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History of Dalmatia

The History of Dalmatia concerns the history of the area that covers eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and its inland regions, from the 2nd century BC up to the present day. The region was populated by Illyrian tribes around 1,000 B.C, including the Delmatae, who formed a kingdom and for whom the province is named. Later it was conquered by Rome, thus becoming the province of Dalmatia, part of the Roman Empire. Dalmatia was ravaged by barbaric tribes in the beginning of the 4th century.

Slavs started settling in the area in the 6th and 7th century, including Croats. These Slavic arrivals created the Kingdom of Croatia and other Slavic principalities. Byzantium, Hungary, Venice and the Ottoman Empire all fought for control of Dalmatia. In the south the Republic of Ragusa (1358-1808) emerged. The Republic of Venice, from 1420 to 1797 controlled a significant part of Dalmatia (see Venetian Dalmatia). In 1527 the Kingdom of Croatia became a Habsburg crown land, and in 1812 the Kingdom of Dalmatia was formed. In 1918, Dalmatia was a part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, Dalmatia became part of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in SR Croatia.

Illyria and the Delmatae
Main articles: Illyria, Ilyrians, Delmatae, Illyro-Roman Wars, Roman-Dalmatian Wars

From around the 10th century B.C., the eastern shore of the Adriatic was inhabited by the Illyrians, a West Balkan Indo-European people. Starting in the 8th century B.C. a number of Illyrian kingdoms were established in the region. These kingdoms traded with and were influenced by neighboring Greek kingdoms. The Greek historian, Polybius, gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae (Greek: Πολυδυνάστες) where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers.

Three Greek colonies were established on Dalmatian islands, at Pharos (Hvar), Issa (Vis) and Black Korkyra (Korčula), In 229 B.C, Rome started a series of wars, known as the Illyro-Roman Wars, to conquer Illyria, which continued for over 200 years, until 9 A.D..A key role in the Second Roman-Illyro War was played by Demetrius of Pharos (Hvar), who is described as either Greek, half-Greek, or Illyrian In 222 B,C. he became regent of the Illyrian Ardiaean Kingdom. He detached Illyria from its alliance with Rome and re-established its traditional ties with Macedonia, then led a fleet of 90 ships all the way to the Cyclades in Greece.

In 180 BC the Illyrian tribe, the Delmatae, from which Dalmatia derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a republic. Its capital was Delminium (current name Tomislavgrad); its territory stretched northwards from the river Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. After the fall of the Illyrian Ardiaei Kingdom in southern, the Dalmatae posed the greatest force against the Romans in their conquest of Illyria. A series of Roman-Dalmatian Wars were fought for control of Dalmatia, The first war in 156 BC – 155 BC finished with the destruction of the Dalmatian capital Delminium by the Roman army. Additional wars were fought 118-117 BC and 78 BC-76 BC, the latter finishing with Rome's capture of the Dalmatian stronghold of Salona (near modern Split, Croatia). Further uprisings against Rome occurred in 34. B.C., ending with Rome's capturer of the Dalmatian capital of Klis, and during the Great Illyrian Revolt against Rome in 6 - 9 A.D, which involved half a million combatants, auxiliaries and civilians.

Roman domination
Following the end of the Illyrian wars the Romanization of Dalmatia began, similar as in conquered Gaul and Hispania. The Roman province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast. Its capital was the city of Salona (Solin). Emperor Diocletian made Dalmatia famous by building a palace for himself a few kilometers south of Salona, in Aspalathos/Spalatum. Other Dalmatian cities at the time were: Tarsatica, Senia, Vegium, Aenona, Iader, Scardona, Tragurium, Aequum, Oneum, Issa, Pharus, Bona, Corcyra Nigra, Narona, Epidaurus, Rhizinium, Acruvium, Olcinium, Scodra, Epidamnus/Dyrrachium.

The Roman Emperor Diocletian (ruled AD 284 to 305) reformed the government in the late Roman Empire and established the Tetrarchy. This new system for the first time divided rule of the empire into the Western and Eastern courts, each headed by a person with the title of Augustus. Each of the two Augusti also had an appointed successor, a Caesar, who administered about half the district belonging to his own Augustus (and was subordinate to him). In Diocletian's division, Dalmatia fell under the rule of the Eastern Court, headed by Diocletian, but was administered by his Caesar and appointed successor Galerius, who had his seat in the city of Sirmium. In AD 395, the Emperor Theodosius I permanently divided Imperial rule by granting his two sons the position of Augusti separately in the West and the East. This time, however, Spalatum and Dalmatia fell under the Western Court of Honorius, not the Eastern Court.

In 468 Flavius Julius Nepos became the ruler of the province of Dalmatia. Four years later, in the spring of 472, the Western Emperor Anthemius was murdered by his Germanic general Ricimer; the appointment of his successor legally fell to Emperor Leo I the Thracian of the Eastern Court. Leo however tarried in his appointment. Ricimer, along with his nephew Gundobad, appointed Olybrius and then Glycerius as their puppet emperors in the West. This was not recognized by Leo I and the Eastern Court, who considered them usurpers. In 473 Leo appointed Flavius Julius Nepos, the ruler of Dalmatia, as the legal Western Emperor. In June 474, Nepos sailed across the Adriatic, entered Ravenna (the seat of the Western court), forced Glycerius to abdicate, and secured the throne. However, next year his Magister militum Orestes forced Nepos to flee back to Salona (on 28 August 475). Romulus Augustulus, the son of Orestes, was proclaimed Emperor within a few months, but was deposed the following year after the execution of his father. Odoacer, the general who deposed Romulus Augustulus, did not appoint a puppet emperor, but instead, for his part, abolished the Western court altogether. Julius Nepos, however, continued to rule in Dalmatia until 480 as the sole legal Emperor of the West (Dalmatia still being de jure a part of the Western court's administration).

Byzantine Rule
Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 481 A.D. Dalmatia briefly fell under Gothic rulers who had also conquered Italy - Odoacer and Theodoric the Great. During the rule of the Ostrogoths, Dalmatia was united with the Pannonian area south of the Drava river into a single military-administrative unit, which was governed from Salona.

In 545, during Justinian I's war against the Ostrogoths, Dalmatia became part of the Greek-dominated Byzantine Empire. Ruled from Constantinople, it became a Byzantine province, still associated with Pannonia. The 6th and 7th century saw the gradual arrival of the Slavs and Avars into the territory of Dalmatia, conquering a number of Dalmatian cities (Salona, Epidaurum, Delminium, etc.).The traditional borders between the provinces disappeared, and the direct Byzantine possessions were reduced to a narrow coastal strip of towns and islands, with the hinterland becoming Slavic.

In 751 what remained of Byzantine Dalmatia (the coastal cities of Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotor and the islands of Krk, Lošinj, Cres and Rab) was organized into a separate Dalmatian theme, which was managed by a Byzantine strategist in Zadar. Throughout the following centuries, effectively until the early 13th century and the Fourth Crusade, the city of Split remained a possession of the Byzantine emperors, even though its hinterland would seldom be under Byzantine control, and de facto suzerainty over the city would often be exercised by Croatian, Venetian, or Hungarian rulers. Overall, the city enjoyed significant autonomy during this time, due to the periodic weakness and/or preoccupation of the Byzantine Imperial administration.

