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Siamese fighting fish

The Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens), commonly known as the betta, is a freshwater fish native to Southeast Asia, namely Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is one of 76 species of the genus Betta, but the only one eponymously called "betta", owing to its global popularity as a pet; Betta splendens are among the most popular aquarium fish in the world, due to their diverse and colorful morphology and relatively low maintenance.

Siamese fighting fish are endemic to the central plain of Thailand, where they were first domesticated at least 1,000 years ago, among the longest of any fish. They were initially bred for aggression and subject to gambling matches akin to cockfighting. Bettas became known outside Thailand through King Rama III (1788–1851), who is said to have given some to Theodore Cantor, a Danish physician, zoologist, and botanist. They first appeared in the West in the late 19th century, and within decades became popular as ornamental fish. B. splendens long history of selective breeding has produced a wide variety of coloration and finnage, earning it the moniker, "designer fish of the aquatic world".

Bettas are well known for being highly territorial, with males prone to attacking each other if housed in the same tank; without a means of escape, this will usually result in the death of one or both fish. Female bettas can also become territorial towards one another in confined spaces. Bettas are exceptionally tolerant of low oxygen levels and poor water quality, owing to their special labyrinth organ, a characteristic unique to the suborder Anabantoidei that allows for the intake of surface air.

In addition to its worldwide popularity, the Siamese fighting fish is the national aquatic animal of Thailand, which remains the primary breeder and exporter of bettas for the global aquarium market. Despite their abundance as pets, B. splendens is listed as "vulnerable" by the IUCN, due to increasing pollution and habitat destruction. Efforts are being made to support betta fish breeders in Thailand as a result of their popularity as pets, cultural significance, and need for conservation.

Etymology
Outside Southeast Asia, the name "betta" is used specifically to describe B. splendens, despite the term scientifically applying to the entire genus, which includes B. splendens and at least 72 other species. Betta splendens is more accurately called by its scientific name or "Siamese fighting fish" to avoid confusion with the other members of the genus.

English-speakers often pronounce betta as "bay-tuh", after the second letter in the Greek alphabet. However, it is believed the name is derived from the Malay word ikan betta, with ikan meaning "fish" and bettah referring to an ancient warrior tribe, which is pronounced "bet-tah". Alternative sources suggests the name Betta splendens is formed from two languages, consisting of Malay for "enduring fish" and the Latin word for shining.

Another vernacular name for Siamese fighting fish is plakat, often applied to the short-finned ornamental strains, which is derived from the Thai word pla kat (Thai: ปลากัด), which literally means "biting fish". This name is used in Thailand for all members of the Betta genus, which share similar aggressive tendencies, rather than for any specific strain of the Siamese fighting fish. Thus, the term "fighting fish" is used to generalise all Betta species besides the Siamese fighting fish.

Siamese fighting fish were originally given the scientific name Macropodus pugnax in 1849—literally "aggressive fish with big feet", likely in reference to their elongated pelvic fins. In 1897 they were identified with the genus Betta and became known as Betta pugnax, referring to their aggressiveness. In 1909, the species was finally renamed Betta splendens upon the discovery that an existing species was already named pugnax.

Description
B. splendens usually grows to a length of about 6-8 cm. Although aquarium specimens are widely known for their brilliant colours and large, flowing fins, the natural coloration of B. splendens is generally green, brown and grey, while the fins are short; wild fish exhibit strong colours only when agitated. In captivity, Siamese fighting fish have been selectively bred to display a vibrant array of colours and tail types.

Distribution and habitat
According to Witte and Schmidt (1992), Betta splendens is native to Southeast Asia, including the northern Malay Peninsula, central and eastern Thailand, Kampuchea (Cambodia), and southern Vietnam. Based on Vidthayanon (2013), a Thai ichthyologist and senior researcher of biodiversity at WWF Thailand, the species is endemic to Thailand, from the Mae Khlong to Chao Phraya basins, the eastern slope of the Cardamom mountains (Cambodia), and from the Isthmus of Kra. Similarly, a report from Froese and Pauly (2019) identifies Betta splendens as native to Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. They are also found throughout the neighbouring Malay Peninsula and in adjacent parts of Sumatra, likely due to human introduction.

Wherever they are found, Betta splendens generally inhabit shallow bodies of water with abundant vegetation, including marshes, floodplains, and paddy fields. The historic prevalence of rice farming across Southeast Asia, which provided an ideal habitat for bettas, led to their discovery and subsequent domestication by humans. The combination of shallow water and high air temperature causes gases to rapidly evaporate, leading to a significant deficit of oxygen in the betta's natural habitat. This environment likely led to the evolution of the lung-like labyrinth organ, which allows Siamese fighting fish—like all members of the suborder Anabantoidei—to breathe directly from the air. Subsequently, bettas can live and even thrive in harsher environments than other freshwater fish, which in turn leaves them with fewer natural predators and competitors. In the wild, bettas thrive at a fairly low population density of 1.7 individuals per square meter.

The tropical climate of the betta's natural habitat is characterized by sudden and extreme fluctuations in water availability, chemistry, and temperature. Water pH can range from slightly acidic (pH 6.9) to highly alkaline (pH 8.2), while air temperatures drop as low as 15 °C (59 °F) and rise as high as 40 °C (100 °F). Consequently, Siamese fighting fish are highly adaptable and durable, able to tolerate a variety of harsh or toxic environments; this accounts for their popularity as pets, as well as their ability to successfully colonize bodies of water all over the world.

Wild bettas prefer to live in bodies of water teeming with aquatic vegetation and surface foliage, such as fallen leaves and water lilies. The abundance of plants provides security from predators and a buffer between aggressive males, who coexist by claiming dense sections of plants as territory. Such vegetation also offers protection to females during spawning and to fry during their earliest and most vulnerable stages.

Invasive species
The betta's worldwide popularity has led to its release and home in similarly tropical areas, including southeast Australia, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, southeast United States, and Singapore.

In January 2014, a large population of bettas was discovered in the Adelaide River Floodplain in the Northern Territory, Australia. As an invasive species they pose a threat to native fish, frogs and other wetland wildlife. Bettas have also become established in subtropical areas of the United States, namely southern Texas and Florida, although an assessment by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined they were no threat to natural ecosystems.

Conservation status
Due to their popularity, Siamese fighting fish are highly abundant in captivity. In the wild, betta habitats are threatened by chemical and agricultural run off, in addition to the contamination of human medication residue into aquatic ecosystems from the sewage system. Such contamination can also alter the reproductive behavior of the species by decreasing hatch rate and increasing the likelihood of fathers eating their own eggs. Due to the expansion of palm oil plantation in Southeast Asia, wild bettas are also facing habitat loss. The primary threats are habitat destruction and pollution, caused by urban and agricultural development across central Thailand. Wild specimens are categorized by the IUCN as vulnerable, indicating the species is likely to become endangered without conservation efforts.

Diet
Betta splendens is naturally carnivorous, feeding on zooplankton, small crustaceans, and the larvae of aquatic insects such as mosquitoes, as well as insects that have fallen into the water and algae. Contrary to some marketing materials in the pet trade, bettas cannot subsist solely on vegetation or the roots of plants.

Bettas can be fed a varied diet of pellets, flakes, or frozen foods like brine shrimp, bloodworms, daphnia and many others. Due to their short digestive tracts—a characteristic of most carnivores—bettas have difficulty processing carbohydrates such as corn and wheat, which are commonly used as fillers in many commercial fish foods. Thus, regardless of the source, a proper betta diet should consist mostly of animal protein.

Bettas are susceptible to overfeeding, which can lead to obesity, constipation, swim bladder disease, and other health problems; excessive food may also pollute the water. It is generally advised to feed a betta at least once daily, with only the amount of food it can eat within 3–5 minutes; leftover food should be removed.

Reproduction and early development
If interested in a female, male bettas will flare their gills, spread their fins and twist their bodies in a dance-like performance. Receptive females will respond by darkening in color and developing vertical lines known as "breeding bars". Males build bubble nests of various sizes and thicknesses at the surface of the water, which interested females may examine. Most do this regularly even if there is no female present.

Plants or rocks that break the surface often form a base for bubble nests. During courtship, the male betta may exhibit aggressive behavior towards the female by acts of chasing or nipping at her fins. The act of spawning itself is called a "nuptial embrace", for the male wraps his body around the female; around 10–40 eggs are released during each embrace, until the female is exhausted of eggs. With each deposit of eggs, the male releases milt into the water, and fertilisation takes place externally. During and after spawning, the male uses his mouth to retrieve sinking eggs and place them in the bubble nest; during mating some females assist their partner, but more often will simply devour all the eggs she manages to catch. Once the female has released all of her eggs, she is chased away from the male's territory, as she will likely eat the eggs. If she is not removed from the tank, she will most likely be killed by the male.

