider your position. All the best, Proto t c 10:40, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Reminder...
When using template tags on talk pages, don't forget to substitute with text by adding subst: to the template tag. For example, use {{subst:test}} instead of {{test}}. This reduces server load and prevents accidental blanking of the template. — Ian Manka Talk to me‼ 02:58, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

Back?
Good to see you around again. Welcome back. Guettarda 13:20, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

WP:FILMS Newsletter
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Weeaboo!

WikiProject Films February Newsletter
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Fair use rationale for Image:Reanimator_poster.png
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If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Videmus Omnia Talk  17:41, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

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Emperor's name
Hi,

In the past you took part in a discussion about the name of the emperors of Japan. This discussion has just opened again (once again!). You are free to express your opinion here. ThanksŠvitrigaila (talk) 16:21, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

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Orphaned non-free media (File:Juniorwells callingallblues.jpg)
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text:
Lebanese Renewal Party

Lebanese Renewal Party (in Arabic حزب التجدد اللبناني) abbreviated as LRP was a Lebanese nationalist party established in 1972 by a number of staunch Lebanese nationalists including activist Etienne Saqr, poet Said Akl and writer May Murr. Its ideology was based on Phoenicianism and that the Lebanese nation is an independent non-Arab entity and is not part of the Arab World. It also warned against pan-Arabism, leftist ideology and the Palestinian military presence in Lebanon.

The party is considered a precursor of the more prominent Guardians of the Cedars (in Arabic حرّاس الأرز) also established by Etienne Saqr and later on, the LRP declared itself as the "political wing" of the more militarist Guardians of the Cedars and was eventually banned by the Lebanese government alongside the military wing.

title: Lebanese Renewal Party


text:
User:Ubuntu~enwiki

Note: A series of sockpuppets have been editing the same set of pages (usually Victoria of the United Kingdom, Pope Pius XII, Jim Duffy (author) and Dublin statues and their nicknames) identical ways to include almost identical information, all of it POV. All were pages I had edited. Skyring had a history of Wikistalking me, for which the ArbComm imposed a one year ban. Within hours of contributing to a debate on Wikistalking this latest campaign started, with some aspects of the campaign (abusive edit summaries on occasion, undoing changes I had made, etc, exactly what Skyring did. He had threatened to use sockpuppets to continue to wage campaigns against me if banned. FearÉIREANN\(caint) 00:18, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Ubuntu~enwiki


text:
Talk:Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3

Voices
Should the voices be mentioned?

New Features
I have noted the following added features.

 * Voices
 * Enhanced colors, including new backgrounds
 * Remixed music
 * Rephrasing of bad translations
 * Larger inventory window
 * More animated Kings
 * 1-player Classic Mario Bros.
 * A new, longer save process

Austrillan Release
Refer to Super Mario Wiki, it's October 24, 2003.

Benjaminkirsc (talk) 16:03, 8 October 2018 (UTC)

You can't replace my boxart for the European boxart.
I hate the PEGI, — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bratny (talk • contribs) 00:41, 9 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Sorry - Whadup, it's ya girl, Dusa (talk) 03:53, 9 August 2021 (UTC)

Hey, I replace this boxart the North American covert art. Bratny (talk) 12:55, 9 August 2021 (UTC) No replace this boxart last time. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bratny (talk • contribs) 15:40, 10 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Please don't change the box art frivolously. Sergecross73   msg me  04:01, 11 August 2021 (UTC)

Does it even need its own article?
The other SMA games all redirect to the main game, maybe just merge this article to the main SMB3 article instead. Grandmaster Huon (talk) 20:14, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

 * We decide whether an article should exist by why it is independently notable. This game is quite clearly notable separately from the original game. What we did with the other SMA games is irrelevant. QuicoleJR (talk) 22:23, 10 August 2023 (UTC)


text:
User talk:NoirNoir

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:48, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:NoirNoir


text: Category:Vector arcade video games

title: Category:Vector arcade video games


text:
User talk:RealityCheck

I'm reverting most of your changes to Imaginary World, which is not intended as an alternative to Fictional Universe, but to encompass concepts which go beyond fiction (such as delusion, dream etc.) — JEREMY 20:33, 23 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Discussion taken up at imaginary world talk. RealityCheck 06:33, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

Racialism
Nice edits. --Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 22:15, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks, Mel Etitis! RealityCheck 14:26, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

Mestizo
I've reverted your edits at the Mestizo article. All the concerns that you have raised, which you have stated need verification, are in fact figures from Filipino national archives and current demographic statistics.

Additionally:

 * Today, the term may refer generically to individuals of mixed ancestry, especially those of Asian or Amerindian and European descent. The term also has specific cultural and social meanings in different countries and regions.

This is absolutely incorrect. The term mestizo (whether in it's Spanish, Portuguese or French variants; mestizo, mestiço or métis) is used exclusively for people of mixed European and Amerindian descent in the Americas. The only exception to this use is with the the term mestiso as used for the mixed race Filipino minority (where the non-native element may be ANY non-native ancestry, not just European), and apart for said Filipino minority, NO OTHER mixed race Asians. Mestizo is a term of European colonial origins and connotations. It is for this reason that the word exists in the Philippines for the mixed race minority in that country, because it was once a colonial posession of Spain. Non-Filipino mixed race asians are denominated by other names, such as Eurasian for those of mixed European ancestry.