Middle Ages

Following the great Slavic migration into Illyria in the first half of the 6th century, Dalmatia became distinctly divided between two different communities:
 * The hinterland, semi-depopulated by the Barbarian Invasions, Slavic tribes settled - which were roughly Croats. There were also the Romanized Illyrian natives, and Celts in the north.
 * The Byzantine enclaves populated by the native Romance-speaking descendants of Romans and Illyrians (speaking Dalmatian), who lived safely in Ragusa, Iadera, Tragurium, Spalatum and some other coastal towns, like Cattaro.

Duchy of Croatia
With the arrival and conquest by the Slavs who started organizing their own principalities, the Roman province of Dalmatia in the sense of a political subject with the name of Dalmatia by the 9th century fell to the narrow coastal-island Theme of Dalmatia (existed between c. 870s-1060s) which was under Byzantine influence and control.

The most significant Slavic principality founded on the former large province of Dalmatia was the Duchy of Croatia and Borna of Croatia (803–821) is one of the earliest recorded rulers in Dalmatia. In 806, Dalmatia was temporarily added to the Frankish Empire, but the cities were restored to Byzantium by the Treaty of Aachen in 812. The treaty had also slightly expanded the Duchy of Dalmatia eastwards.

The establishment of cordial relations between the cities and the Croatian dukedom began with the reign of Duke Mislav (835), who signed an official peace treaty with Pietro, doge of Venice in 840 and who also started giving land donations to the churches from the cities. Dalmatia's Croatian Duke Trpimir (ruled 845–864), founder of the House of Trpimir, greatly expanded the new Duchy to include territories all the way to the river of Drina, thereby covering the entirety of Bosnia in his wars against the Bulgar Khans and their Serbian subjects. The Saracens had raided the southernmost cities in 840 and 842, but this threat was eliminated by a common Frankish-Byzantine campaign of 871.

Since the time of duke Branimir of Croatia, Venetians had to pay taxes to Croatia and to the Narentines for their ships traveling along the eastern Adriatic coast, while the Dalmatian city-states paid 710 ducats of tribute to the Croatian ruler.

Duke Tomislav had created the Kingdom of Croatia in 924 or 925, and was crowned in Tomislavgrad after defending and annexing the Principality of Pannonia. His powerful realm extended influence further southwards to Duklja. Between 986 and 990, king Stephen Držislav was awarded by the Byzantine Emperor Basil II the title Patriarch and an Exarch of Dalmatia, which gave him formal authority over the Theme of Dalmatia (but some historians believe not over the Dalmatian city-states). According to Thomas the Archdeacon, Stephen Držislav received royal insignia and the titles as an act of recognition from the Byzantine Emperor, becoming reges Dalmatie et Chroatie and his descendants having the same titles.

As the Littoral Croatian Duchy became a Kingdom after 925, its capitals were in Dalmatia: Biaći, Nin, Split, Knin, Solin and elsewhere. Also, the Croatian noble tribes, who had a right to choose Croatian duke (later the king), were from Dalmatia: Karinjani and Lapčani, Polečići, Tugomirići, Kukari, Snačići, Gusići, Šubići (from which later developed very powerful noble family Zrinski), Mogorovići, Lačničići, Jamometići and Kačić. Within the borders of ancient Roman Dalmatia, the Croatian nobles of Krk, or Krčki (from which later developed very powerful noble family Frankopan) were from Dalmatia as well.

Meanwhile, the Croatian kings exacted tribute from the Byzantine cities, Tragurium, Iadera and others, and consolidated their own power in the purely Croatian-settled towns such as Nin, Biograd and Šibenik. The city of Šibenik was founded by Croatian kings. They also ascertained control over the bordering southern duchies. Rulers of the medieval Croatian state who had control over the Dalmatian littoral and the cities were the dukes Trpimir, Domagoj, Branimir, and the kings Tomislav, Trpimir II, Krešimir I, Stjepan Držislav, Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir.

Southern Dalmatia
The area of Southern Dalmatia was divided among four small principalities called Pagania, Zahumlje, Travunia and Duklja. Pagania was a minor duchy between Cetina and Neretva. The territories of Zahumlje and Travunia spread much further inland than the current borders of Dalmatia. Duklja (the Roman Doclea) began south of Dubrovnik and spread down to the Skadar Lake.

Pagania
Pagania was given its name because of the paganism of its inhabitants, when neighbouring tribes were Christian. The pirate-like people of Pagania/Narenta (named after river Narenta) expressed their buccaneering capabilities by pirateering the Venetian-controlled Adriatic between 827 and 828, while the Venetian fleet was further afield, in the Sicilian waters. As soon as the fleet of the Venetian Republic returned, the Neretvians fell back; when the Venetians left, the Neretvians would immediately embark on new raids. In 834 and 835, they caught and killed several Venetian traders returning from Benevent. To punish the Neretvians, the Venetian Doge launched a military expedition against them in 839. The war continued with the inclusion of the Dalmatian Croats, but a truce was quickly signed, although, only with the Dalmatian Croats and some of the Pagan tribes. In 840, the Venetians launched an expedition against the Neretvian Prince Ljudislav, but without success. In 846, a new operation was launched that raided the Slavic land of Pagania, destroying one of her most important cities (''Kaorle). '' This did not end the Neretvian resistance, as they continued to raid and steal from the Venetian occupators.

It was not until 998 that the Venetians gained the upper hand. Doge Peter II Orseolo finally crushed the Neretvians and assumed the title duke of the Dalmatians (Dux Dalmatianorum), though without conflicting Byzantine suzerainty. In 1050, the Neretvians where part of Kingdom of Croatia under King Stjepan I.

Zahumlje
Zahumlje got its name from the mountain of Hum near Bona, where the river of Buna flowed. It included two old cities: Bona and Hum. Zahumlje included parts of modern-day regions of Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia. Zahumlje's first known ruler was Michael of Zahumlje, he was mentioned together with Tomislav of Croatia in Pope John X's letter of 925. In that same year, he participated in the first church councils in Split. Michael, with grand titles of the Byzantine court as anthypatos and patrician (patrikios), remained ruler of Zahumlje through the 940s, while maintaining good relations with the Pope.

Travunia
Travunia was initially a town, present-day Trebinje, that was promoted to a fief during the rule of Vlastimir of Serbia, when he married his daughter to nobleman Krajina Belojević. It was ruled by this family until the next century, when Boleslav Petrović, the son of Predimir ruled Serbia. At this time it had the following Župania: Libomir, Vetanica, Rudina, Crusceviza, Vrmo, Rissena, Draceviza, Canali, Gernoviza. It is annexed during the rule of Pavle Branović.

Dragomir Hvalimirović restores the title of Travunia, but is murdered in the 1010s, and the maritime lands are annexed by the Byzantines, and then Serbia. Grdeša, of unknown genealogy, is given the rule of Travunia under Uroš II Prvoslav. It is part of Serbia until 1377, when Bosnian Ban Tvrtko takes the area.

Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Hungary

As the Dalmatian city-states gradually lost all protection by Byzantium, being unable to unite in a defensive league hindered by their internal dissensions, they had to turn to either Venice or Hungary for support. Each of the two political factions had support within the Dalmatian city states, based mostly on economic reasons.

The Venetians, to whom the Dalmatians were already bound by language and culture, could afford to concede liberal terms as its main goal was to prevent the development of any dangerous political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. The seafaring community in Dalmatia looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in money or in kind. Arbe (Rab), for example, annually paid ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice.