The eggs remain in the male's care. He carefully keeps them in his bubble nest, making sure none fall to the bottom, repairing the bubble nest as needed. Incubation lasts for 24–36 hours; newly hatched larvae remain in the nest for the next two to three days until their yolk sacs are fully absorbed. Afterwards, the fry leave the nest and the free-swimming stage begins. In this first period of their lives, B. splendens fry are totally dependent on their gills; the labyrinth organ, which allows the species to breathe atmospheric oxygen, typically develops at three to six weeks of age, depending on the general growth rate, which can be highly variable. B. splendens can reach sexual maturity in as early as 4–5 months. Typically, the morphological differences between males and females can be noticed around two months after hatching. During development, betta fry can be fed either commercial artificial feeds, or live moving prey, which tends to be favored more. Examples of live feed for betta fry include baby brine shrimp, water fleas, and mosquito larvae. Although common fed to fish fry, boiled egg yolks are not preferred by the fish.

History
Information on precisely how and when Siamese fighting fish were first domesticated and brought out of Asia is sparse. Genetic analysis implies domestication at least 1,000 years ago. Additional evidence from DNA sampling suggests bettas may have been bred for fighting since the 13th century. Over time, this led to the diverse genetics of modern domestic and wild bettas.

Fighting fish
Some people in Malaysia and Thailand are known to have collected wild bettas at least by the 19th century, observing their aggressive nature and pitting them against each other in gambling matches akin to cockfights. In the wild, betta spar for only a few minutes before one fish retreats; domesticated betta, namely Plakat bettas, are bred specifically for heightened aggression, and can engage for much longer, with winners determined by a willingness to continue fighting; once a fish retreats, the match is over. Fights to the death were rare, so bets were placed on the bravery of the fish rather than its survival. Due to the difference in genetics from domesticated bettas being originally bred for fighting, captive ornamental species tends to be more aggressive than wild betta species.

The popularity of these fights garnered the attention of king of Siam (Thailand) who regulated and taxed the matches and collected fighting fish of his own. In 1840, he gave some of his prized fish to Danish physician Theodore Edward Cantor, who worked in the Bengal medical service. Nine years later, Cantor published the first recorded article describing these fish, giving them the name Macropodus pugnax. In 1909, British ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan found there was a related species already named Macropodus pugnax, and thus renamed the domesticated Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens, or "splendid fighter".

Aquarium fish
Betta splendens first entered the Western aquarium trade in the late 19th century; the earliest known arrival is 1874 in France, when French aquaria expert and ichthyologist Pierre Carbonnier began importing and breeding several specimens. In 1896, German tropical fish expert Paul Matte brought the first specimens into Germany from Moscow, most likely from the strain developed by Carbonnier. This indicates bettas were already somewhat established in France and Russia by the turn of the 20th century. Fighting fish were also present in Australia by 1904, based on an article written by British-born zoologist Edgar Ravenswood Waite and published by the Australian Museum in Sydney. Waite indicates that Australian specimens were brought from Penang, Malaysia, near the border with Thailand. He also makes reference to two articles about "fighting fish" published by Carbonnier in 1874 and 1881. Bettas may have first entered the United States in 1910, via importers in California; there is also evidence they were imported in 1927 from Cambodia.

While it is unclear when bettas became popular in the aquarium trade, the early 20th century marked the first known departure from centuries of breeding bettas for aggression, to instead selecting for colour, finnage, and overall beauty for ornamental purposes. In 1927, an article was published in Germany describing the long, flowing fins of the "veiltail" breed, which indicates an emphasis on aesthetic beauty. In the 1950s, an American breeder created a larger and longer-finned veiltail, while around 1960, Indian breeders discovered a genetic mutation that allowed for two caudal fins, producing the "doubletail" variety. Within that decade, a German breeder created the "deltatail" characterised by its broader, triangular fins.

In 1967, a group of betta breeders formed the International Betta Congress (IBC), the first formal interest group dedicated to Siamese fighting fish. The IBC aimed to breed varieties that would be healthier and more symmetrical in fins and body shape, with an emphasis on animal welfare.

Water
As tropical fish, bettas prefer a water temperature of around 75 –, but have been observed surviving temporarily at extremes of 56 F to 95 F. When kept in colder climates, aquarium heaters are recommended, as colder water weakens their immune system and makes them susceptible to certain diseases.

Bettas are also affected by the pH of the water: a neutral pH of 7.0 is ideal, but slightly higher levels are tolerable. Due to their labyrinth organ, bettas can endure low oxygen levels, but cannot survive for long in unmaintained aquaria, as poor water quality makes all tropical fish more susceptible to diseases like fin rot, or scale loss. Thus, notwithstanding the betta's well known tolerance of still water, a mechanical filter is considered necessary for their long-term health and longevity. Similarly, live aquatic plants provide a supplemental source of filtration, in addition to crucial enrichment to the betta.

Aquarium size and cohabitants
Despite frequently being displayed and sold in small containers in the pet trade, bettas do best in larger environments; while they can survive in cups, bowls, and other confined spaces, they will be much happier, healthier, and longer-lived in a larger aquarium. Although some betta enthusiasts claim there is a minimum tank size, determining a strict baseline is somewhat arbitrary and subject to debate, but most people consider a 5 gallons tank as the minimum.

Although male bettas are solitary and aggressive towards one another, they can generally cohabit with many types of fish and invertebrates if there is adequate space and hiding places. However, compatibility varies based on the temperament of the individual betta, and it is advised to carefully supervise the betta's interaction with other fish. Tankmates must be tropical, communal, nonterritorial, and not have a similar body type or long flowing fins; coldwater fish like goldfish have incompatible temperature requirements, while aggressive and predatory fish are likely to nip at the betta's fins or erode their slime coat. Species that shoal, such as tetras and danios, are considered most ideal, since they usually keep to themselves and can endure the territorial nature of bettas with their numbers. Brightly coloured fish with large fins, such as male guppies, should be avoided, as they may invite fin nipping by the male betta. Potential tankmates should usually be added before the male betta so they can establish their respective territories beforehand, rather than compete with the betta.

Female bettas are less aggressive and territorial than males, and thus can live with a greater variety of fish; for example, brightly coloured or large-finned fish will not usually disturb a female. Generally, female fighting fish can also tolerate larger or more numerous tankmates than males. However, like male bettas, a female's tolerance of other fish will vary by individual temperament.

It is not recommended to keep male and female bettas together, except temporarily for breeding purposes, which should always be undertaken with caution and supervision.

Setup
Bettas are fairly intelligent and inquisitive, and thus require stimulation; otherwise they can become bored and depressed, leading to lethargy and a weaker immune system. Decorations such as silk or live plants, rocks, caves, driftwood, and other ornaments provide crucial enrichment—provided they do not have rough textures or jagged edges, which can damage their delicate fins. In the wild, Siamese fighting fish spend most of their time concealing themselves under floating debris or overhanging plants to avoid potential predators. Floating plants and leaves can help bettas feel more secure, while also giving males an anchor from which to build their bubble nests. Abundant vegetation of any kind is generally recommended to provide maximum security and to cater to the betta's instinct to claim protective territory.

Indian almond leaves are increasingly popular for providing something closer to the natural foliage under which bettas would hide in the wild. Their tannins allegedly confer several health benefits, including treating certain ailments like fin rot and bladder disease, and stabilising the pH of the water.

Health and wellness
When properly kept and fed a correct diet, Siamese fighting fish generally live between three and five years in captivity, though in rare cases may live as long as seven to ten years. One study found that bettas kept in tanks of several gallons and provided with proper nutrition and "exercise"—in the form of being chased around by a stick for a short period—lived over nine years; by contrast, a control group of bettas confined to small jars lived far fewer years. A larger tank with proper filtration, regular maintenance, and an abundance of decor and hiding spaces, along with a rich, protein-based diet, increases the likelihood of a long lifespan.

Like all tropical fish in captivity, bettas are susceptible to several kinds of diseases, usually caused by bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections. Most illnesses result from poor water quality and cold water, both of which weaken the immune system. The four most common illnesses are white spot, velvet, fin rot, and dropsy; with the exception of the latter, which is incurable, these ailments can be treated with a combination of over-the-counter fish medication, increased water temperature, and/or regular water changes.

Varieties
Over a century of intensive selective breeding has produced a wide variety of colours and fin types, and breeders around the world continue to develop new varieties. Often, the males of the species are sold preferentially in stores because of their beauty relative to the females, which almost never develop fins or vibrant colours as showy as their male counterparts; however, some breeders have produced females with fairly long fins and bright colours.

Betta splendens can be hybridised with B. imbellis, B. mahachaiensis, and B. smaragdina, though with the latter, the fry tend to have low survival rates. In addition to these hybrids within the genus Betta, intergeneric hybridisation of Betta splendens and Macropodus opercularis, the paradise fish, has been reported.

Colors
Wild bettas exhibit strong colours only when agitated. Over the centuries, breeders have been able to make this coloration permanent, and a wide variety of hues breed true. Colours among captive bettas include red, orange, yellow, blue, steel blue, turquoise/green, black, pastel, opaque white, and multi-coloured. Recent evidence suggest blue-colored males may show higher levels of aggression than red-colored males. On the other hand, female bettas may have a preference for red-colored mates as opposed to their blue counterparts.