Although the term Eurasian may also be used for some mestiso Filipinos (those who mixture is composed of a European ancestry), it does not work vice versa, and so mestiso does not apply to any other mixed race Asians because there is no historic colonial origin or usage of mestizo. Al-Andalus 03:17, 25 September 2005 (UTC).

 * Al, thanks for explaining this in a direct, no b/s manner. As it seems that it would be very easy to aurally confuse mestizo and mestiso, I am going to copyedit the reference in the introduction slightly. Btw, is the pronunciation something like mezzteezo v. missteeso? RealityCheck 14:24, 2 October 2005 (UTC). Hmm, how to do it? Al, would you be happy to simply remove the brackets around (mestiso), so that the article reads in effect that the "similar term mestiso, in use in the Philippines, is a generic..." (for example)? RealityCheck 14:33, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

your change to program 437
Uh, I understand copyedit and stuff, but you have changed the meaning a couple times. The part that bugs me most is when you changed the sentence explaining how the antisatellite devices would work. You made it say "by nuclear explosion or electromagnetic pulse." This is not true. The reason they used nuclear weapons is they were not especially accurate. The actual kernel of the explosion would likely not be in excess of a couple kilometers (that is to say, the plasma, superheated matter, etc). However, the EMP could spread out very far, in excess of 80 km. So the EMP was almost certainly the method for attack. Today (over 40 years later), we have guidance systems which can "home in" on targets. We have missiles that can physically hit a satellite (and of course, we now have stealth satellites). So while it may seem obvious that we would use the explosion to disable or destroy satellites today, it just isn't true for 1960. I'll change it back, unless you've changed it because of something you knew and I didn't. Also, removing the last sentence about when the program was cancelled, and changing "while" to "when" in the second-to-last sentence has caused some confusion (see the talk page). aa v ^ 13:09, 9 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Hey there. Apologies for any hassle in dealing with these things you mention (hopefully all the other changes were considered an improvement!). Regarding "when" / "while", you're right (using "although" would have been better but subsequent edits have overcome the issue altogether). Just with "destroy or disable targets through nuclear explosion or electromagnetic pulse", I think you're saying that because blast was never the primary mode of attack (due to the technological limits of the day), this construction does not make that clear. Nothing was misunderstood about the obvious blast/EMP thing and the differences between then and now, it was simply an attempt at improving what we previously had: "The mechanism allowing Program 437 to be successful in this role was the nuclear explosion and related electromagnetic pulse (EMP)". Anyway, with GZ's effective and simple inclusion of "the resulting (EMP)" I think we're closer to something ideal. Perhaps you can further clarify in the article. Btw, it would be good to have more content in the Anti-satellite weapon article on current systems with accuracies allowing satellite targets to be physically hit. Could you try this? RealityCheck 14:21, 11 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Hm. I hadn't thought of updating the ASAT article. I suppose I could do that. At the least, a chronology and a picture or two would help (not that I dislike F-15's or anything...) aa  v ^ 15:25, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * That would be good, thanks man. The technology which enables such incredible accuracy is intriguing and I for one would like to know more. RealityCheck 07:54, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:RealityCheck


text:
User talk:Xgame nerdx

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, you can post to the help desk or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! RJFJR 20:49, August 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Lyndale Primary School
Another editor has added the  template to the article Lyndale Primary School, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but the editor doesn't believe it satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and has explained why in the article (see also What Wikipedia is not and Notability). Please either work to improve the article if the topic is worthy of inclusion in Wikipedia or discuss the relevant issues at its talk page. If you remove the  template, the article will not be deleted, but note that it may still be sent to Articles for deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. BJBot (talk) 14:00, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Xgame nerdx


text:
User talk:Ubuntu~enwiki

Just testing Ubuntu 20:49, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ubuntu. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ubuntu~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 03:27, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 20:03, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ubuntu~enwiki


text:
Howard Lang

Howard Lang (born Donald Yarranton; March 20, 1911 – 11 December 1989) was an English actor known for playing Captain William Baines in the BBC nautical drama The Onedin Line.

Early life
Lang was born in Marylebone, London, the son of Edward John Yarranton (1884–1954) and Clara Ann (née Malkin) (1888–1921). His father had left the family's bookbinding business to become a senior commercial traveller for Winsor & Newton, the manufacturer of artists' materials.

Lang served for seven years in the Royal Navy including during World War II. In January 1941 he was appointed Temporary Sub-Lieutenant, and in January 1942 Temporary Lieutenant, a position he held until the end of the war.

His younger brother from his father's second marriage was Sir Peter Yarranton (1924–2003), chairman of the United Kingdom Sports Council from 1989 to 1994, and a notable figure in the world of rugby union, both as a player and as an administrator, for more than 40 years.