Hungary, on the other hand, defeated the last Croat king in 1097 and laid claim on all lands of the Croatian noblemen since the treaty 1102. King Coloman proceeded to conquer Dalmatia in 1102–1105. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favoured Hungary as their most powerful neighbour on land that affirmed their municipal privileges. Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality.

These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed. Hungarian garrisons were being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered with trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. Consequently, the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred. Even in Zara four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although Zadar was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy. The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy, and by many outside influences.

In 1202 the crusaders had an agreement with Venice for transport to the Holy Land, and as payment Venice set the condition that the crusaders help them capture Zadar (or Zara), Despite Pope Innocent III forbidding such an attack on a Christian city, the Venetians and the crusaders attacked and sacked the city, forcing its inhabitants to flee, for which the Pope excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders. After wintering in Zadar, the Fourth Crusade continued its campaign, which led to the siege of Constantinople. In 1204 the same army conquered Byzantium and finally eliminated the Eastern Empire from the list of contenders on Dalmatian territory. The early 13th century was marked by a decline in external hostilities. The Dalmatian cities started accepting foreign sovereignty (mainly of the Republic of Venice) but eventually they reverted to their previous desire for independence. The Mongol invasion severely impaired Hungary, so much that in 1241, the king Béla IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia (in the Klis fortress). The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew.

The Croats were no longer regarded by the city folk as a hostile people, in fact the power of certain Croatian magnates, notably the counts Šubić of Bribir, was from time to time supreme in the northern districts (in the period between 1295 and 1328). In 1344, the citizens of Zadar again rebelled against Venetian rule. The Venetians put down the rebellion with 20,000 - to 30,000 troops and their navy during the 1345-1346 Siege of Zadar. In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor, and the cities became more and more dependent on Venice.

Expansion under Stephen II
Stephen II was the Bosnian Ban from 1314, but in reality from 1322 to 1353 together with his brother, Vladislav Kotromanić in 1326–1353. By 1326 Ban Stephen II attacked Serbia in a military alliance with the Republic of Ragusa and conquered Zahumlje (what will later become Hum), gaining more of Adriatic Sea coast, from mouth of the Neretva to Konavle, with areas significant Orthodox population under Archbishopric of Ohrid and mixed Orthodox and Catholic population in coastal areas and around Ston. He also expanded into Završje, including the fields of Glamoč, Duvno and Livno. Immediately after the death of Serbian King Stefan Uroš II Milutin in 1321, he had no problem in acquiring his lands of Usora and Soli, which he fully incorporated in 1324.

When an all-out war broke out between the armies of Prince Ivan Nelipić and Juraj II Šubić in the Summer of 1324, Ban Stephen II contributed considerable support to the Šubićs, without involving his forces into clashes. Prince Nelipac massacred Šubić's party near Knin, and immediately pushed the fight against Ban Stephen II, and managed to capture city of Visuća, but Stephen's shrewd politics and willingness to bestow his nobility with privileges had paid off, as Vuk of Vukoslavić family had helped him to retake the city. Although Stephen's military ambitions were only relatively successful, he continued to wage war against the enemies of the Šubić, the Nelipićs. His target was the city of Trogir which was one of the major supporters of Nelipić's campaigning. Stephen adopted a harsh tactic. His forces raided Caravans from Trogir, which eventually forced its denizens to humbly sign a peace and addressed him as the high and mighty lord Stephen free ruler and master of Bosnia, Usora and Soli and many other places and Prince of the Hum.

Throughout his reign in the fourteenth century, Stephen ruled the lands from Sava to the Adriatic and from Cetina to Drina. He doubled the size of his state and achieved full independence from surrounding countries.

In 1346 Zadar finally returned to Venice, and the Hungarian King, seeing that he had lost the war, made peace in 1348. Ban of Croatia Mladen II Šubić was greatly opposed to Stephen II's policy, accusing him of treason and the relations between the two Bans worsened ever afterwards. By 1342 the Franciscan Vicariat of Bosnia was established. During the reign of Stjepan II Kotromanić all three churches (Bosnian Church, Orthodox, Catholic) were active in Bosnian Banate.

Expansion under Tvrtko I
Stephen Tvrtko, the founder of the Bosnian kingdom, was able in 1389 to annex the Adriatic littoral between Kotor (Cattaro) and Šibenik, and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Fiume (Rijeka) except for the Venetian-ruled Zara (Zadar), and his own independent ally, Ragusa (Dubrovnik). This was only temporary, as the Hungarians and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia as soon as Tvrtko died in 1391. An internal struggle of Hungary, between king Sigismund and the Neapolitan house of Anjou, also reflected on Dalmatia: in the early 15th century, all Dalmatian cities welcomed the Neapolitan fleet except for Dubrovnik (Ragusa).

The Bosnian duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić controlled Dalmatia for the Angevins, but later switched loyalty to Sigismund. Over the period of twenty years, this struggle weakened the Hungarian influence. In 1409, Ladislaus of Naples sold his rights over Dalmatia to Venice for 100,000 Ducats. Venice gradually took over most of Dalmatia by 1420. In 1437, Sigismund recognized Venetian rule over Dalmatia in return for 100,000 Ducats. The city of Omiš yielded to Venice in 1444. From 1448 up to 1482 the Duchy of St. Sava, led by the Kosača noble family, held Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia, from Omiš and Imotski to the Pelješac border with the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and the Bay of Kotor. In 1482 it was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire, thus only the Republic of Ragusa remained independent.

The Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik Republic)

The history of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) goes back to at least to the 7th century. After the fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, the town came under the protection of the Byzantine Empire. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Dubrovnik grew into an oligarchic republic, and benefited by becoming a commercial outpost for the Serbian and Bosnian states. After the Crusades, Dubrovnik came under the sovereignty of Venice (1205–1358). Ragusa grew by purchasing the island of Lastovo, Pelješac and Ston from Serbia. By the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Dubrovnik achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary.Between the 14th century and 1808, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a free state, although it was a tributary from 1382 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire. The Republic reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, when its thalassocracy sent its ships as far as India and America, rivalling the Republic of Venice and other Italian maritime states. The city became a cradle of culture, particularly in literature written in the local Slavic language, which became a foundation stone for present day Croatian.

Language
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Illyrian towns on the Dalmatian coast continued to speak Latin and their language evolved relatively independent from other Romance languages, progressing towards a regional variant and finally to a distinct neo-Latin language called Dalmatian (today extinct). The earliest reference on the language dates from the 10th century and it is estimated that about 50,000 people spoke it at that time along the eastern Adriatic in the Dalmatian coast from Fiume (Rijeka) as far south as Kotor (Cattaro) in Montenegro (according to the linguist Matteo Bartoli). The Dalmatian speakers lived mainly in the coastal towns of Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotor (Zara, Traù, Spalato, Ragusa and Cattaro in Italian and in Dalmatian), each of these cities having a local dialect, and also on the islands of Krk, Cres and Rab (Veglia, Cherso and Arbe).

Almost every city developed its own dialect, but the most important dialects we have information on are the Vegliot a northern dialect, spoken on the island of Krk (Veglia in Italian, Vikla in Dalmatian) and the Ragusan', a southern dialect, spoken at Dubrovnik (Ragusa in both Italian and Dalmatian). The dialect of Zara disappeared merging with Venetian because of the strong and long lasting influence of Republic of Venice, as did the two other dialects even to the assimilation by Slavic speakers. We know about the Dalmatian dialect of Ragusa from two letters, from 1325 and 1397, and many medieval texts, which show a language influenced heavily by Venetian. The available sources include hardly 260 Ragusan words. Surviving words include pen (bread), teta (father), chesa (house) and fachir (to do), which were quoted by an Italian, Fillipo Diversi, the head of school of Ragusa in the 1430s.