The betta's diverse colours are due to different layers of pigmentation in their skin. The layers, from deepest within to the outermost, consists of red, yellow, black, iridescent (blue and green), and metallic (not a colour itself, but reacts with the other colours). Any combination of these layers can be present, leading to a wide variety of colours within and among bettas. The shades of blue, turquoise, and green are slightly iridescent, and can appear to change colour with different lighting conditions or viewing angles; this is because these colours (unlike black or red) are not due to pigments, but created through refraction within a layer of translucent guanine crystals. Breeders have also developed different colour patterns such as marble and butterfly, as well as metallic shades like copper, gold, or platinum, which were obtained by crossing B. splendens to other Betta species).

Some bettas will change colours throughout their lifetime, a process known as marbling, which is attributed to a transposon, in which a DNA sequence can change its position within a genome, thereby altering a cell. Koi bettas have mutated over time and in some case change colours or patterns throughout their lifetime (known as true Koi), due to the defective gene that causes marbling not being repaired in the color layers after some time. Common colours:

 * Super Red
 * Super Blue
 * Super Yellow
 * Opaque
 * Super Black
 * Super White
 * Orange
 * Marble
 * Candy
 * Nemo
 * Galaxy Nemo
 * Koi
 * Alien
 * Copper
 * Cellophane
 * Gold
 * Galaxy Koi

Rarer colours: Colour patterns:
 * Super Orange
 * Metallic
 * Turquoise
 * Lavender
 * Mustard Gas
 * Grizzle
 * Green
 * Purple

• Solid – Entire fish is one colour with no variations

• Bi-colour – Fins must be a different colour to the body to be a Bi-colour.

• Cambodian – Body is pale, almost colourless, and fins are a solid colour

• Butterfly – Fins have distinct bands of colours

• Marble – Irregular patterns throughout body and fin

• Piebald – Pale flesh-coloured face irrespective of body colour.

• Full Mask – Face is same colour as body, rather than the natural pattern of being darker than the body

• Dragon – Rich strong base colour with the scales on the main part of the body a pale iridescent

• Multicolour – Three or more colours on the body that do not fit into any other pattern category

• Pastel – Light shade of colour seen only on the fins, body remains a flesh hue

• Koi – Judged from the top down and look like their carp counterparts. Patterns should be uniform with clean color defining lines.

• Nemo – Either white based or orange based and have three or four main colours: Orange, red, yellow, black

Finnage variations
Breeders have developed several different finnage and scale variations:
 * Veiltail – Extended finnage length and non-symmetrical tail; caudal fin rays usually only split once; the most common tail type seen in pet stores.
 * Crowntail – Fin rays are extended well beyond the membrane and consequently the tail can take on the appearance of a crown; also called fringetail
 * Combtail – Less extended version of the crown tail, derived from breeding crown and another finnage type
 * Halfmoon – D-shaped caudal fin that forms a 180° angle, the edges of the tail are crisp and straight
 * Over-Halfmoon or Super Delta Tail – Caudal fin exceeds 180° angle (a byproduct of trying to breed half-moons), which can sometimes cause problems because the fins are too big for the fish to swim properly
 * Rosetail – Variation with so much finnage that it overlaps and looks like a rose
 * Feather tail – Similar to the Rosetail, with a rougher appearance
 * Plakat – Short fins that resemble the fins seen in wild-type bettas
 * Halfmoon plakat – Short-finned Halfmoon; plakat and halfmoon cross
 * Double tail or Full-moon – Tail fin is duplicated into two lobes and the dorsal fin is significantly elongated, the two tails can show different levels of bifurcation depending on the individual
 * Delta tail – Tail spread less than that of a Halfmoon (less than 180°)
 * Super Delta (aka SD or SDT) – Enhanced version of the Delta; one step closer to the Halfmoon variety in that their tails have a span between 130 -170 degrees
 * Half-Sun – Combtail with caudal fin going 180°, like a half-moon
 * Elephant Ear – Pectoral fins are much larger than normal, often white, resembling the ears of an elephant
 * Spade Tail – Caudal fin has a wide base that narrows to a small point

Behaviour and intelligence
Siamese fighting fish display complex behavioural patterns and social interactions, which vary among individual specimens. Research indicates they are capable of associative learning, in which they adopt a consistent response following exposure to new stimuli. These characteristics have made bettas subject to intensive study by ethologists, neurologists, and comparative psychologists.

Males and females flare or puff out their gill covers (opercula) to appear more impressive, either to intimidate other rivals or as an act of courtship. Flaring also occurs when they are intimidated by movement or a change of scene in their environments. In captivity, bettas can be seen flaring at their own reflection because they don't pass the mirror test for self-recognition. Both sexes display pale horizontal bars if stressed or frightened. However, such colour changes, common in females of any age, are rare in mature males due to their intensity of colour. Females often flare at other females, especially when setting up a pecking order. Flirting fish behave similarly, with vertical instead of horizontal stripes indicating a willingness and readiness to breed.

Betta splendens enjoy a decorated tank, as they seek to establish territory even when housed alone. They may set up a territory centered on a plant or rocky alcove, sometimes becoming highly possessive of it and aggressive toward trespassing rivals; consequently, bettas, if housed with other fish, require at least 45 litres (about 10 gallons). Contrary to popular belief, bettas are compatible with many other species of aquarium fish. Given the proper parameters bettas will only be aggressive towards smaller and slower fish than themselves, such as guppies.

Betta aggression has historically made them objects of gambling; two male fish are pitted against each other to fight, with bets placed on which one will win. Combat is characterised by fin nipping, flared gills, extended fins, and intensified colour. The fight continues until one participant is submissive or tries to retreat; one or both fish may die depending on the seriousness of their injuries, though bettas rarely intend to fight to the death. To avoid fights over territory, male Siamese fighting fish are best isolated from one another. Males will occasionally respond aggressively even to their own reflections. Though this is obviously safer than exposing the fish to another male, prolonged sight of their reflection may lead to stress in some individuals. Not all Siamese fighting fish respond negatively to other males, especially if the tank is large enough for each fish to create their own designated territory.

Aggression in females
In general, studies have shown that females exhibit similar aggressive behaviours to males, albeit less frequently and intensely. An observational study examined a group of female Siamese fighting fish over a period of two weeks, during which time they were recorded attacking, flaring, and biting food. This indicated that when females are housed in small groups, they form a stable dominance order, or "pecking order". For example, the fish ranked at the top showed higher levels of mutual displays, in comparison to the fish who were of lower ranks. The researchers also found that the duration of the displays differed depending on whether an attack occurred. The results of this research suggest that female Siamese fighting fish warrant as much scientific study as males, as they seem to have variations in their behaviours as well.

Courtship behaviour
There has been much research in the courtship behaviour between male and female Siamese fighting fish. Studies generally focus on the aggressive behaviours of males during the courtship process. For example, one study found that when male fish are in the bubble nest phase, their aggression toward females is quite low. This is due to the males attempting to attract potential mates to their nest, so eggs can successfully be laid. It has also been found that in determining a suitable mate, females often "eavesdrop" on pairs of males that are fighting. When a female witnesses aggressive behaviour between males, she is more likely to be attracted to the male who won. In contrast, if a female did not "eavesdrop" on a fight between males, she will show no preference in mate choice. In regards to the males, the "loser" is more likely to attempt to court the fish who did not "eavesdrop", while the "winner" showed no preference between females who "eavesdropped" and those who did not.

One study considered the ways in which male Siamese fighting fish alter their behaviours during courtship when another male is present. During this experiment, a dummy female was placed in the tank. The researchers expected that males would conceal their courtship from intruders; instead, when another male fish was present, the male was more likely to engage in courtship behaviours with the dummy female fish. When no barriers were present, the males were more likely to engage in gill flaring at an intruder male fish. The researchers concluded that the male was attempting to court the female and communicate with its rival at the same time. These results indicate the importance of considering courtship behaviour, as the literature has suggested there are many factors that can dramatically affect the ways in which both male and females can act in courtship settings.

Metabolic costs of aggression
Studies have found that Siamese fighting fish often begin with behaviours that require high cost, and gradually decrease their behaviours as the encounter proceeds. This indicates that Siamese fighting fish will first begin an encounter using much metabolic energy, but will gradually decrease, as to not use too much energy, thus making the encounter a waste if the fish is not successful. Similarly, researchers have found that when pairs of male Siamese fighting fish were kept together in the same tank for a three-day period, aggressive behaviour was most prevalent during the mornings of the first two days of their cohabitation. However, the researchers observed that the fighting between the two males decreased as the day progressed. The male in the dominant position initially had metabolic advantage; although as the experiment progressed, both fish became equal in regards to metabolic advantages. In regards to oxygen consumption, one study found that when two male bettas fought, the metabolic rates of both fish did not differ before or during the fight. However, the fish who won showed higher oxygen consumption during the evening following the fight. This indicates that aggressive behaviour in the form of fighting has long-lasting effects on metabolism.

Behavioural effects of chemical exposure
Siamese fighting fish are popular models for studying the neurological and physiological impact of certain chemicals, such as hormones, since their aggression is the result of cell signalling and possibly genes.

One study investigated the effect of testosterone on female Siamese fighting fish. Females were given testosterone, which resulted in changes to fin length, body coloration and gonads that resembled typical male fish. Their aggressive behaviour was found to be elevated when interacting with other females, but reduced when interacting with males. The researchers then allowed the females to interact with a control group of unaltered females; when the female fish stopped receiving testosterone, those who were exposed to the normal females still exhibited male-typical behaviours. In contrast, the female fish who were kept isolated did not continue to exhibit the male typical behaviours after testosterone was discontinued.