Acting career
For his role as seafaring Captain Baines in The Onedin Line (1971–1980) he gained international attention. In a 1977 interview in Radio Times Lang recalled a personal appearance in Norway: When the series was first shown in Norway I was asked to make a personal appearance in a small shipbuilding town. As I was brought into Grimstad by sea I caught sight of huge crowds – all of 3,000 townsfolk out on the quay to greet me. I learned afterwards that I had been received as family because almost every home had an ancient photograph of an uncle, cousin or grandfather dressed and sideburned precisely as I appear on The Onedin Line.

Lang's other parts included roles in The Six Wives of Henry VIII (1970), Z-Cars, Softly, Softly, The Vise, and an appearance as caveman Horg in three of the four episodes of the first Doctor Who story, An Unearthly Child. He also played Winston Churchill in the 1983 TV miniseries The Winds of War.

He also played the role of Bert Hudd in the first production of Harold Pinter's first play,The Room.

In an early seafaring role, he had a cameo in Ben-Hur as the hortator aboard a Roman galley leading up to the epic battle with an enemy fleet.

Howard Lang died in West Hampstead, London in 1989.

title: Howard Lang


text:
1884 New Zealand general election

The 1884 New Zealand general election was held on 22 July to elect a total of 95 MPs to the 9th session of the New Zealand Parliament. The Māori vote was held on 21 July. A total number of 137,686 (60.6%) voters turned out to vote. In 11 seats there was only one candidate.

1881 electoral redistribution
The same 95 electorates that were defined through the 1881 electoral redistribution were used for the 1884 election. The next electoral redistribution was held in 1887 in preparation for the.

Government formation
Prior to the election Harry Atkinson had served as Premier since 1883. His government was unpopular at the time and the polls went against him. Only 32 of the returned Members supported him whilst 57 opposed his government as well as 6 independents. Soon after the election his government fell in August 1884 after Robert Stout successfully passed a vote of no confidence and assumed the premiership with the support of Julius Vogel. A strong counter-offensive by Atkinson enabled him to unseat Stout again after only twelve days. Stout, however, was not so easily defeated, and took the Premiership again after seven days. This time, Stout held his position for three years, defeating Atkinson's attempts to oust him.

Results
The following table shows the results of the 1884 general election.

title: 1884 New Zealand general election


text:
Dave Allen (English musician)

David Geoffrey Allen (born 23 December 1955 in Kendal, Cumbria) is an English musician, formerly the bass guitarist for the post-punk band Gang of Four. In 1981, he left Gang of Four to form Shriekback.

He later founded World Domination Recordings and participated in two bands who recorded for the label. Allen was the vocalist and primary songwriter for The Elastic Purejoy, and played bass guitar in Low Pop Suicide which was fronted by Rick Boston. He appeared on several LPs and EPs with each of these bands, though his ambitious plan to release a work of 20 volumes produced only three releases, The Harvest and the Elastic Purejoy's The Clutter of Pop and Talk Radio. After leaving Shriekback in 1988, Allen founded King Swamp with other former bandmates. According to Pitchfork.com, in 2006, Allen formed a "super-group" under the name Faux Hoax (supposedly pronounced 'Folks') with Danny Seim of Menomena, John Askew of Tracker, and Pioneers Press author Adam Gnade. A 7" single, "Your Friends Will Carry You Home," featuring Gnade on vocals, was released by Polyvinyl records in 2008.

Subsequently, he was director of Consumer Digital Audio Services at Intel in Portland, Oregon. Then he went on to be the president of the entertainment division of the Overland Agency, an advertising firm based in Portland. He is now co-founder of digital strategy firm Fight, and runs the independent record label, Pampelmoose. In 2014, he joined Beats Music as Director, Artist & Music Industry Advocacy. After Apple Inc. acquired Beats, he stayed on in Apple Music Artist Relations.

title: Dave Allen (English musician)


text:
Billy Boston

William John Boston, MBE (born 6 August 1934) is a Welsh former professional rugby league footballer who played as a or. Born in Cardiff, Wales, Boston started his career as a rugby union player before joining Wigan in 1953. He spent the next 15 years at Wigan, where he scored a club-record 478 tries in his 488 appearances for the club. He finished his career at Blackpool Borough before retiring in 1970. He also represented Great Britain in 31 Test matches, and was part of the team that won the 1960 Rugby League World Cup.

Regarded as one of the sport's greatest ever players, Boston scored a total of 571 tries in his career, making him the second-highest try scorer in rugby league history. He is an original inductee of the British Rugby League Hall of Fame, Welsh Sports Hall of Fame and Wigan Warriors Hall of Fame, and was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1996 Birthday Honours "for services to the community in Wigan, Greater Manchester."

Early life
Born on 6 August 1934 at Angelina Street, Butetown, Cardiff, Boston was the sixth of eleven children born to John Boston (a merchant seaman from Sierra Leone) and Nellie who came from Cardiff's Irish community.