The once rival Romanic and Slavic population eventually started contributing to a common civilization, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was the primary example of this. According to the analysis of the anthroponyms of the Dalmatian city-states Split and Trogir in the 11th century, it is estimated that 25% of upper class and 50% of citizens of Split had Slavic/Slavicized names, while both in Trogir were predominantly Slavic/Slavicized. By the 13th century, the councilmen from Ragusan names were mixed, and in the 15th century the Ragusan literature was even written in the Slavic language (from which Croatian is directly descended), and the city was often called by its Slavic name, Dubrovnik.

Religion
The Christian schism was an important factor in the history of Dalmatia. While the Croatian-held branch of the Catholic Church in Nin was under Papal jurisdiction, they still used the Slavic liturgy. Both the Latin population of the cities and the Holy See preferred the Latin liturgy, which created tensions between different dioceses. The Croatian population preferred domestic priests, who were married and bearded, and held masses in Croatian, so they were understood.

The great schism between Eastern and Western Christianity 1054 further intensified the rift between the coastal cities and the hinterland, with some of the Slavs in the Southeastern Dalmatia preferring the Eastern Orthodoxy. Areas of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina also had an indigenous Bosnian Church which was often mistaken for Bogomils.

The Latin influence in Dalmatia was increased and the Byzantine practices were further suppressed on the general synods 1059–1060, 1066, 1075–1076 and on other local synods, notably by demoting the bishopric of Nin, installing the archbishoprics of Spalatum (Split) and Dioclea (Montenegro), and explicitly forbidding use of any liturgy other than Greek or Latin.

In the period of the rise of the Grand Principality of Serbia, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the southern Dalmatian states by the end of the 12th century, where the population was Catholic and founded bishopric of Zahumlje with see in Ston. The Nemanjić Serbia controlled several of the southern coastal cities, notably Kotor (Cattaro) and Bar (Antivari).

Culture
Dalmatia never attained a political or racial unity and never formed as a nation, but it achieved a remarkable development of art, science and literature. Politically, the neolatin Dalmatian city-states were often isolated and compelled to either fall back on the Venetian Republic for support, or tried to make it on their own. The geographical position of the Dalmatian city states suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535–1102) during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to become merely nominal, while the influence of the Republic of Venice increased.

The medieval Dalmatia had still included much of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia. However, the toponym of "Dalmatia" started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. By the 15th century, the word "Herzegovina" would be introduced, marking the shrink of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area.

The Republic of Venice and Ottoman Empire (15th-18th century)
The Republic of Venice, from 1420 to 1797 controlled a significant part of Dalmatia (see Venetian Dalmatia). An interval of peace ensued, but meanwhile the Ottoman advance continued. During the arrival of the Ottomans, the islands and coastal part were controlled by Venice while most of the Dalmatian hinterland by the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom. Christian kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouring Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders, and in one particular instance, actually sold two small strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans in order to prevent land access from the Venetian territory.

In 1508 the hostile League of Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service, and after the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia by 1537 (first forming Croatian vilayet in the 1520s), when the Siege of Klis ended with the fall of the Klis Fortress to the Ottomans and formation of the Sanjak of Klis which was part of the Eyalet of Bosnia. With the fall of the Hungarian-Venetian border in Dalmatia, Venetian Dalmatia now directly bordered with the Ottoman Empire. Venetians still perceived this inner hinterland as once part of Croatia calling it as "Banadego" (lands of Ban i.e. Banate). Venetian Dalmatia between 1420 and 1797 controlled the most and crucial maritime points in Eastern Adriatic, while Ottoman Dalmatia between 1499 and 1646 had entrance to the sea between Omiš and Poljica and in Obrovac.

Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Romanic population even more, and making their language the primary one. The pirate community of the "uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, esp. near Senia; its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey (1571–1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners is presented by the Venetian agents, whose reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the Middle Ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto, for example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.

The Venetian Republic promised the peasant population of the hinterland freedom from feudal bounds in return for their military service. The Roman Catholic Church, as the religion of both the Venetians and the Croats, exerted the majority influence over the region. The Serbian Patriarchate of Peć (later known as Serbian Orthodox Church) was also significantly active in Dalmatia, but mostly in Ottoman Dalmatia where a good part of Christian population converted to Islam. Orthodox Slavs mostly came as martolos in Ottoman service, and Orthodoxy is related to the Ottoman history of the region, and Orthodox Dalmatia (as is known among Serbs) emerged due to Ottoman and Venetian conquests resulting in later confessional borders of the Catholic and Orthodox population in Dalmatia.

During the War of Candia in 1645 - 1669 and the Great Turkish War in 1683 - 1699, and the peace of Karlowitz, Venice received almost whole of Dalmatia as far south as Ston, as well as the region beyond Ragusa, from Sutorina to Boka kotorska. After the Venetian-Turkish war 1714–1718, Venetian territorial gains were confirmed by the 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz. Dalmatia experienced a period of intense economic and cultural growth in the 18th century, given how trade routes with the hinterland were reestablished in peace. Because the Venetians were able to reclaim some of the inland territories in the north during the Turkish wars, the toponym of Dalmatia was no longer restricted to the coastline and the islands. The border between the Dalmatian hinterland and the Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina greatly fluctuated until the Morean War, when the Venetian capture of Knin and Sinj set much of the borderline at its current position. This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.

Dalmatia in the Napoleonic Era
Later in 1797, in the treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon I gave Dalmatia to Austria in return for Belgium. The republics of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Poljica retained their independence, and Ragusa grew rich by its neutrality during the earlier Napoleonic wars. By the Peace of Pressburg in 1805, Istria, Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor were handed over to France.

In 1805 Napoleon created his Kingdom of Italy around the Adriatic sea, annexing to it the former Venetian Dalmatia from Istria to Cattaro (Kotor).

In 1806, the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) finally succumbed to French troops under general Marmont. The same year a Montenegrin force supported by the Russians tried to contest the French by seizing Boka Kotorska. The allied forces pushed the French to Ragusa. The Russians induced the Montenegrins to render aid and they proceeded to take the islands of Korčula and Brač but made no further progress, and withdrew in 1807 under the Treaty of Tilsit. The Republic of Ragusa was officially annexed to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in 1808.

In 1809, the War of the Fifth Coalition broke out, and French and Austrian forces also fought in the Dalmatian Campaign (1809). In the summer, Austrian forces retook Dalmatia, but this lasted only until the Treaty of Schönbrunn, when Austria ceded a number of additional provinces north of Dalmatia to France, so Napoleon removed Dalmatia from his Kingdom of Italy and created the Illyrian Provinces.

The major part of the Dalmatian population was Roman Catholic. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Dalmatia had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "Dalmatians", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.

Habsburg Austrian rule
In the course of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the Austrian Empire declared war on France in 1813, restored control over Dalmatia by 1815 and formed a temporary Kingdom of Illyria. In 1822, this was eliminated and Dalmatia was placed under Austrian administration.