Another study exposed male Siamese fighting fish to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. The researchers were curious if exposure to these chemicals would affect the ways in which females respond to the exposed males. It was found that when shown videos of the exposed males, the females favoured those who were not exposed to the endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and avoided those males that were exposed. The researchers concluded that exposure to these chemicals can negatively affect the mating success of male Siamese fighting fish.

A psychology study used male Siamese fighting fish to investigate the effects of fluoxetine, an SSRI used primarily as an antidepressant in humans. Siamese fighting fish were selected as prime models due to having comparable serotonin transporter pathways, which accounts for their aggression. It was found that when exposed to fluoxetine, male Siamese fighting fish exhibited less aggressive behaviour than is characteristic of their species. Similarly, research has found that bettas are responsive to serotonin, dopamine, and GABA.

Sleep behavior
Betta fish can exhibit unusual sleep behaviors, often resulting in new betta owners assuming that their betta fish has died. In an aquarium, betta fish sleep anywhere in the tank they feel comfortable, including at the bottom on the substrate, floating at the mid-level, or at the surface. Betta fish will sleep on their side, upside down, with their nose pointing up, or with their tail pointing up. They are also known to curl up or wedge between tight spaces, such as behind a heater. One of the more unusual sleep behaviors that betta fish exhibit is their ability to sleep out of the water, resting on a leaf or any other flat object protruding from the water. This is made possible by the betta's labyrinth organ, which acts like a human lung, pulling oxygen from the air instead of from the water. When betta fish sleep, their bright colors will often fade, and when combined with their unusual napping positions, they can appear dead. Predatory fish will often avoid eating a dead fish because of the risk of contracting diseases and parasites, making this an excellent defensive mechanism.

Genetics
Despite its commercial popularity, little is known about the Betta splendens genome. Current understanding is so limited that there is little evidence for the genetic basis of basic traits, including sex determination. A 2021 review article argued for increased scientific investigation into the genome of the Siamese fighting fish, and listed several areas of interest which are paraphrased below:

 * 1) monophyly of the genus Betta including a single-versus-multiple origin of mouthbrooding;
 * 2) the state of cryptic diversity and evolutionary forces driving speciation in the betta lineage;
 * 3) responsive genes or genetic interaction to parental care, behavioural aggression, pigmentation and other betta biology; and
 * 4) preservation technology for betta as insurance against accidental loss of biodiversity this century.

Additionally, betta fish have been used in several studies to assess the impacts of various environmental contaminants, including oil. Improved understanding of the betta genome would allow for more accurate generalisations from these studies. Lastly, the betta fish is an excellent candidate for a model organism, particularly for aggression and pigmentation development, due to their extreme phenotypes in these areas.

Currently, the complete B. splendens chromosomal and mitochondrial genomes have been sequenced. Both genomes have yet to be annotated, though a roadmap for future efforts has been outlined. Notably, the mitochondrial genome for the peaceful betta, P. imbellis, has also been sequenced, potentially allowing for meaningful comparison between species in the future.

Phylogeny and cryptic diversity
There are many species in the genus Betta, the majority of which are very morphologically similar. Within Thailand alone there are twelve nominal species with new species being discovered every 5–10 years. Past efforts to differentiate Betta species have been based on observable morphology, but given their visible similarity, this approach has masked much of the cryptic diversity in the genus. Recent speciation efforts have included use of DNA barcoding to differentiate species, specifically comparing the CO1 gene of the mitochondrial genome, resulting in new theories about the relatedness between species and allowing for the construction of new phylogenetic trees.

The morphological similarity between species that can be distinguished genetically suggests that species radiation with cryptic diversity occurred in the Betta lineage. Current theories about the species radiation and speciation take into account the geographic considerations of their native habitat of Thailand, and suggest that the speciation is best described by a model of either allopatric or parapatric speciation.

Aggression
B. splendens are known for their intense aggression, which has resulted from intense selective pressures imposed upon them from many generations of artificial selection. Fighting strains of B. splendens have been bred for aggression for over six centuries due to the culture surrounding fighting betta fish and betting money on the results. This has genetically differentiated them from their wild-type counterparts – fighting strains of B. splendens have been shown to be significantly more aggressive than wild bettas, and in addition show differential responses in cortisol production in new environments.

The extreme genetically driven aggression in fighting strains of B. splendens and their differences from the still-observable wild-type makes them an excellent candidate for a model organism through which to study the genetic basis for aggression.

At present, use of the betta fish as a model organism for studying aggression is in its beginning phases. Little is known about the genetic basis of aggression in betas, though differential degrees of aggression have been observed in different domesticated betta populations.

Research to date
There is evidence that the genetic basis for aggression in betta fish is not exclusively sex-linked – a 2019 study found that female bettas of the fighting strain show significantly higher levels of aggression than their female wild-type counterparts, despite the fact that historically only male bettas have been used in fights and thus artificially selected for aggression. However these results are of limited usefulness, given the lack of scientific consensus on the nature of sex determination in bettas.

A recent study found that a fighting pair of bettas will synchronise their gene expression profiles, with particular emphasis on 37 co-expression gene modules, some of which were only synchronised after a certain duration of time had been spent fighting.

Work to identify the genetic basis for aggression has also been performed more generally in other model species, such as zebrafish. These studies have identified dozens of candidate genes in their respective model organisms which could serve as starting points for research into aggression in betta fish. However, more progress must be made on the annotation of the betta genome before this is feasible.

Pigmentation
Due to the incredible variation in pigmentation of adult bettas and visible pigment in developing embryos, bettas are an attractive model organism for studying the genetic basis for coloration. Additionally, producing a specific color on demand would be of great interest to the commercial betta fish industry, as the price of a fish is largely determined by its coloration. Prices for attractively coloured fish can be high – single fish with the colours of the Thai flag was sold for over $1,500.

The genetic basis for the synthesis and regulation of pigmentation in teleost fish is generally poorly understood, and bettas are no exception. Most work in this area has been done on other model organisms such as zebrafish or African cichlid fish, however as with aggression, work done with other model organisms to identify candidate genes will be tremendously helpful in identifying the genetic basis of pigmentation in bettas.

Work to date
In 1990, genetic differences (polymorphisms at several loci) were found between four different color varieties of bettas, though the variations were noted to be small. Later experiments confirmed the presence of genetic variation in hatchery stocks in Thailand, with low average numbers of alleles per locus and high heterozygosity rates.

Notable color phenotypes in B. splendens include the marbled phenotype and the color changing phenotype, the latter of which changes color over the course of its lifetime. While theories for the genetic basis of these phenotypes exist, scientific evidence for the genetic basis of these phenomena are slim to nonexistent.

Other genetic work
Some of the few candidate genes identified in the literature specific to bettas are immune related genes, which were found in the first whole-body transcriptome of B. splendens obtained by high-throughput sequencing.

Breeding facility
Today, Southeast Asia dominates the industry of breeding and distribution of Siamese fighting fish globally. Initially, male and female fry are raised together in communal tanks up until males begin to display aggression at about 4–5 months of age. Males are then kept isolated in a half-pint liquor flask, where hundreds of these pints may be arranged tightly packed on the ground in the breeding facility. Daily feeding of usually bloodworms are dispensed into each flask. At the shoulder of each flask, there is typically a cut to allow water to flow out for an easy water change. Meanwhile, females may be kept in communal tanks until shipping day. Roughly 100,000 male bettas are shipped each week from Thailand to countries around the world.

According to Dr. Amonrat Sermwatanakul, Head of Senior Fisheries Experts of the Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, the Thai government is playing a role in supporting the betta fish breeders. As not only a source of revenue for the country and being a symbol of cultural significance, betta fish breeders have become a focal point of the government's assistance as they lack the capital and resources when wanting to expand their businesses. The DOF and partner agencies created the Ornamental Fish Strategy Plan during 2013-2016. It was created with the intention of making Thailand the number one exporter of aquarium fish in Asia. The three goals of the program included:

1) Improving quality and quantity of ornamental fish

2) Enhancing the ornamental fish trade on a domestic and international level

3) Uplifting ornamental fish farmers to become successful farmer-entrepreneurs

This program also included trainings in basic English, how to navigate advertisement on social media and the internet, pricing and classification of fish, and value-added and creative product. Dr. Sermwatanakul also highlights that around 40% of betta fish farmers registered with the DOF are women, and claims that the industry empowers women. She notes that they are actively engaged in the marketing of their bettas online, alluding to their abilities in speaking other languages and that they succeed in the international market.