Rugby Union
Boston began his rugby union career with the newly formed Cardiff Internationals Athletic Club. CIACS (pronounced "kayaks") represented Grangetown, Cardiff Bay, Butetown and the Docks areas of the city, and the team's makeup reflected the multinational nature of those communities. Boston also represented the Cardiff Schoolboys team in the late 1940s and went on to represent Wales in both the boys clubs' internationals and at Youth level. The young Boston was an integral part of the CIACs "invincible" season of 1951–52, where the team won all of their 32 games. Boston was already attracting attention and was given opportunities at two famous Welsh clubs, representing Neath RFC in 1950 and Pontypridd RFC in 1952. However, Boston repeatedly stated his wishes to represent Cardiff RFC, telling one journalist that he cried after signing for Wigan as he knew his dreams of playing rugby union for Cardiff and Wales were over. This was because any player at the time who played rugby league, was banned from playing rugby union.

The lack of an offer from Cardiff remains a contentious issue. As Cardiff passed on other black and mixed race players from CIACs and the docks area (like Johnny Freeman and Colin Dixon, who both had successful rugby league careers), it has been suggested that the club had an issue with racism.

Rugby League career
Boston was called up for National Service with the Royal Signals at Catterick, North Yorkshire, and was scouted by a number of Rugby League clubs. On 13 March 1953 Wigan chairman Joe Taylor and vice-chairman Billy Gore travelled to Boston's home in Cardiff and offered him £1,000 to sign for them. Although that was very large offer, Boston's mother rejected it on his behalf. A second offer of £1,500 was made in cash, and the money was spread out on the table in five pound notes to show the family how much money it was. Boston later stated that he still didn't want to sign the contract and his mother told him "Don't worry son, I'll get rid of them for you. I'll ask them for so much that they'll go home." Boston's mother told the delegation that Billy would only sign for £3,000, double the increased offer. Within a minute the delegation agreed to the terms. Boston stated that he still did not want to sign, but his mother had given their word, and Boston signed the contract.

Boston made his 'A' team début a crowd of 8,000 assembled inside Central Park, Wigan. He made his first team début against Barrow in November 1953 scoring a try.

Billy Boston played in Wigan's 8–13 defeat by Oldham in the 1957–58 Lancashire Cup Final during the at Station Road, Swinton on Saturday 19 October 1957.

For the next fifteen seasons he was a living legend and played his final game in 1968. With Boston on the and Eric Ashton playing at, Wigan had one of the best combinations in the history of the game. Both players scored two tries in Wigan's 1959–60 Northern Rugby Football League season Championship final victory. Boston had an astonishing turn of speed for a big man and had the ultimate side step and was also able to hand off opponents with apparent ease.

Boston also played 31 games for Great Britain, and was the first player to score four tries in a game against New Zealand. He was the first non-white player to be selected to tour Australia and New Zealand in 1954, on which he set a new record of 36 tries in 18 games. Boston also played in the 1962 tour, scoring a further 22 tries.

Billy Boston also represented Great Britain while at Wigan between 1952 and 1956 against France (1 non-Test match).

With BBC television coverage increasing in the late-1950s, armchair fans as well as terrace supporters were able to witness Billy Boston in action. He beat Johnny Ring's record of 368 tries and went on to score a record 478 for Wigan], a record that will probably never be broken. Boston also twice equalled the then Wigan club record of seven tries in a game, only surpassed since by Martin Offiah and Shaun Edwards.

Billy Boston played at in Wigan's 13–9 victory over Workington Town in the 1957–58 Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 10 May 1958, in front of a crowd of 66,109 played on the  and scored two-tries in the 30–13 victory over Hull F.C. in the 1958–59 Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium on Saturday 9 May 1959, in front of a crowd of 79,811, and played on the  in the 20–16 victory over Hunslet in the 1964–65 Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium on Saturday 8 May 1965, in front of a crowd of 89,016.

Billy Boston played on the and scored a try in Wigan's 16–13 victory over Oldham in the 1957–58 Lancashire Cup Final at Station Road, Swinton on Saturday 29 October 1966.

Billy Boston represented Other Nationalities (RL) while at Wigan, he played at in the 2–19 defeat by St. Helens at Knowsley Road, St. Helens on Wednesday 27 January 1965, to mark the switching-on of new floodlights.

Towards the end of his career, Boston played for Blackpool Borough, making his final appearance in 1970. He scored a total of 571 tries in his career, making him the second highest all-time try scorer in the history of the game after Brian Bevan.

Boston became one of fewer than twenty-five Welshmen to have scored more than 1,000-points in their rugby league career.

After retirement
After finishing his playing career, he took over the running of the Griffin Hotel pub near Central Park until his retirement. The Billy Boston Stand at Central Park was named in his honour. Similarly, the East Stand at the DW Stadium was officially renamed after Billy Boston in 2009. The East Stand was renamed 'The Kingdom Group East Stand' by landlords Wigan Athletic in October 2021. In December 2020 Boston was named as one of three Welsh rugby league players to be honoured with a new statue in Cardiff Bay, the other two being Gus Risman and Clive Sullivan. The statue was unveiled in July 2023.

title: Billy Boston


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Mastermind (Tina Cousins album)

Mastermind is the second studio album by the British singer Tina Cousins. It was released on 13 September 2005 via Big Records label. It entered the Australian ARIA Album Charts and peaked at #48.