As elsewhere in 19th century Europe, nationalism emerged in Dalmatia, with the Slavic-speaking populace increasingly identifying as Croats and Serbs, and Italian-speakers as Italians. The Habsburg Empire had its own agenda in Dalmatia, that opposed the formation of the Italian state in the Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states, but supported the development of Italian culture in Dalmatia, maintaining a delicate balance that primarily served its own interests. At the time, the vast majority of the rural population spoke Croatian while the city aristocracy spoke Italian. In the first Austrian census of 1865 Italian-speakers accounted for 12.5% of the population, including those who came from Italy and Slavs Italianized under Venetian rule The Italian-leaning high society initially promulgated the idea of a separate Dalmatian national identity under the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian monarchy (not necessarily unified with Italy), which, coupled with a property census that gave them disproportional political representation, sought to maintain the privileged social status they enjoyed under Venice.

In the 1860s two main political factions appeared in Dalmatia. The first was the pro-Croatian or unionist one, led by the People's Party and the Party of Rights, which advocated for a union of Dalmatia with the remaining part of Croatia that was under Hungarian administration. The second was the autonomist, pro-Italian, called the Autonomist Party. In the first election of 1861 the Autonomists won a majority, but as voting rights were expanded to citizens with less property, the Croatian parties gained the majority in 1870. Much of the disputes centered around language, with local Italian administrators, contrary to Austrian laws, declaring only Italian the official language, and Italian representatives also insisted it be the only official language in newly formed Dalmatian parliament.

Among Croatians, who constituted a majority of the inhabitants of Dalmatia. a pan-South-Slavic, Illyrian movement emerged in the first half of the 19th century. This movement aimed to create a Croatian national establishment in Austria-Hungary through linguistic and ethnic unity, and through it lay the foundation for cultural and linguistic unification of all South Slavs under the revived umbrella term Illyrian, part of the Croatian national revival (Croatian: Hrvatski narodni preporod). In the 1860's more nationalist Croatian leaders like Ante Starcević and Eugen Kvaternik saw Austria as their main enemy and espoused Croatian self-determination. In Dalmatia the increasing nationalism had the form of seeking union of Dalmatia with other Croatian lands in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and asserting language rights for the Croatian majority, rights they saw as suppressed by the Italian-speaking elite.

Many Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after 1866, when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Austrian Littoral, Fiume and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Dalmatia, fostering the nascent nationalism of Slovenes and Croats. During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:

"His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol, Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established."

Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,  but this was reduced to 20% in 1816. According to Austrian censuses, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865, but this was reduced to 2.8% in 1910. In Dalmatia there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations. During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive anti-Italian policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia.

The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of Split in 1890 there were 1,969 Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in Zadar 7,423 (64.6%), in Šibenik 1,018 (14.5%), in Kotor 623 (18.7%) and in Dubrovnik 331 (4.6%). In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced a sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890-1910, in Rab they went from 225 to 151, in Vis from 352 to 92, in Pag from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations.

The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the unionists and autonomists were allied together, against centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they split. A third splintering happened when the local Orthodox population, few of whom were nationally conscious Serbs, heard of the ideas of unification of all Serbs through of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which acted as Serbia's agit-prop agency abroad. As a result, Serbian Orthodox population started to side with the autonomists and irredentists rather than the unionists.

First half of the 20th century
In 1909 Italian lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only (previously both languages were recognized): thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.

In World War I, Austria-Hungary was defeated and it disintegrated, which helped solve the internal political conflict in Dalmatia. Under the Treaty of London 1915, Italy was to attain the northern Dalmatia (including the cities of Zadar, Sebenico (Šibenik) and Knin), but after World War I Italy obtained only a reduced area. After the war, Dalmatia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after negotiations, only Zadar (officially called "Zara" in Italian) and the islands of Cherso (Cres), Lussino (Lussinj) and Lagosta (Lastovo) remained part of the Kingdom of Italy. When the Croatian Banate was in 1939 formed, the biggest part of Dalmatia was in it.

In April 1941, during World War II, the Axis powers invaded and conquered Yugoslavia. A month later, large sections of Dalmatia were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy (in the Governorate of Dalmatia), the rest being formally left to the Independent State of Croatia, but in reality occupied by Italian forces which later supported Chetniks in Serb-populated areas.

Many Croats from Dalmatia joined the resistance movement led by Tito's Partisans, while others joined the fascist Croatia of Ante Pavelić. The result was a terrible guerrilla war that ravaged all Dalmatia.

In September 1943, following the capitulation of Italy, large sections of Dalmatia were temporarily controlled by Partisans, only to be reoccupied, this time by the German Wehrmacht. In later stages of the war, many Dalmatian Croats went in exile, through fear of the Third Reich's vindictive actions, especially after strong rumours that a second front would be formed and that there would be an invasion on the Croatian coast. In the second of half 1944, Partisans, supplied by the Allies, finally took control of all Dalmatia. The Italian population of Dalmatia, concentrated in Zara, suffered huge civilian losses due to allies bombardments in 1944.

After 1945, most of the remaining Dalmatian Italians fled the region (350,000 Italians escaped from Istria and Dalmatia in the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus). They were treated as remnants of the occupation force and were given an option to leave for Italy. Some died in the so-called foibe massacres, although this was more common in Istria and elsewhere than in Dalmatia. The "disappearance" of the Italian speaking populations in Dalmatia was nearly complete after World War II. The Italians were 33% of the Dalmatian population in 1803, while currently there are only 300 Italians in the Croatian Dalmatia and 500 Italians in coastal Montenegro.

After the World War II, Dalmatia was divided between three republics of socialist Yugoslavia - almost all of the territory went to Croatia, leaving Cattaro Bay of Kotor to Montenegro and a small strip of coast at Neum to Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Breakup of Yugoslavia
In 1990, when Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, Croatian leadership announced their intention to declare independence, which they would indeed declare in 1991. The first Dalmatian battlefields of what would later be called the Homeland war (Domovinski rat) appeared in sections of northern Dalmatia, where there lived a significant population of Serbs. They rebelled, under encouragement and with assistance from a variety of Serbian nationalist circles, and organized their own SAO Kninska Krajina and started the so-called Log Revolution. The center of this restive area was in the northern Dalmatian town of Knin.

This Serb-held region later morphed into the SAO Krajina, and later yet it would become the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK), combined with other Serb-held regions across Croatia. The establishment of the RSK was helped by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), as well as paramilitary troops that came from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbian forces had a prevalence in equipment and munitions because of JNA support, and they proceeded to commit various acts of terrorism, including shelling attacks on civilian targets.

The Yugoslav People's Army operated from their barracks, that were mostly positioned in bigger cities and strategically important points. In some bigger cities JNA had built large residential blocs, and in the opening stages of the war it was believed that those buildings would be used by sharpshooters or for reconnaissance purposes.

The battle for the control of Dalmatia during the Croatian War of Independence was fought on three main fronts:
 * the land front between Knin and the cities of Zadar, Šibenik and Sinj - see Operation Coast-91
 * the sea front near the city of Split - see Battle of the Dalmatian channels
 * the land front near the border with Montenegro and Herzegovina - see Siege of Dubrovnik

First attempts to take over JNA facilities occurred in August in Sinj and failed, but the major action took place in September 1991. Croatian Army and police were then more successful, although most of the objects taken were repair shops, warehouses and similar facilities, either poorly defended or commanded by officers sympathetic to the Croatian cause. Major bases, commanded by die-hard officers and manned by reservists from Montenegro and Serbia, became the object of standoffs that usually ended with JNA personnel and equipment being evacuated under supervision of EEC observers. This process was completed shortly after the Sarajevo armistice in January 1992.