In popular culture

 * In 2019, the pla kat, or Siamese fighting fish, was officially recognized as Thailand's national aquatic animal. The Fisheries Department of Thailand had promoted this recognition the previous year, which was approved by both the National Identity Committee and the National Cultural Committee, then officially announced as adopted in February 2019.
 * The titular character in the novel Rumble Fish and subsequent film adaptation is a Siamese fighting fish. In both, the character Motorcycle Boy is fascinated with the creatures and dubs them "rumble fish". He speculates that if the fish were to be set free in the river, they wouldn't behave so aggressively. A common misconception regarding keeping B. splendens is that they should live in vases or bowls. However, this has been proven to damage their health, life expectancy, and cause negative behavioural changes.
 * A scene in the James Bond film From Russia with Love shows three Siamese fighting fish in an aquarium as the villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld likens the modus operandi of his criminal organisation, SPECTRE, to one of the fish that observes as the other two fight to the death, then kills the weakened victor.
 * In 2020, a Siamese fighting fish kept in a home aquarium in Japan named Lala was livestreamed successfully 'completing' a copy of Pokémon Sapphire by use of a laser that followed the fish and triggered button inputs mapped on a grid behind the tank. Lala's playthrough of the game was carried out over four months, commencing in June 2020 and concluding in November, and the experiment also resulted in the discovery of a glitch that softlocked the game that had previously gone undiscovered.

title: Siamese fighting fish


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The Twisted World of Marge Simpson

"The Twisted World of Marge Simpson" is the eleventh episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 19, 1997. It was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Chuck Sheetz. The episode guest stars Jack Lemmon as Frank Ormand and Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony. In the episode, Marge buys a franchise in a pretzel business.

Plot
The Springfield Investorettes – Maude Flanders, Helen Lovejoy, Agnes Skinner, Luann Van Houten and Edna Krabappel – expel Marge from their investment group because she is wary of high-risk ventures. The group returns Marge's $500 initial contribution, and Lisa persuades her to use the money to buy a business franchise. To compete with the Investorettes' Fleet-A-Pita enterprise, Marge buys a Pretzel Wagon franchise from owner Frank Ormand.

Marge parks her Pretzel Wagon outside the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, and Homer persuades his coworkers to patronize it. The Investorettes' Fleet-A-Pita van parks nearby and lures away Marge's customers. To drum up business, the Pretzel Wagon sponsors a giveaway at the Springfield Isotopes baseball stadium. Before fans can consume their free pretzels, they learn that Mr. Burns has won a minivan and instead begin throwing the snacks at him and it. Retired pitcher Whitey Ford pleads for the crowd to calm down, but is knocked unconscious in the hail of pretzels. Marge becomes deeply depressed over her business struggles, so Homer searches for someone who can help her.

After discovering that both Frank and the executor of his estate have died in a car accident, Homer turns to Fat Tony and the Springfield Mafia for help in saving Marge's business. The criminals oblige him by coercing clients to place large orders and driving Marge's competitors out of business through intimidation and violence, eventually destroying the Investorettes' Fleet-A-Pita van with a car bomb. Fat Tony and his men confront Marge on the outskirts of town and reveal the agreement Homer made with them, then give her 12 hours to turn over all her profits. Homer admits to the deal, saying that he was only trying to help, and Marge decides not to pay.

Once time runs out, the Springfield Mafia arrives at the Simpsons' house and advances on Marge, only to be interrupted by the arrival of the Investorettes and their own criminal associates in the Japanese yakuza. A brutal fight breaks out between the rival gangs, and the Simpsons retreat into their house for safety. Marge forgives Homer for meddling and making the situation worse, and instructs the kids to go back to bed when they overhear the racket caused by the gangs.

Production
The main plot of the episode concerning the two rival snack food franchises was selected because at the time of production, pita bread and pretzels were "becoming popular". Josh Weinstein expressed his wish that the ideas had been changed to something more "fun", as both snacks have since "gone out of fashion". The Fleet-A-Pita chef was an early version of the "Khlav-Kalash" man from "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson". At the Expo, many of the franchises were based on real franchises and get-rich-quick schemes. In the scene where Homer is inspecting pretzels, there was originally a shot where he gave a thumbs down to Maggie's pretzel.

The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden, who also wrote four other episodes. Homer's line "Yeah, Homer's right" during the scene where the pretzel wagon arrives was ad-libbed by Dan Castellaneta. In another scene, Cletus calls for his many children to come out of the house; the names of which were all "trendy names from the nineties". The 1997 Pontiac Astrowagon that Mr. Burns wins was designed to accurately resemble the GM minivans on sale at the time. The episode's final scene, the mob war, was conceived by Matt Groening as no-one else could come up with an ending.

Cultural references
The scene in which the Springfield Mafia destroy all the competition to "Pretzel Wagon" is based on a scene from Goodfellas. The music played in the mob montage is "The Lineman". Frank Ormand's "You'll be there" speech mirrors that of Tom Joad from John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Lemmon's portrayal of Frank Ormand is based on the character Shelley Levene from the film Glengarry Glen Ross, also played by Lemmon. The character Gil Gunderson, who would not be introduced until the ninth season episode "Realty Bites", was also based on Levene. Rumer and Scout, two of Cletus's children, are named after Bruce Willis and Demi Moore's children. The scene where baseball fans cause a riot by throwing pretzels after Mr. Burns wins a new car, is based on an incident where the Los Angeles Dodgers were forced to forfeit. It happened on August 10, 1995, when the fans threw promotional baseballs onto the field to protest a bad call during the 9th inning.

Reception
In its original broadcast, "The Twisted World of Marge Simpson" finished 55th in ratings for the week of January 13–19, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 8.2, equivalent to approximately 8.0 million viewing households. It was the fifth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, King of the Hill, Melrose Place, and Beverly Hills, 90210.

The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "A clever, and rather unusual, idea for an episode that shows a frightening bitchiness beneath the middle-class veneer of smalltown businesswomen." The scene with Cletus's children is one of two scenes from this episode that Josh Weinstein considers to be "classic", with the second being the sequence when the crowd throw their free pretzels onto the baseball field, knocking Whitey Ford unconscious. The Ford scene was placed 24th on ESPN.com's list of the "Top 100 Simpsons sport moments", released in 2004. Greg Collins, the author of the list, added that "Every time it looks like a fight is about to start at a baseball game, I start quoting this scene." The A.V. Club named the baseball commentator's line "Aaaannnd heeerrre come the pretzels" one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Twisted World of Marge Simpson


text: User talk:69.4.159.142

title: User talk:69.4.159.142


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John Gall (baseball)

John Christopher Gall (born April 2, 1978) is an American former Major League Baseball left fielder who played for the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins from 2005 to 2007.

College
Gall was born in Stanford, California, and was a successful collegiate player for Stanford University, making his NCAA debut as a freshman in 1997. After the 1997 season, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Orleans Cardinals of the Cape Cod Baseball League. His best college year was as a sophomore in which he had a team-leading .381 batting average and 63 RBI, with 15 home runs, second only to former Padres outfielder Jody Gerut on the team. After his excellent junior year in 1999, Gall was selected by the Cleveland Indians in the 50th round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft. However, Gall elected to return to college for his senior year, and was eventually selected by the St. Louis Cardinals in the 11th round of the 2000 draft. He played in 3 College World Series and was All-Tournament Team in 1999 while hitting .611. He is the All-Time Pac-12 leader in hits and RBI's.

Professional career
After a season at Single-A ball, Gall played the 2002 season for the New Haven Ravens, the Double-A affiliate of the Cardinals at the time. Here he hit 20 home runs and 81 RBI with a .316 batting average. In 2003, Gall spent his first season with the Triple-A Memphis Redbirds, and collected 16 home runs and 73 RBI with a .312 average, numbers which were improved in 2004, as he added six home runs and eleven RBI to his 2003 totals.

On July 26, after a promising start to the 2005 season in Memphis, Gall was promoted for the first time to the major league roster, to replace Larry Walker, who was on the disabled list. In his debut against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park, Gall proceeded to go 2-for-4 with a double. He was sent back down to Memphis eight games later on August 9 having collected four hits, two doubles, and two RBI in his first stint as a major-leaguer. After another call-up, he was placed on the active roster for the 2005 Cardinal's playoff team. On July 17, 2006, the Cardinals released Gall and he signed with the Lotte Giants in Korea. Gall received a World Series ring for his stint with the St Louis Cardinals in 2006. He signed with the Florida Marlins on January 4, 2007. Gall spent much of the year with the Marlins Triple-A affiliate, the Albuquerque Isotopes, with a stint with the Florida Marlins.

Gall was named to the United States national baseball team for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. Gall's success in the olympics, most notably for his home run over Taiwan which helped the United States get to the Bronze Medal round, got recognized by notable people including an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, an invitation to the White House and serving as a guest of honor for California Governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger.

In January 2009, Gall signed a minor league contract with the Houston Astros. His last professional season was 2009. Gall also won a Liga del Pacifico Championship for the Venados de Mazatlan in 2005.

Personal life
Gall currently resides in the Bay Area with his family. He is the cousin of former Arizona Diamondbacks and Seattle Mariners outfielder Eric Byrnes.

title: John Gall (baseball)


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Jerry Hardin

Jerry Hardin (born November 20, 1929) is an American actor. Hardin has appeared in film and television roles, including the character nicknamed Deep Throat in The X-Files.

Hardin was born in Texas and studied acting at London's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art before beginning his acting career in New York. He is married with two children, one of whom is actress Melora Hardin.

Early life and education
Hardin was born in Dallas on November 20, 1929. His father was a rancher, and Jerry spent his youth actively involved with his local church and performing in school plays. He attended Southwestern University in Georgetown, Texas, on a scholarship before going on to study at London's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. He spent several years there before returning to the United States to begin acting in New York, performing in regional theatre for twelve years.