Cousins has said of the album, "The album is cooler than Killing Time, there's a couple more ballads and a reworked version of one of my older tracks, but my favourite is definitely the title track "Mastermind"."

The album includes the singles, "Hymn", "Wonderful Life", "Come to Me" and "Pretty Young Thing".

Track listing
All songs written by Louie Nicastro and Tom Maddicott unless noted.

 * 1) "Queen of the World"
 * 2) "Wonderful Life" (Colin Vearncombe)
 * 3) "Move in Time"
 * 4) "Mastermind"
 * 5) "Pretty Young Thing" (Stella Katsoudas/Steve Torch/Walter Turbitt)
 * 6) "Hypnotise Me"
 * 7) "Hymn" (Warren Cann/Chris Cross/Billy Currie/Midge Ure)
 * 8) "Come to Me"
 * 9) "Increase the Dose"
 * 10) "Tomorrow's Tomorrow"
 * 11) "Rip It Up"
 * 12) "Alive"
 * 13) "Wonderful Life (ballad version)" (Colin Vearncombe)

title: Mastermind (Tina Cousins album)


text:
Talk:Mr. Freddie Orange

Untitled
The name of the character is Mr. Orange alias Freddie Newandyke, not Mr. Freddie Orange. And by the way, he doesn't need his own article, does he? 96T 20:51, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Nope, he doesn't need his own article. Nominating for deletion. —rebug (talk) 20:50, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mr. Freddie Orange


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1887 New Zealand general election

The 1887 New Zealand general election was held on 26 September to elect 95 MPs to the tenth session of the New Zealand Parliament. The Māori vote was held on 7 September. 175,410 votes (67.1% turnout) were cast. In 5 seats there was only one candidate.

1887 electoral redistribution
The Representation Act 1887 had major implication for the procedure of revising electoral boundaries. The revision task was transferred from committees formed by MPs to a permanent Representation Commission. The act specified that a country quota of 18% be applied to all designated districts that excluded boroughs with a population above 2,000 people, and that all electorates were to have the same nominal population within a tolerance of 750 people. It was also stipulated that electoral boundaries were to be reviewed after each New Zealand census.

In the 1887 electoral redistribution, although the Representation Commission was required through the Representation Act 1887 to maintain existing electorates "as far as possible", rapid population growth in the North Island required the transfer of three seats from the South Island to the north. Ten new electorates were created:, , , , , , , ,, and. One former electorate,, was recreated.

1887 was the year the Independent Representation Commission was established to redraw electorate boundaries after each five-yearly population census. The country quota was reduced to 18%. A £10 candidate's deposit was introduced.

The Scarecrow Ministry
The Stout-Vogel government had been soundly beaten. Only 34 returned members supported the government, whilst 52 opposition MPs were elected as well as nine independents. This led to much confusion in Wellington in September 1887 when the members gathered to form a government. John Bryce, William Rolleston and Robert Stout had all lost their seats. Sir John Hall said he was too old. Sir Julius Vogel's policies had been rejected by the voters.

So there was no alternative to Harry Atkinson, and after two weeks of negotiations he announced a ministry on 11 October. Only two ministers had served with him before. The Scarecrow Ministry was not expected to last, but did.

The years 1887 and 1888 were the worst of the Long Depression, and Atkinson cut salaries, raised loans and raised customs duties. He was not popular with the wealthy, but they feared the Opposition leaders Grey and Ballance even more. By 1890 Atkinson was too ill to make speeches in the House.

Results
The following table shows the results of the 1887 general election:

title: 1887 New Zealand general election


text: User talk:68.37.185.164

title: User talk:68.37.185.164


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Princessa (singer)

Princessa is a house music rapper/singer from New York City. She was the featured artist on two singles by the Austrian house music band, Bingoboys: the first was the song "How to Dance", which hit number one on the U.S. Dance chart in 1991, as well as number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100; the second was a follow-up single, "Borrowed Love", which peaked at number 32 on the dance chart the same year. She also did a guest appearance on Chic's 1992 number-one club hit "Chic Mystique". She worked with Vanilla Ice on a number of songs as a backup singer from 1987 to 1991.

title: Princessa (singer)


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User talk:Daniel Midgley

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! Flcelloguy | A note? | Desk 20:52, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Also welcome from User:AlMac|(talk) ... I saw we both had been active in some ERP articles and thought I would say hi. User:AlMac|(talk) 23:18, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Daniel Midgley


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of folk metal bands

Since there is a Category:Folk_metal_groups this article is redundant.Lyo 20:52, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

Strong keep. It is redundant, but that is the way things are currently done on wikipedia. This is one of thousands of lists, many of which are duplicated by categories. This list seems on par with other lists in Category:Music-related lists, such as List of Black Metal bands, List of Death Metal bands, List of Doom Metal bands, etc. -- Reinyday, 22:32, 23 August 2005 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Bushifized