All non-Serb population was ethnically cleansed from controlled areas, notably the villages of Škabrnja (Škabrnja massacre) and Kijevo (siege of Kijevo). Croatian refugees, tens of thousands of them, found shelter in many of the Dalmatian coastal towns where they were placed in empty tourist facilities.

On 2 May 1991, the 1991 anti-Serb riot in Zadar happened, in which 168 Serb-owned shops were looted by Croatian civilians to stop new Serbian terrorist actions against non-Serb population on that area.

By early 1992, the military positions were mostly entrenched, and further expansion of the RSK was stopped. The Serbian forces continued terrorist actions by way of random shelling of Croatian cities, and this continued occasionally over the next four years.

Besides the northern hinterland that bordered with Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav People's Army also occupied sections of southern Dalmatia around Dubrovnik, as well as the islands of Vis and Lastovo. These lasted until 1992.

The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed throughout the UNPA zones, including those in northern Dalmatia, as well as on Prevlaka. The Croatian government gradually restored control over all of Dalmatia, in the following military operations:
 * September 1991: September War for Šibenik - successful defence of Šibenik from JNA onslaught and takeover of JNA bases in the area.
 * May and July 1992: Operation Tiger, JNA was forced to retreat from Vis, Lastovo, Mljet and areas around Dubrovnik.
 * July 1992: Miljevci Heights in Šibenik hinterland, near Drniš, were liberated in the Miljevci Plateau incident
 * January 1993: Operation Maslenica, Croatian forces liberated Zadar and Biograd hinterland.
 * In August 1995 Croatian forces conducted Operation Storm, ending Krajina and restoring Croatian sovereignty to international recognised borders.

During Operation Storm a majority of Serb population from Krajina left their homes, while minority of those who stayed. Homes left by ethnic Serbs were taken over by ethnic Croatian refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina with the help and encouragement of Croatian authorities. Through the past decade, number of ethnic Serb refugees have returned and gradually reverted demographic results of war in certain areas, although it is very unlikely that their proportion in region's population will ever reach pre-war levels.

21st century
The war suffering in Dalmatia was among the highest compared to the other Croatian regions, particularly in the Dalmatian hinterland, where much of the infrastructure was ruined. The tourism industry - previously the most important source of income - was deeply affected by negative publicity and did not properly recover until the late 1990s.

The Dalmatian population in general suffered a dramatic drop in living standard which created a chasm between Dalmatia and relatively more prosperous northern sections of Croatia. This chasm reflected in extreme nationalism enjoying visibly higher levels of support in Dalmatia than in the rest of Croatia, which embraced a more moderate course.

This phenomenon manifested not only in Dalmatia being a reliable stronghold for the Croatian Democratic Union and other Croatian right-wing parties, but also in mass protests against Croatian Army generals being prosecuted for war crimes. Indictment against General Mirko Norac in early 2001 drew 150,000 people to the streets of Split - which is arguably the largest protest in the history of modern Croatia.

title: History of Dalmatia


text:
Benjamin Thompson House–Count Rumford Birthplace

The Benjamin Thompson House (also known as the Count Rumford Birthplace) is a historic house museum and National Historic Landmark at 90 Elm Street, in the North Woburn area of Woburn, Massachusetts. It is significant as the birthplace of scientist and inventor Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814), who became Count Rumford of the Holy Roman Empire as well as Sir Benjamin Thompson of the United Kingdom. His birthplace was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1975 in recognition of Rumford's scientific accomplishments, which notably include the development of the Rumford stove, a fireplace design that was significantly more efficient at retaining heat in the house than older and larger fireplaces.

Description and history
The Rumford House is a $2 1/2$-story wood-frame structure, five bays wide, with a gambrel roof and a large central chimney. The exterior is sheathed in clapboards, and decoration is limited to a modest front door surround. The interior includes a great deal of well-preserved original hardware and woodwork.

The house was built in 1714 by Ebenezer Thompson. His grandson, Benjamin Thompson, Jr., later to become Count Rumford, was born on March 26, 1753, in the west end of this house, which his parents had lived in since their marriage. Young Benjamin's father died on November 7, 1754, and he lived in the house with his grandfather and mother until she married Josiah Pierce, Jr., of Woburn, and he was taken to live in his house.

Benjamin Thompson was a Loyalist during the American Revolution, and fled the country in 1775 when the British evacuated Boston. He returned later in the war commanding the King's American Dragoons, who saw action in the Southern states. He returned to England after the British surrender. He eventually settled for a time in the Holy Roman Empire, where he acquired the title of Count Rumford, and where he performed his groundbreaking research into the design of heating systems. This research resulted in a series of improvements to home heating systems, notably the Rumford stove, a shallow fireplace that more efficiently projected heat into a room than older and larger fireplaces. While in Munich, Thompson oversaw reforms of the indigent welfare system of Bavaria, and designed the city's famous English Garden. Thompson was also an inveterate and practical tinkerer, developing new versions of everyday utensils. He also proposed in 1799 the establishment in the United Kingdom of a research organization, which resulted in the founding of the Royal Institution. Although he never returned to the country of his birth, he did endow a professorial chair at Harvard College, and established the Rumford Prize, an annual award given by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died in Paris in 1814.

Current ownership
The birthplace of Benjamin Thompson is now owned by the Rumford Historical Association, founded in 1877 to maintain it as a site of historic interest. In its museum are reconstructed models of Count Rumford's scientific experiments and inventions. A copy of a portrait of Count Rumford by Gainsborough is on display. The house also has a library of Rumford biographies and essays. It is open Sunday afternoons 1–4:30 pm from June through October and by appointment. Admission is free.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:Colossi of Memnon

Article merge

 * I am thinking about merging this article with a larger article on the Amenhotep III mortuary temple - anyone object ? Markh 09:41, August 31, 2005 (UTC)
 * This is a good length on its own, and the Colossi are notable independent of the mortuary temple as a whole (because of the Greek/Roman interest). I suggest writing the temple article separately, then we can look at the two to see how they would relate. Stan 12:05, 31 August 2005 (UTC)
 * OK - will do! Markh 14:27, August 31, 2005 (UTC)

...in a seated position. His hands resting on his knees... And not: ... in a seated position''. h''is hands resting on his knees ...

What is right 18 or 21 meters?