Career
Hardin began acting on television in the 1950s, mostly in character roles. He amassed over 100 appearances by the early 1990s, in addition to more than 75 theatrical credits by the early 1960s. His television appearances include roles in the 1976 western series Sara, The Rockford Files, Roots: The Gift, WKRP in Cincinnati, Family Ties, The Golden Girls, World War III, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Voyager, Sliders, and Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. Hardin appeared in such films as Thunder Road (1958), Our Time (1974), Wolf Lake (1978), Chilly Scenes of Winter (1979), 1941 (1979), Reds (1981), Missing (1982), Tempest (1982), Honkytonk Man (1982), Cujo (1983), Mass Appeal (1984), Warning Sign (1985), Big Trouble in Little China (1986), Let's Get Harry (1986), Wanted: Dead or Alive (1987), Little Nikita (1988), The Milagro Beanfield War (1988), Blaze (1989), The Hot Spot (1990), The Firm (1993).

Hardin's appearance in Roots: The Gift is notable because he was one of five Star Trek actors who had a "preunion" in this production. LeVar Burton (Geordi La Forge in Star Trek: The Next Generation), Avery Brooks (Benjamin Sisko in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), Kate Mulgrew and Tim Russ (Kathryn Janeway and Tuvok in Star Trek: Voyager) were also in the cast. While the others played major Star Trek characters, Hardin had notable guest roles: Radue in Star Trek: The Next Generation "When the Bough Breaks", Samuel Clemens in Star Trek: The Next Generation "Time's Arrow", and Neria in Star Trek: Voyager "Emanations".

Deep Throat
His role in 1993's The Firm won Hardin the attention of television writer Chris Carter, who cast him in the recurring role of Deep Throat in the series The X-Files. Hardin believed his initial appearance in the second episode of the first season, airing on September 17, 1993, would be a one-time role, but he soon found himself regularly commuting to the series' Vancouver filming location on short notice. After filming the character's death in the first season finale, "The Erlenmeyer Flask", Hardin was toasted with champagne, and told by Carter that "no one ever really dies on X-Files". As such, Hardin made several more appearances as Deep Throat after this, seen in visions in the third season's "The Blessing Way" and the seventh season's "The Sixth Extinction II: Amor Fati", in flashbacks in the fourth season's "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man", and as one of the guises assumed by a shapeshifting alien in the third season's finale, "Talitha Cumi".

Personal life
Hardin is married, with two children. His wife Diane (née Hill) is an acting coach. Despite Hardin's claim that he "did my best to discourage my own children from doing it", his daughter Melora Hardin is also an actress, known for roles as Trudy Monk in Monk and Jan Levinson in The Office. His son Shawn Hardin worked for television studio NBC.

title: Jerry Hardin


text:
Talk:List of Toronto Maple Leafs players

Style
I'd like to sit down and turn this list into a table with Stats. It would make it look nicer and give an ability to see the list in different perspectives, such as all time scoring leaders, all time PIM leaders, etc. Any objections? Andrew 6 47 17:51, 12 January 2009 (UTC)


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Hennig Brand

Hennig Brand (c. 1630 – c. 1692 or c. 1710) was a German alchemist who lived and worked in Hamburg. In 1669, Brand accidentally discovered the chemical element phosphorus while searching for the "philosopher's stone", a substance which was believed to transmute base metals into gold.

Biography
The circumstances of Brand's birth are unknown but he was born in 1630 and died c. 1692 or 1710. Some sources describe his origins as humble and indicate that he had been an apprentice glassmaker as a young man. However, correspondence by his second wife Margaretha states that he was of high social standing. In any case he held a post as a junior army officer during the Thirty Years' War and his first wife's dowry was substantial, allowing him to pursue alchemy on leaving the army.

He was one of the many searchers for the philosopher's stone. In the process, he accidentally discovered phosphorus.

Discovery of phosphorus
Like other alchemists of the time, Brand searched for the "philosopher's stone", a substance which supposedly transformed base metals (like lead) into gold. By the time his first wife died he had exhausted her money on this pursuit. He then married his second wife Margaretha, a wealthy widow whose financial resources allowed him to continue the search.

Like many before him, he was interested in urine and tried combining it with various other materials, in hundreds of combinations. He had seen for instance a recipe in a book 400 Auserlensene Chemische Process, by F. T. Kessler of Strasbourg, published in 1630, for using alum, saltpetre (potassium nitrate) and concentrated urine to turn base metals into silver (a recipe which did not work).

Around 1669 he heated residues from boiled-down urine on his furnace until the retort was red hot, where all of a sudden glowing fumes filled it and liquid dripped out, bursting into flames. He could catch the liquid in a jar and cover it, where it solidified and continued to give off a pale-green glow. What he collected was phosphorus, which he named from the Greek word for "light-bearing" or "light-bearer."

Phosphorus must have been awe-inspiring to an alchemist: it was a product of man, and seeming to glow with a "life force" that did not diminish over time (and did not need re-exposure to light like the previously discovered Bologna Stone). Brand kept his discovery secret, as alchemists of the time did, and worked with the phosphorus trying unsuccessfully to use it to produce gold. His recipe was:
 * Let urine stand for days until it gives off a pungent smell. (This step was not necessary, as later scientists discovered that fresh urine yielded the same amount of phosphorus).
 * Boil urine to reduce it to a thick syrup.
 * Heat until a red oil distills up from it, and draw that off.
 * Allow the remainder to cool, where it consists of a black spongy upper part and a salty lower part.
 * Discard the salt, mix the red oil back into the black material.
 * Heat that mixture strongly for 16 hours.
 * First white fumes come off, then an oil, then phosphorus.
 * The phosphorus may be passed into cold water to solidify.

The chemical reaction Brand stumbled on was as follows. Urine contains phosphates PO43−, as sodium phosphate (i.e. with Na+) in the form of microcosmic salt, and various carbon-based organics. Under strong heat the oxygen atoms from the phosphate react with carbon to produce carbon monoxide CO, leaving elemental phosphorus P, which comes off as a gas. Phosphorus condenses to a liquid below about 280°C and then solidifies (to the white phosphorus allotrope) below about 44°C (depending on purity). This same essential reaction is still used today (but with mined phosphate ores, coke for carbon, and electric furnaces).

Brand's process yielded far less phosphorus than it could have. The salt part he discarded contained most of the phosphate. He used about 1500 USgal of urine to produce just 120 grams of phosphorus. If he had ground up the entire residue he could have obtained many times more than this (1 litre of adult human urine contains about 1.4g of phosphorus salts, which amounts to around 0.11 grams of pure white phosphorus).

Though Brand initially kept his process for producing phosphorus from urine a secret, he later sold the recipe for 200 thalers to a Johann Daniel Kraft (de) from Dresden. Subsequently, both Swedish chemist Johann Kunckel (in 1678) and English chemist Robert Boyle (in 1680) were able to independently discover phosphorus; the latter's assistant, Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz, later made a business of manufacturing phosphorus from 1707 onwards.

title: Hennig Brand


text: Template:UN Security Council

title: Template:UN Security Council


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Arthur Robert Hogg

Arthur Robert Hogg (25 November 1903 – 31 March 1966) was an Australian physicist and astronomer.

He was born in Melbourne, Victoria, was educated at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology and at the University of Melbourne where he earned his B.Sc. in 1923 and M.Sc. in 1925. In 1927 he began working at the Broken Hill Associated Smelters in Port Pirie, South Australia, becoming the assistant supervisor of research, and he remained there until 1929. He then joined the Mount Stromlo Observatory, then called the Commonwealth Solar Observatory, as an assistant and he remained associated with the observatory until his death in 1966.

At Mount Stromlo, he took up the study of electrical phenomena in the atmosphere, including ionization in the lower atmosphere. He then transitioned into the study of cosmic rays. In 1933 he was married to Irene Doris Tyson (known as Yandell). The couple had two sons, Robert Ernest Tremayne born in 1936 and Garth Richard born in 1940 and a daughter, Elizabeth Irene born in 1946.

Beginning in 1940, near the start of World War II, he worked as a physicist in the Chemical Defence Section at the Munitions Supply Laboratories in Maribyrnong. There his work was focused on the study of respirators. In 1944 he became secretary of the Physical and Meteorological Sub-Committee at the Lab.

After the war he returned to work at observatory. He was awarded his Ph.D. in 1950 from the University of Melbourne, based on his study of cosmic rays. He now began astronomical studies using photoelectric photometry and produced a series of papers on eclipsing variables, globular clusters in the galaxy, and the magellanic clouds.

He also became involved in the administration of the observatory and played a leading role in establishing the new 74 in telescope. Later he selected Siding Spring Mountain as the site of a 150 in telescope, located further from the encroaching growth near the older observatory. He was the deputy director of the Mount Stromlo Observatory from 1961 to 1966.

Hogg served in other positions of note, including as president of the Royal Society of Canberra in 1954; chairman of the Australian Institute of Physics, Australian Capital Territory branch, 1964; and the Commission 6 on Astronomical Telegrams of the International Astronomical Union from 1961 until 1964.