Please try to keep your edit summaries civil and please don't bait other users. Gamaliel 20:53, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Let me second what Gamaliel said. If you use a more polite tone you are more likely to be taken seriously, and are thus more likely to have a long-term impact on the project.  Guettarda 20:59, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

 * One more thing - be aware of the three revert rule - you can be blocked for reverting a page more than 3x in 24 hours. Guettarda 22:00, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

Scarborough infidelity
I've not seen the article, but when it was published in 2003, was it the first reporting of these rumors? Was the infidelity in his first marriage or his current one? Perhaps an entry discussing this on the Talk:Joe Scarborough page would be appropriate. (I am sure it will generate controversy and discussion, but it's a better place to discuss it than in edit summaries.) --Habap 13:29, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bushifized


text:
Aposematism

Aposematism is the advertising by an animal, whether terrestrial or marine, to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste or smell, sharp spines, or aggressive nature. These advertising signals may take the form of conspicuous coloration, sounds, odours, or other perceivable characteristics. Aposematic signals are beneficial for both predator and prey, since both avoid potential harm.

The term was coined in 1877 by Edward Bagnall Poulton for Alfred Russel Wallace's concept of warning coloration. Aposematism is exploited in Müllerian mimicry, where species with strong defences evolve to resemble one another. By mimicking similarly coloured species, the warning signal to predators is shared, causing them to learn more quickly at less of a cost.

A genuine aposematic signal that a species actually possesses chemical or physical defences is not the only way to deter predators. In Batesian mimicry, a mimicking species resembles an aposematic model closely enough to share the protection, while many species have bluffing deimatic displays which may startle a predator long enough to enable an otherwise undefended prey to escape.

Etymology
The term aposematism was coined by the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton in his 1890 book The Colours of Animals. He based the term on the Ancient Greek words ἀπό apo 'away' and σῆμα sēma 'sign', referring to signs that warn other animals away.

Defense mechanism

The function of aposematism is to prevent attack, by warning potential predators that the prey animal has defenses such as being unpalatable or poisonous. The easily detected warning is a primary defense mechanism, and the non-visible defenses are secondary. Aposematic signals are primarily visual, using bright colors and high-contrast patterns such as stripes. Warning signals are honest indications of noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness. Thus, the brighter and more conspicuous the organism, the more toxic it usually is. This is in contrast to deimatic displays, which attempt to startle a predator with a threatening appearance but which are bluffing, unsupported by any strong defences.

The most common and effective colors are red, yellow, black, and white. These colors provide strong contrast with green foliage, resist changes in shadow and lighting, are highly chromatic, and provide distance dependent camouflage. Some forms of warning coloration provide this distance dependent camouflage by having an effective pattern and color combination that do not allow for easy detection by a predator from a distance, but are warning-like from a close proximity, allowing for an advantageous balance between camouflage and aposematism. Warning coloration evolves in response to background, light conditions, and predator vision. Visible signals may be accompanied by odors, sounds or behavior to provide a multi-modal signal which is more effectively detected by predators.

Unpalatability, broadly understood, can be created in a variety of ways. Some insects such as the ladybird or tiger moth contain bitter-tasting chemicals, while the skunk produces a noxious odor, and the poison glands of the poison dart frog, the sting of a velvet ant or neurotoxin in a black widow spider make them dangerous or painful to attack. Tiger moths advertise their unpalatability by either producing ultrasonic noises which warn bats to avoid them, or by warning postures which expose brightly coloured body parts (see Unkenreflex), or exposing eyespots. Velvet ants (actually parasitic wasps) such as Dasymutilla occidentalis both have bright colors and produce audible noises when grabbed (via stridulation), which serve to reinforce the warning. Among mammals, predators can be dissuaded when a smaller animal is aggressive and able to defend itself, as for example in honey badgers.

In terrestrial ecosystems

Aposematism is widespread in insects, but less so in vertebrates, being mostly confined to a smaller number of reptile, amphibian, and fish species, and some foul-smelling or aggressive mammals. Pitohuis, red and black birds whose toxic feathers and skin apparently comes from the poisonous beetles they ingest, could be included. It has been proposed that aposematism played a role in human evolution, body odour carrying a warning to predators of large hominins able to defend themselves with weapons.

Perhaps the most numerous aposematic vertebrates are the poison dart frogs (family: Dendrobatidae). These neotropical anuran amphibians exhibit a wide spectrum of coloration and toxicity. Some species in this poison frog family (particularly Dendrobates, Epipedobates, and Phyllobates) are conspicuously coloured and sequester one of the most toxic alkaloids among all living species. Within the same family, there are also cryptic frogs (such as Colostethus and Mannophryne) that lack these toxic alkaloids. Although these frogs display an extensive array of coloration and toxicity, there is very little genetic difference between the species. Evolution of their conspicuous coloration is correlated to traits such as chemical defense, dietary specialization, acoustic diversification, and increased body mass.