Exact coordinates are 25°43'13.78"N  32°36'37.46"E (Coordinates in WikiMapia are not exact) (borini@neobee.net)

additions
For someone better versed than myself, a conversion of 'ha' into some English unit (I don't know the wiki standard) as well as perhaps some reference to the inscriptions of Roman legionaries in the stone. That's how I found the article. Sammermpc (talk) 19:27, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

Please see http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Merlin-UK for some higher res photos —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.102.91.145 (talk) 19:01, 12 November 2008 (UTC)

The original Greek name?
Could someone please add "Colossi of Memnon" in ancient Greek? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.117.246.172 (talk) 18:30, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

Sound
Deleted as copyvio, but might help. Dougweller (talk) 07:40, 4 July 2014 (UTC)
 * I left a message on the talk page of the user who originally added the section, asking him where the text came from. JudgeDeadd (talk) 20:49, 31 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Yeah, and the links in the message you sent were dead. I am NOT a member of Flickr or whatever it is, have never visited the site and have NO interest in it whatsoever, My source (which has been removed) was given in the references: my personal copy of Rupert Gould's Enigmas (with a copyright date of 1929)- not some social media crap.CFLeon (talk) 18:36, 2 January 2015 (UTC)
 * I think a copyright violation was suspected because the Flickr page linked had a date "January 31, 2007", earlier than the date of CFleon's edits (2009). (It actually says "Taken on January 31, 2007", but I don't know if it means it was published in Flickr on that date.) However, I think it's more likely that the Flickr user edited the photo description later and copied text from the Wikipedia article--including CFLeon's contributions. Especially since most of the photo description is obviously a copy of the Wikipedia article, and I doubt the Flickr user wrote all this text himself just to use it as a description for one of many photos in his profile. If nobody has any objections, I'll restore the deleted text and sources. JudgeDeadd (talk) 23:52, 3 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Restored. JudgeDeadd (talk) 11:52, 6 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Anyone think it's ironic that another website can steal my contribution and then some one complains that I've violated my OWN writing? It was very telling that along with the section removal (and the whole section was removed, not just the phrasing used) the source given was ALSO removed from the page. How in-TER-esting... CFLeon (talk) 21:23, 18 August 2015 (UTC)

Did the 27 BCE earthquake actually occur?
"During the first half ol the twentieth century, many seismic catalogue* included information about the earthquake in 27 B.C based on the Strabo's report about destruction ol the northern colossus (Sic berg. 1932). However, the exact date. Intensity, anil size or that destructive impact had been argued tor a long time. Ambrose ys ct al. (I994i determined the earthquake of 27 B l as .» false event, referring to Quatrcmerc <IS45t. and attributed destruction ol the northern Mem non Colossus to deliberate mutilation by Persian*, and the damage in Thebe* in 27 B.C to a revolt of local population against Rome This suggestion by Ambruscys and his colleagues has led to cvclucton o: the earthquake of 27 B.C. from the main international catalogue* of historical seismicity. Some authors (Abdcl-Monem el al.. 2004; Casciati ami Borya, 2001; llaggag et al.. 2008) still identify an earthquake near l.uxor In 27 B.C"  Ancient Earthquakes (Special Paper (Geological Society of America))Oct 2010  edited by M. Sintubin Dougweller (talk) 15:06, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

Transport of the Colossi
The debate on how the the statues were tranported is not as cut and dried as this article implies, there is a significant body of expert opinion that they were floated down the Nile on large barges-Hatshepsut had transported huge obelisks on these types of vessels.

The Colossi of Memnon Revisited. R. F. Heizer, F. Stross, T. R. Hester, A. Albee, I. Perlman, F. Asaro and H. Bowman. Science, New Series, Vol. 182, No. 4118 (Dec. 21, 1973) p 1220.

'No contemporary record exists which tells us how the two 720-ton sculptures were brought from the quarry to Thebes nor in what state of completion they were when they were moved. The statues must have either been loaded on heavy sledges and dragged on land, or placed on a barge and towed on the river. River transport for such a long distance was almost certainly the means by which the two great statues were moved.Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahri, about 2 km northwest of the colossi, has a low-relief carving showing two obelisks, weighing together 700 tons, attached to dragging sledges, and lying base to base on the deck of a big lighter.'

and

"The Colossi of Memnon and Egyptian barges" The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration (1988) 17.4: 295-310 — Preceding unsigned comment added by Shroton (talk • contribs) 09:34, 5 May 2016 (UTC)

At some point the two Colossi would have had to been put on a ship as the quarry is on the east bank and they were set up on the west bank.https://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-p/1a/f2/fc/f7/map-to-luxor-art-gallery.jpg — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hanslune (talk • contribs) 01:15, 27 February 2022 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Colossi of Memnon


text:
Canberra Institute of Technology

The Canberra Institute of Technology (CIT) is a vocational education provider with five campuses located in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory. CIT is the largest Technical and Further Education (TAFE) provider in the Australian Capital Territory. Qualifications offered by CIT range from certificate to degree level. CIT has campuses across Canberra, located in Bruce, Reid, and Fyshwick. CIT also has two learning centres in Tuggeranong Town Centre and Gungahlin, which are primarily for students studying via flexible or distance learning. CIT provides a wide range of education and training courses that focus on practical skills and formal, technical qualifications.

History
Originally named the Telopea Park Technical Trades School, the first ‘CIT’ was officially opened by Prime Minister Stanley Bruce on 6 June 1928. This was changed in 1975 to the Canberra College of Technical and Further Education. It later merged with Bruce and Woden TAFEs. It has been a Territory Authority since 4 January 1988 under the A.C.T. Institute of Technology and Further Education Act 1987 (now the Canberra Institute of Technology Act 1987).

Courses offered
Courses are offered in these fields:

Health and Fitness

 * Aged Care
 * Allied Health
 * COVID-19 Infection Control
 * Dental
 * Disability
 * Fitness
 * Home and Community Care
 * Message
 * Nursing
 * Population Health
 * Sport
 * Work Health and Safety

Professional

 * Accounting
 * Building Design
 * Building Management
 * Business
 * Cyber Security
 * Engineering
 * Government
 * Information Technology
 * Legal
 * Management and Human Resources

Professional

 * Art
 * Beauty
 * Fashion
 * Floristry
 * Games and Virtual Worlds
 * Graphic Design
 * Hairdressing
 * Live Theatre Production
 * Interior Design
 * Media
 * Music
 * Photography

Service Industry

 * Baking and Patisserie
 * Butchery
 * Commercial Cookery
 * Events
 * Hospitality
 * Tourism

Science and Environment

 * Animal Studies
 * Environmental Sciences
 * Forensics
 * Horticulture
 * Laboratory Studies
 * Renewable Energy Skills

'Education and Community

 * Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander
 * ACT Senior Secondary Certificate (Year 12)
 * Alcohol and Other Drugs
 * Children's Education and Care
 * Community Services and Development
 * English Language
 * Foundation Skills
 * Mental Health
 * Teach Education
 * Youth Work

Trades

 * Auto Electrical
 * Auto Mechanical
 * Cabinet Making
 * Carpentry
 * Crane Licenses
 * Electronics and Communications
 * Electrical Trades
 * Elevation Work Platform EWP License
 * Forklift
 * Glass and Glazing
 * High Risk Licenses
 * Insulation Installation
 * Metal Fabrication
 * Painting and Decorating
 * Panel and Paint
 * Personnel and Materials Hoist
 * Plastering
 * Plumbing
 * Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
 * Tiling
 * White Card
 * Work at Safe Heights

Qualifications include certificates I to IV, diploma and advanced diploma. Qualifications in these categories are managed by the Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF) which is the national set of standards.

CIT is also accredited to deliver graduate certificates, graduate diplomas and bachelor's degrees. Students in these courses may be eligible to receive FEE HELP (formerly HECS) in the same way university students can.

Some courses at CIT can be undertaken via Flexible Learning where students do not have to study according to a semester-based timetable.

Student numbers
In 2009, CIT had 26,941 student enrolments. Compared with the other educational institutions in the ACT (University of Canberra, Australian National University, Australian Catholic University and the University of NSW at the Australian Defence Force Academy) CIT is the largest by student numbers.

Campuses
CIT has five campuses across Canberra, in the south, centre and north of the city.

CIT Reid. The suburb of Reid is on the edge of the Canberra city centre, with Canberra's main bus interchange. Reid campus has a student-run restaurant, child care centre, hairdressing studio, beauty salon and travel agency.