Awards and honors

 * Fellow of the Australian Institute of Physics.
 * Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, 1954.
 * The crater Hogg on the Moon is co-named for Arthur Hogg and Frank S. Hogg.

authors: Я сошла с ума

title: Arthur Robert Hogg


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Kotodama

Kotodama or kototama (言霊, sometimes written as 言魂) refers to the Japanese belief that mystical powers dwell in words and names. English translations include "soul of language", "spirit of language", "power of language", "power word", "magic word", and "sacred sound". The notion of kotodama presupposes that sounds can magically affect objects, and that ritual word usages can influence the environment, body, mind, and soul. Some interpret the belief as the discovery of vibratory commands words have that can affect physiology and the mind.

Basis
This Japanese compound kotodama combines koto 言 "word; speech" and tama 霊 "spirit; soul" (or 魂 "soul; spirit; ghost") voiced as dama in rendaku. In contrast, the unvoiced kototama pronunciation especially refers to kototamagaku (言霊学), which was popularized by Onisaburo Deguchi in the Oomoto religion. This field takes the Japanese gojūon phonology as the mystical basis of words and meanings, in a way that is roughly analogous to Hebrew Kabbalah.

Etymology
The etymology of kotodama is uncertain, but one explanation correlating words and events links two Japanese words pronounced koto: this 言 "word; words; speech" and 事 "situation; circumstances; state of affairs; occurrence; event; incident". These two kanji were used interchangeably in the name Kotoshironushi 事代主 or 言代主, an oracular kami mentioned in the Kojiki and Nihon shoki. Kotodama is related with Japanese words such as kotoage 言挙 "words raised up; invoke the magical power of words", kotomuke 言向 "directed words; cause submission though the power of words", and jumon 呪文 "magic spell; magic words; incantation".

Mythology
Kotodama is a central concept in Japanese mythology, Shinto, and Kokugaku. For example, the Kojiki describes an ukei (or seiyaku) 誓約 "covenant; trial by pledge" between the sibling gods Susanoo and Amaterasu, "Let each of us swear, and produce children". Uttering the divine words of the Shinto divination ritual known as ukehi supposedly determines results, and in this case, Amaterasu giving birth to five male deities proved that Susanoo's intentions were pure.

Martial arts
Kototama or kotodama is also fundamental to Japanese martial arts, for instance, in the use of kiai. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of aikido and a student of Deguchi, used kototama as a spiritual basis for his teachings. William Gleason says Ueshiba "created aikido based on the kototama principle," and quotes him that "Aikido is the superlative way to practice the kototama. It is the means by which one realizes his true nature as a god and finds ultimate freedom." Mutsuro Nakazono, a disciple of Ueshiba, wrote books on the importance of kototama in aikido, such as The Kototama Principle in 1983.

Equivalences
While other cultures have parallels to kotodama, such as mantra, yanling, mana, and logos, some Japanese people believe the "word spirit" is unique to the Japanese language. One of the classical names of Japan is kototama no sakiwau kuni (言霊の幸わう国), a phrase that originated in the Man'yōshū.

title: Kotodama


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Talk:The Queen's Journal

The Queen's Journal began publication in 1875 -- but the Dalhousie Gazette began publication in 1868, making it Canada's oldest student newspaper, and one of the oldest in North America -- not the Queen's paper.
 * Theres a lot of confusion here, the varsity wiki says it is the second oldest, which does not agree with what you say either, no references... PretentiousSnot (talk) 18:09, 11 June 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:1999QueensJournal.jpg
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BetacommandBot 10:30, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Queen's Journal


text:
Talk:Battle of Mobile Bay

Damn the torpedoes
What is the justification for the use of the words apocryphal and allegedly regarding the "Damn the torpedoes" quote? As far as I can tell from my brief research, most sources indicate that those were his orders. 198.112.236.6 17:22, 2 September 2005 (UTC)
 * He said "Go on, Drayton. Damn the torpedoes, go on!"  This was later changed to the near-legendary "Damn the torpedoes, full steam ahead!"  Carajou 02:50, 29 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The most thorough and comprehensive study of the battle concluded that Farragut never uttered the famous words or their equivalent; they first appeared in an account some ten years after the battle, and thereafter appeared in various forms. See Friend, Jack, West Wind, Flood Tide : the Battle of Mobile Bay (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press 2004), ISBN 978-1591142928.   4.249.96.86 (talk) 14:22, 19 April 2008 (UTC)\

The article should point out explicitly that no naval officer ever uttered the nonsense "full speed ahead". All speed is in one direction; you're never proceeding ahead at three knots while making backward weigh at two. The expression (whether Farragut said it at Mobile or not) is "full steam ahead", meaning "apply all available pressure to the pistons, leaving none in reserve, while the engine is engaged for forward thrust, causing the ship to advance at maximum speed." It's not a minor point; the popular conflation of "Ahead, (at) full speed" (which is also properly said "full steam") and "Full speed ahead" obscures both history and science. Laodah 18:32, 19 April 2020 (UTC)

Pic change
The previous pic, a Currier and Ives lithograph, showed the battle between CSS Tennessee and five monitors. There were four monitors total in this operation, and one of them, USS Tecumseh, was sunk by a torpedo before all of the vessels involved exchanged fire. Carajou 02:50, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

The Battle of Atlanta and Mobile was a GREAT 1-2 punch, and I think this article was well written.shyjayb 22:09, 31 May 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Shyjayb (talk • contribs)

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Lashing to mast
Edited the section about the story of Farragut being lashed to the mast to take out some editorial commentary suggesting that people would tend to interpret that as him vowing to go down with the ship when actually he was tied there because he was up to view the battle and otherwise could have fallen and died.

Maybe if there was some cite to someone having the mistaken view? I personally don't find the idea of a commanding Admiral being tied to the mast to command a battle where they famously ran dangerous minefields to be in any way "prosaic" as the comment said. Took out commentary either way about the level of romance of the motivation. 63.209.178.11 (talk) 01:32, 3 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Mobile Bay


text:
Peter Pakosh

Peter Pakosh (June 11, 1911 – February 20, 1999) was co-founder of the Versatile tractor company, and is credited with many inventions and equipment innovations including the modern-day grain auger used by combine harvesters. He is considered an innovator in the field of agricultural machinery on a level with John Deere and Cyrus McCormick.

Versatile was the first company to mass-produce articulated four-wheel drive tractors, starting in 1966 with the D100 and G100 four-wheel drives. Those ground-breaking tractors were primitive by modern standards, with a 6-cylinder diesel or 8-cylinder gas engine producing 100 horsepower. 1966 models sold for less than CA$10,000.

Four-wheel drive demand increased significantly, with Versatile becoming one of the leaders in four-wheel drive development and production. By the late 1970s the Versatile lineup included tractors ranging from 220 to 330 horsepower. With the 1980s came an expanded line of four-wheel drive tractors that stretched to 470 horsepower in the Versatile 1150.

In 1993, the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (formerly EMI), a trade association for manufacturers of agricultural and construction equipment, selected Pakosh as one of "100 Significant Contributors and Contributions to the Mechanization of Agriculture and Construction".

In 2009, the Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters (CME) announced that Pakosh will be inducted into the Manitoba Manufacturers' Hall of Fame as a pioneer.

title: Peter Pakosh


text: User talk:86.129.107.57

title: User talk:86.129.107.57


text:
Garduña

The Garduña is a mythical organized, secret criminal society said to have been founded in Spain in the late Middle Ages. It was said to have been a prison gang that grew into a more organized entity over time, involved with robbery, kidnapping, arson, and murder-for-hire. Its statutes were said to have been approved in Toledo in 1420 after being founded around 1417.

Spanish historians León Arsenal and Hipólito Sanchiz have traced all references to the Garduña back to the 19th-century book Misterios de la inquisición española y otras sociedades secretas de España by Víctor de Fereal (maybe a pseudonym for Madame de Suberwick) and Manuel de Cuendías, published in 1850. Arsenal and Sanchiz doubt the Garduña ever existed.

As a secret society, the Garduña is very attractive for conspiracism, according to the historian Sanchiz. It was supposedly active for over 400 years in Spain and, among other things, it supposedly carried out the dirty work of the Inquisition. In serious Spanish studies about bandolerismo (outlaws) and social disorders (very frequent in Andalusia in the 19th century), there is not a single mention of the Garduña.

Some have claimed that the Garduña was a precursor to the Neapolitan Camorra, a crime syndicate active to this day in southern Italy, and was transplanted when Spain controlled Naples and much of its criminal element was transported (or deported) there. Author David Leon Chandler, in his book "The Criminal Brotherhoods," suggests that the Camorra were an offshoot of The Garduna. This, then, he asserts, means that it is the parent Brotherhood society to Sicilian Cosa Nostra, Camorra, 'Ndrangheta, Sacra Corona Unita, American Cosa Nostra and even, the Unione Corse.

A Calabrian folk song suggests a much larger legacy. It tells the story of three Garduña "brothers" or three Spanish knights who fled Spain in the 17th century after washing with blood the honour of their seduced sister. They were shipwrecked on the island of Favignana, near Sicily.