Some plants are thought to employ aposematism to warn herbivores of unpalatable chemicals or physical defences such as prickled leaves or thorns. Many insects, such as cinnabar moth caterpillars, acquire toxic chemicals from their host plants. Among mammals, skunks and zorillas advertise their foul-smelling chemical defences with sharply contrasting black-and-white patterns on their fur, while the similarly-patterned badger and honey badger advertise their sharp claws, powerful jaws, and aggressive natures. Some brightly coloured birds such as passerines with contrasting patterns may also be aposematic, at least in females; but since male birds are often brightly coloured through sexual selection, and their coloration is not correlated with edibility, it is unclear whether aposematism is significant.

The sound-producing rattle of rattlesnakes is an acoustic form of aposematism. Sound production by the caterpillar of the Polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus, may similarly be acoustic aposematism, connected to and preceded by chemical defences. Similar acoustic defences exist in a range of Bombycoidea caterpillars.

In marine ecosystems
The existence of aposematism in marine ecosystems has been debated. Many marine organisms, particularly those on coral reefs, are brightly coloured or patterned, including sponges, corals, molluscs, and fish, with little or no connection to chemical or physical defenses. Caribbean reef sponges are brightly coloured, and many species are full of toxic chemicals, but there is no statistical relationship between the two factors.

Nudibranch molluscs are the most commonly cited examples of aposematism in marine ecosystems, but the evidence for this has been contested, mostly because (1) there are few examples of mimicry among species, (2) many species are nocturnal or cryptic, and (3) bright colours at the red end of the colour spectrum are rapidly attenuated as a function of water depth. For example, the Spanish Dancer nudibranch (genus Hexabranchus), among the largest of tropical marine slugs, potently chemically defended, and brilliantly red and white, is nocturnal and has no known mimics.

Mimicry is to be expected as Batesian mimics with weak defences can gain a measure of protection from their resemblance to aposematic species. Other studies have concluded that nudibranchs such as the slugs of the family Phyllidiidae from Indo-Pacific coral reefs are aposematically coloured. Müllerian mimicry has been implicated in the coloration of some Mediterranean nudibranchs, all of which derive defensive chemicals from their sponge diet.

The crown-of-thorns starfish, like other starfish such as Metrodira subulata, has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long, sharp spines, as well as cytolytic saponins, chemicals which could function as an effective defence; this evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be considered aposematic.

It has been proposed that aposematism and mimicry is less evident in marine invertebrates than terrestrial insects because predation is a more intense selective force for many insects, which disperse as adults rather than as larvae and have much shorter generation times. Further, there is evidence that fish predators such as blueheads may adapt to visual cues more rapidly than do birds, making aposematism less effective. However, there is experimental evidence that pink warty sea cucumbers are aposematic, and that the chromatic and achromatic signals that they provide to predators both independently reduce the rate of attack.

Blue-ringed octopuses are venomous. They spend much of their time hiding in crevices whilst displaying effective camouflage patterns with their dermal chromatophore cells. However, if they are provoked, they quickly change colour, becoming bright yellow with each of the 50-60 rings flashing bright iridescent blue within a third of a second. It is often stated this is an aposematic warning display,   but the hypothesis has rarely if ever been tested.

Behaviour
The mechanism of defence relies on the memory of the would-be predator; a bird that has once experienced a foul-tasting grasshopper will endeavor to avoid a repetition of the experience. As a consequence, aposematic species are often gregarious. Before the memory of a bad experience attenuates, the predator may have the experience reinforced through repetition. Aposematic organisms are often slow-moving, as they have little need for speed and agility. Instead, their morphology is frequently tough and resistant to injury, thereby allowing them to escape once the predator is warned off.

Aposematic species do not need to hide or stay still as cryptic organisms do, so aposematic individuals benefit from more freedom in exposed areas and can spend more time foraging, allowing them to find more and better quality food. They may make use of conspicuous mating displays, including vocal signals, which may then develop through sexual selection.

Wallace, 1867
In a letter to Alfred Russel Wallace dated 23 February 1867, Charles Darwin wrote, "On Monday evening I called on Bates & put a difficulty before him, which he could not answer, & as on some former similar occasion, his first suggestion was, 'you had better ask Wallace'. My difficulty is, why are caterpillars sometimes so beautifully & artistically coloured?" Darwin was puzzled because his theory of sexual selection (where females choose their mates based on how attractive they are) could not apply to caterpillars since they are immature and hence not sexually active.

Wallace replied the next day with the suggestion that since some caterpillars "...are protected by a disagreeable taste or odour, it would be a positive advantage to them never to be mistaken for any of the palatable catterpillars [sic], because a slight wound such as would be caused by a peck of a bird's bill almost always I believe kills a growing . Any gaudy & conspicuous colour therefore, that would plainly distinguish them from the brown & green eatable, would enable birds to recognise them easily as at a kind not fit for food, & thus they would escape seizure which is as bad as being eaten ."

Since Darwin was enthusiastic about the idea, Wallace asked the Entomological Society of London to test the hypothesis. In response, the entomologist John Jenner Weir conducted experiments with caterpillars and birds in his aviary, and in 1869 he provided the first experimental evidence for warning coloration in animals. The evolution of aposematism surprised 19th-century naturalists because the probability of its establishment in a population was presumed to be low, since a conspicuous signal suggested a higher chance of predation.