CIT Bruce. The suburb of Bruce is in northwest Canberra. This campus is approximately 4 km from the nearest town centre (Belconnen) which includes a Westfield shopping centre, Uni-gardens CIT student accommodation and a bus interchange. Bruce campus has a student-run massage clinic and full service gym.

Fyshwick Trade Skills Centre. CIT's campus in Fyshwick is called the Fyshwick Trade Skills Centre as it is the base for the teaching of traditional trades including automotive, metals, plumbing, electrical, refrigeration, air-conditioning and earthmoving. It is located in the suburb of Fyshwick in south-east Canberra, approximately 2 km from the central area of Fyshwick.

CIT Tuggeranong A new location for Canberra's south is now open at 205 Anketell Street, Greenway. The learning and professional development opportunities available at CIT's Tuggeranong campus have a focus on business and innovation and have been developed for new learners, existing learners, up-skillers and professionals.

All campuses have a Student Services Hub, learning centre (with a library) and cafe. All but Fyshwick have book shops.

CIT and universities
CIT and the University of Canberra (UC): CIT and UC collaborate on a number of initiatives, most prominently pathways and transfers between the two institutions. CIT students who complete a diploma or advanced diploma are guaranteed an offer of a place in an undergraduate degree at the University of Canberra.

In addition, over 150 formal credit transfer arrangements are in place where students can receive credit for CIT studies and reduce the number of units they need to study at UC.

CIT and the University of Canberra also form two-thirds of the collaborative organization, the National Centre for Forensic Studies, in conjunction with the Australian Federal Police. According to the National Centre for Forensic Studies' website, this partnership exists to collaborate in the design, development and delivery of undergraduate and postgraduate courses leading to academic qualifications in forensic studies.

CIT and the Australian National University (ANU): collaborate on the delivery of two associate degree programs – the Bachelor of Science and the Bachelor of Engineering, whereby students complete the first year of the degree at CIT and the second at ANU. Further, graduates automatically gain entry into a 'linked' ANU Bachelor's degree with 18 months credit.

CIT and Charles Sturt University (CSU) also have a number of formalized credit transfer agreements whereby graduates of CIT's Diploma / Advanced Diploma programs receive credit when they commence a linked CSU degree.

CIT and the Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE): CIT and AIE jointly deliver a number of programs including the Bachelor of Games and Virtual Worlds (Programming).

Awards

 * 2010 ACT Training Excellence Large Registered Training Organization Award for outstanding achievements in the delivery of vocational education and training.
 * 2010 ACT Training Excellence ACT Australian Apprentice of the Year: Ross Ingham, a Certificate III in Plumbing.
 * 2010 ACT Training Excellence ACT Vocational Student of the Year: Sharon Dale, an Advanced Diploma of Naturopathy student at CIT.
 * 2014 ACT Training Excellence, ACT Large Registered Training Organization of the Year
 * 2015 ACT Training Excellence, ACT Large Registered Training Organization of the Year
 * 2015 ACT Vocational Student of the Year, Hanna Darmody
 * 2015 ACT Apprentice of the Year, Supi Ma'ilei
 * 2016 ACT Australian Apprentice of the Year, Shane Dealy
 * 2016 Australian Training Awards, Australian Apprentice of the Year, Shane Dealy

title: Canberra Institute of Technology


text:
Stan Gooch

Stanley Albert Gooch (born 1932 in Lewisham, London, died 13 September 2010) was a British psychologist and author who is probably best known as the proponent of a "hybrid-origin theory" of human evolution.

Total Man
Gooch's first book Total Man (1972) was an attempt to examine all fields of interest relevant to humans today. On the back cover of the American print of Total Man Stan Gooch states:
 * "Essentially, the view I have taken of other 'theories of personality', such as those of Marx, Christianity, Freud, Pavlov, Nietzsche and many others, is not that all, or all but one, are wrong, but on the contrary that all are correct. I was, and am still, unable to escape the implications of the fact that each of the theorists in question was, after all, concerned with one and the same human being. Instead of rejecting all such views, I found myself essentially rejecting none. This shift of emphasis is, I believe, crucial. The task is changed from one of selection to one of assembly."

Theory of polarities
In various chapters of Total Man Gooch outlined what would become the basis of his theories when he showed that phenomena can be divided into two columns, which he titled System A and System B, later associated with Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal lineage, respectively. These could be roughly equated to Freud's Ego and Id, and in some ways Carl Jung's Male and Female principles.

 * {| class="wikitable"

! System A !! System B
 * Sun
 * Moon
 * Psychosis
 * Neurosis
 * Logic
 * Intuition
 * Science
 * Religion
 * Awake
 * Dreaming
 * Adult
 * Child
 * Day
 * Night
 * God
 * Devil
 * Male
 * Female
 * Yang
 * Yin
 * Fascism
 * Communism
 * }
 * Devil
 * Male
 * Female
 * Yang
 * Yin
 * Fascism
 * Communism
 * }
 * Fascism
 * Communism
 * }

Hybrid-origin theory
Total Man was followed by Personality and Evolution (1973) and The Neanderthal Question (1977). In these books, Gooch develops what would become known as the "hybrid-origin theory". The theory as represented in  Guardians of the Ancient Wisdom (1979) can be outlined as follows:
 * 1) From other human species, Cro-Magnon man evolves in Northern India during a long period of isolation, develops and practices sun worship and hunting magic; the culture is patriarchal.
 * 2) Elsewhere during the same period, different forms of Neanderthal man evolve in Europe and the Middle East, while moon worship and earth magic is developed and practiced; the culture is matriarchal.
 * 3) Around 35,000 years ago, Cro-Magnon abandons India and heads west through the Middle East into Europe, overrunning Neanderthal. By 25,000 years ago, the predominant type in Europe is Cro-Magnon.
 * 4) In the Middle East a hybrid population, a cross between the Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal types, emerges. Pure Neanderthal has largely ceased to exist either here or in Europe.
 * 5) By 15,000 years ago, pure Cro-Magnon man has also ceased to exist, driven out of north and west Europe, into southern Europe, by renewed glaciation, absorbed by the hybrid type (that is, modern Homo sapiens).

Gooch continued to develop the theory during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s in Cities of Dreams (1989, 1995), and The Neanderthal Legacy (2008).

The Paranormal
In The Paranormal (1978), Gooch reveals that prior to obtaining a degree in psychology, in his mid-twenties, he had been trained as a medium. The book in a first part deals with his own paranormal experiences and those of his acquaintances and in a second part presents a theoretical examination of the paranormal.

The Double Helix of the Mind
In The Double Helix of the Mind (1980), Gooch criticizes the hemisphere model of the human brain. Gooch develops the theory that the cerebellum, rather than the right hemisphere of the brain, is responsible for dreaming, creativity and paranormal experience.

Reception
Gooch's theories have generally been dismissed by academia. In his book Right Hand, Left Hand: The Origins of Asymmetry in Brains, Bodies, Atoms and Cultures, Chris McManus, a psychologist at University College London, has described Stan Gooch's ideas about the origins of left-handedness as "myths", stating that they lack any supporting evidence. Thinker and novelist Colin Wilson, on the other hand, argues that Gooch's work forms "one of the most impressive and exciting intellectual structures of the second half of the twentieth century."

title: Stan Gooch


text:
User:David.Frew

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. -Werdna648 10:42, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User:David.Frew