Additionally, the circumstances surrounding the original shipwreck seem to suggest their main occupations as pirates, and alludes to a connection with pirates throughout the Spanish Empire, including the Americas. Similar traditions are told of three Buddhist monks founding the Chinese Triads.

title: Garduña


text:
Jacques Feyder

Jacques Feyder (21 July 1885 – 24 May 1948) was a Belgian film director, screenwriter and actor who worked principally in France, but also in the US, Britain and Germany. He was a director of silent films during the 1920s, and in the 1930s he became associated with the style of poetic realism in French cinema. He adopted French nationality in 1928.

Career
Born Jacques Léon Louis Frédérix in Ixelles, Belgium, he was educated at the École régimentaire in Nivelles, and was destined for a military career. At age twenty-five however he moved to Paris where he pursued an interest in acting, first on stage and then in film, adopting the name Jacques Feyder. He joined the Gaumont Film Company and in 1914 he became an assistant director with Gaston Ravel. He started directing films for Gaumont in 1916, but his career was interrupted by service with the Belgian Army from 1917 to 1919 during World War I.

After the end of the war, he returned to filmmaking and quickly built a reputation as one of the most innovative directors in French cinema. L'Atlantide (1921) (based on the novel by Pierre Benoit), and Crainquebille (1922) (from the novel by Anatole France) were his first major films to achieve public and critical attention. He followed these with Visages d'enfants (filmed in 1923 but not released until 1925) which proved to be one of his most personal and enduring films. Shortly after this, Feyder was offered a post as artistic director of a new film company, Vita Films, in Vienna, along with a contract to make three films. He made Das Bildnis (L'Image) (1923), but the company failed and he returned to Paris. He re-established himself with Gribiche (1926) and the literary adaptations of Carmen (1926) and Thérèse Raquin (1928). He also contributed screenplays of films for other directors, notably Poil de carotte (1925) for Julien Duvivier, and Gardiens de phare (1929) for Jean Grémillon. His last silent film in France was Les Nouveaux Messieurs, a topical political satire which provoked calls for it to be banned in France for "insulting the dignity of parliament and its ministers".

By this time Feyder had accepted an offer from MGM to work in Hollywood, where in 1929 his first project was directing Greta Garbo in The Kiss, her last silent film. It was in Hollywood that he made the transition to sound films; even before he had worked with sound films, Feyder declared himself to be a firm believer in their future, in contrast with some of his French contemporaries. In 1930, he directed Jetta Goudal in her only French language film made in Hollywood, Le Spectre vert. His subsequent work in the US consisted mainly of directing foreign-language versions of American films, including a German version of Anna Christie, again with Garbo.

Disillusioned with the Hollywood system, Feyder returned to France in 1933. During the next three years he made three of his most successful films, all of them in collaboration with screenwriter Charles Spaak and featuring Françoise Rosay in a leading role. Le Grand Jeu (1934) and Pension Mimosas (1935) were both significant creations in the style of poetic realism; La Kermesse héroïque (1935) (also known as Carnival in Flanders) was a meticulously staged period film which aroused some contemporary political resonances; it earned Feyder several international awards. Feyder went on to direct films in England and Germany prior to the outbreak of World War II, but with diminishing success. Following the Nazi occupation in 1940, which led to the banning of La Kermesse héroïque, he left France for the safety of Switzerland, and directed a last film there, Une femme disparaît (1942).

In 1917, Feyder had married Parisian-born actress Françoise Rosay with whom he had three sons; she acted in many of his films and collaborated with him as writer and assistant director on Visages d'enfants. Jacques Feyder died in 1948 at Prangins, Switzerland, and he was buried in the Cimetière de Sorel Moussel, Eure et Loir, France. A school (lycée) in Épinay-sur-Seine in the north of Paris was named in his honour in 1977; Épinay was the location of the Tobis film studios where Feyder made Le Grand Jeu and Pension Mimosas.

Reputation
In 1944 Feyder and Françoise Rosay published Le Cinéma, notre métier, an autobiographical memoir of their work together in the cinema, in which Feyder stated that he regarded himself as an artisan, a craftsman of filmmaking. Some critics have been content to take him at his word and to look no further for any underlying vision of the world. He was however insistent upon his creative independence, demonstrated by his willingness to make his films in so many different countries if the conditions of production appeared favourable. Recurrent themes in his work include the reckless love of a mysterious or unknown woman (L'Atlantide, L'Image, Carmen, Le Grand Jeu), the gap between reality and the vision that someone has of it (Crainquebille, Gribiche, Les Nouveaux Messieurs, La Kermesse héroïque), and maternal love (Gribiche, Visages d'enfants, Pension Mimosas).

His style was characterised by a classical balance and moderation, composition of images that was beautiful without becoming gratuitous, and a sympathetic rapport with actors. Above all his films achieved an atmosphere of realism, whether through the accumulation of judiciously chosen detail, the use of location shooting, or the use of elaborately designed sets; (he worked closely with Lazare Meerson on several of his films). In this respect, his adherence to a realistic tradition in French cinema was contrasted with the 'impressionist' style of some contemporaries in the 1920s such as Abel Gance, Marcel L'Herbier, and Jean Epstein, and it pointed the way to the vogue for poetic realism which found its fullest expression in the films of Marcel Carné: Carné worked as assistant director to Feyder in the mid-1930s.

Feyder's relatively early death may have contributed to a fading of interest in his films, reinforced by the hostility of some influential critics associated with Cahiers du cinéma in the 1950s. His younger contemporary René Clair judged in 1970, "Jacques Feyder does not occupy today the place his work and his example should have earned him". Any subsequent reassessment has tended to be hampered by the limited availability of his films in English-speaking countries, with the exception of La Kermesse héroïque which some reckon to have aged less well than other examples of his work. These factors have contributed to a sometimes ambivalent attitude to his work as a whole.

Filmography
• 1915: Des pieds et des mains (assistant director)

• 1916: Monsieur Pinson policier

• 1916: Le Bluff

• 1916: Le Pied qui étreint

• 1916: Biscot se trompe d'étage

• 1916: Têtes de femmes, femmes de tête

• 1916: Un conseil d'ami

• 1916: L'Homme de compagnie

• 1916: Tiens, vous êtes à Poitiers?

• 1916: Le Frère de lait

• 1916: La Pièce de dix sous

• 1917: L'Instinct est maître

• 1917: Le Billard cassé

• 1917: Le Pardessus de demi-saison

• 1917: Abrégeons les formalités

• 1917: La Trouvaille de Buchu

• 1917: Les Vieilles Femmes de l'hospice

• 1917: Le Ravin sans fond (co-director)

• 1919: La Faute d'orthographe

• 1921: L'Atlantide

• 1922: Crainquebille

• 1923: Das Bildnis (L'Image/The Portrait)

• 1925: Visages d'enfants

• 1926: Gribiche

• 1926: Carmen

• 1926: Au pays du roi lépreux (uncompleted)

• 1928: Thérèse Raquin

• 1929: Les Nouveaux Messieurs

• 1929: The Kiss

• 1930: Le Spectre vert

• 1930: Si l'empereur savait ça

• 1930: Olympia (German version of Si l'empereur savait ça)

• 1930: Anna Christie (German version)

• 1931: Daybreak

• 1931: Son of India

• 1934: Le Grand Jeu

• 1935: Pension Mimosas

• 1935: La Kermesse héroïque

• 1936: Die Klugen Frauen (German version of La Kermesse héroïque)

• 1937: Knight Without Armour

• 1938: Les Gens du voyage (People Who Travel)

• 1938: Fahrendes Volk (German version of Les Gens du voyage) (Travelling People)

• 1939: La Loi du nord

• 1942: Une femme disparaît

• 1946: Macadam (supervision only)

title: Jacques Feyder


text: Category:Former students of Lincoln College, Oxford


text:
Good Fence

The Good Fence (הגדר הטובה, romanized: HaGader HaTova, Arabic: السياج الجيد, romanized: as-Siyaj al-Jayyid) was a term that referred to Israel's mountainous 80-mile northern border with Lebanon during the period following the 1978 South Lebanon conflict (during Lebanese Civil War). At the time, southern Lebanon was controlled by the Maronite Christian militias and the South Lebanon Army, as the Free Lebanon State (1978–1984) and later the South Lebanon security belt administration.

Background
From the 1948 establishment of the State of Israel until 1970, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet to the point that farmers from the Israeli town of Metula farmed their lands in the Ayoun Valley inside Lebanon. In 1970, after their expulsion from Jordan during Black September, the PLO began taking control over southern Lebanon and violating the tranquility that had prevailed in the area.

History
The beginning of the Good Fence coincides with the beginning of the civil war in Lebanon in 1976 and Israeli support for the predominantly-Maronite militias in southern Lebanon in their battle with the PLO. From 1977, Israel allowed the Maronites and their allies to find employment in Israel and provided assistance in exporting their goods through the Israeli port city of Haifa. The main border crossing through which goods and workers crossed was the Fatima Gate crossing near Metula. This provided essential economic stability to the administration of the Free Lebanon State and the later South Lebanon security belt administration.

Israel states that before 2000, approximately one-third of the ophthalmology patients at Western Galilee Hospital were Lebanese who crossed the border through the Good Fence and received treatment free of charge.

The Good Fence ceased to exist with Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000 and disintegration of the South Lebanon security belt administration and the SLA militia.

title: Good Fence