Poulton, 1890

Wallace coined the term "warning colours" in an article about animal coloration in 1877. In 1890 Edward Bagnall Poulton renamed the concept aposematism in his book The Colours of Animals. He described the derivation of the term as follows:

"The second head (Sematic Colours) includes Warning Colours and Recognition Markings: the former warn an enemy off, and are therefore called Aposematic [Greek, apo, from, and sema, sign]"

Evolution
Aposematism is paradoxical in evolutionary terms, as it makes individuals conspicuous to predators, so they may be killed and the trait eliminated before predators learn to avoid it. If warning coloration puts the first few individuals at such a strong disadvantage, it would never last in the species long enough to become beneficial.

Supported explanations
There is evidence for explanations involving dietary conservatism, in which predators avoid new prey because it is an unknown quantity; this is a long-lasting effect. Dietary conservatism has been demonstrated experimentally in some species of birds and fish.

Further, birds recall and avoid objects that are both conspicuous and foul-tasting longer than objects that are equally foul-tasting but cryptically coloured. This suggests that Wallace's original view, that warning coloration helped to teach predators to avoid prey thus coloured, was correct. However, some birds (inexperienced starlings and domestic chicks) also innately avoid conspicuously coloured objects, as demonstrated using mealworms painted yellow and black to resemble wasps, with dull green controls. This implies that warning coloration works at least in part by stimulating the evolution of predators to encode the meaning of the warning signal, rather than by requiring each new generation to learn the signal's meaning. All of these results contradict the idea that novel, brightly coloured individuals would be more likely to be eaten or attacked by predators.

Alternative hypotheses
Other explanations are possible. Predators might innately fear unfamiliar forms (neophobia) long enough for them to become established, but this is likely to be only temporary.

Alternatively, prey animals might be sufficiently gregarious to form clusters tight enough to enhance the warning signal. If the species was already unpalatable, predators might learn to avoid the cluster, protecting gregarious individuals with the new aposematic trait. Gregariousness would assist predators to learn to avoid unpalatable, gregarious prey. Aposematism could also be favoured in dense populations even if these are not gregarious.

Another possibility is that a gene for aposematism might be recessive and located on the X chromosome. If so, predators would learn to associate the colour with unpalatability from males with the trait, while heterozygous females carry the trait until it becomes common and predators understand the signal. Well-fed predators might also ignore aposematic morphs, preferring other prey species.

A further explanation is that females might prefer brighter males, so sexual selection could result in aposematic males having higher reproductive success than non-aposematic males if they can survive long enough to mate. Sexual selection is strong enough to allow seemingly maladaptive traits to persist despite other factors working against the trait.

Once aposematic individuals reach a certain threshold population, for whatever reason, the predator learning process would be spread out over a larger number of individuals and therefore is less likely to wipe out the trait for warning coloration completely. If the population of aposematic individuals all originated from the same few individuals, the predator learning process would result in a stronger warning signal for surviving kin, resulting in higher inclusive fitness for the dead or injured individuals through kin selection.

A theory for the evolution of aposematism posits that it arises by reciprocal selection between predators and prey, where distinctive features in prey, which could be visual or chemical, are selected by non-discriminating predators, and where, concurrently, avoidance of distinctive prey is selected by predators. Concurrent reciprocal selection (CRS) may entail learning by predators or it may give rise to unlearned avoidances by them. Aposematism arising by CRS operates without special conditions of the gregariousness or the relatedness of prey, and it is not contingent upon predator sampling of prey to learn that aposematic cues are associated with unpalatability or other unprofitable features.

Mimicry
Aposematism is a sufficiently successful strategy to have had significant effects on the evolution of both aposematic and non-aposematic species.

Non-aposematic species have often evolved to mimic the conspicuous markings of their aposematic counterparts. For example, the hornet moth is a deceptive mimic of the yellowjacket wasp; it resembles the wasp, but has no sting. A predator which avoids the wasp will to some degree also avoid the moth. This is known as Batesian mimicry, after Henry Walter Bates, a British naturalist who studied Amazonian butterflies in the second half of the 19th century. Batesian mimicry is frequency dependent: it is most effective when the ratio of mimic to model is low; otherwise, predators will encounter the mimic too often.

A second form of mimicry occurs when two aposematic organisms share the same anti-predator adaptation and non-deceptively mimic each other, to the benefit of both species, since fewer individuals of either species need to be attacked for predators to learn to avoid both of them. This form of mimicry is known as Müllerian mimicry, after Fritz Müller, a German naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the Amazon in the late 19th century.

Many species of bee and wasp that occur together are Müllerian mimics. Their similar coloration teaches predators that a striped pattern is associated with being stung. Therefore, a predator which has had a negative experience with any such species will likely avoid any that resemble it in the future. Müllerian mimicry is found in vertebrates such as the mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator) which has several morphs throughout its natural geographical range, each of which looks very similar to a different species of poison frog which lives in that area.

title: Aposematism