text:
Isotopes of copper

Copper (29Cu) has two stable isotopes, 63Cu and 65Cu, along with 28 radioisotopes. The most stable radioisotope is 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Most of the others have half-lives under a minute. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo β+ decay, while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo β− decay. 64Cu decays by both β+ and β−.

There are at least 10 metastable isomers of copper, including two each for 70Cu and 75Cu. The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75 minutes. The least stable is 75m2Cu with a half-life of 149 ns.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=2|55Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2|54.96604(17)
 * rowspan=2|55.9(15) ms
 * β+
 * 55Ni
 * rowspan=2|3/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p?
 * 54Co
 * rowspan=2|56Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2|55.9585293(69)
 * rowspan=2|80.8(6) ms
 * β+ (99.60%)
 * 56Ni
 * rowspan=2|(4+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (0.40%)
 * 55Co
 * 57Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 56.94921169(54)
 * 196.4(7) ms
 * β+
 * 57Ni
 * 3/2−
 * 58Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 57.94453228(60)
 * 3.204(7) s
 * β+
 * 58Ni
 * 1+
 * 59Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 58.93949671(57)
 * 81.5(5) s
 * β+
 * 59Ni
 * 3/2−
 * 60Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 59.9373638(17)
 * 23.7(4) min
 * β+
 * 60Ni
 * 2+
 * 61Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 60.9334574(10)
 * 3.343(16) h
 * β+
 * 61Ni
 * 3/2−
 * 62Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 61.9325948(07)
 * 9.672(8) m
 * β+
 * 62Ni
 * 1+
 * 63Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 62.92959712(46)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 3/2−
 * 0.6915(15)
 * rowspan=2|64Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 35
 * rowspan=2|63.92976400(46)
 * rowspan=2|12.7004(13) h
 * β+ (61.52%)
 * 64Ni
 * rowspan=2|1+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (38.48%)
 * 64Zn
 * 65Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 64.92778948(69)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 3/2−
 * 0.3085(15)
 * 66Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 65.92886880(70)
 * 5.120(14) min
 * β−
 * 66Zn
 * 1+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 66mCu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1154.2(14) keV
 * 600(17) ns
 * IT
 * 68Cu
 * (6)−
 * 67Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 66.92772949(96)
 * 61.83(12) h
 * β−
 * 67Zn
 * 3/2−
 * 68Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 67.9296109(17)
 * 30.9(6) s
 * β−
 * 68Zn
 * 1+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 68mCu
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 721.26(8) keV
 * rowspan=2|3.75(5) min
 * IT (86%)
 * 68Cu
 * rowspan=2|6−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β− (14%)
 * 68Zn
 * 69Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 68.929429267(15)
 * 2.85(15) min
 * β−
 * 69Zn
 * 3/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 69mCu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2742.0(7) keV
 * 357(2) ns
 * IT
 * 69Cu
 * (13/2+)
 * 70Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 69.9323921(12)
 * 44.5(2) s
 * β−
 * 70Zn
 * 6−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 70m1Cu
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 101.1(3) keV
 * rowspan=2|33(2) s
 * β− (52%)
 * 70Zn
 * rowspan=2|3−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (48%)
 * 70Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 70m2Cu
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 242.6(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|6.6(2) s
 * β− (93.2%)
 * 70Zn
 * rowspan=2|1+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (6.8%)
 * 70Cu
 * 71Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 70.9326768(16)
 * 19.4(14) s
 * β−
 * 71Zn
 * 3/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 71mCu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2755.7(6) keV
 * 271(13) ns
 * IT
 * 71Cu
 * (19/2−)
 * 72Cu
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 71.9358203(15)
 * 6.63(3) s
 * β−
 * 72Zn
 * 2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 72mCu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 270(3) keV
 * 1.76(3) μs
 * IT
 * 72Cu
 * (6−)
 * rowspan=2|73Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=2|72.9366744(21)
 * rowspan=2|4.20(12) s
 * β− (99.71%)
 * 73Zn
 * rowspan=2|3/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (0.29%)
 * 72Zn
 * rowspan=2|74Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=2|73.9398749(66)
 * rowspan=2|1.606(9) s
 * β− (99.93%)
 * 74Zn
 * rowspan=2|2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (0.075%)
 * 73Zn
 * rowspan=2|75Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=2|74.94152382(77)
 * rowspan=2|1.224(3) s
 * β− (97.3%)
 * 75Zn
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (2.7%)
 * 74Zn
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 75m1Cu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 61.7(4) keV
 * 0.310(8) μs
 * IT
 * 75Cu
 * 1/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 75m2Cu
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 66.2(4) keV
 * 0.149(5) μs
 * IT
 * 75Cu
 * 3/2−
 * rowspan=2|76Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=2|75.94526897(98)
 * rowspan=2|637.7(55) ms
 * β− (92.8%)
 * 76Zn
 * rowspan=2|3−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (7.2%)
 * 75Zn
 * rowspan=2|77Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 48
 * rowspan=2|76.9475436(13)
 * rowspan=2|470.3(17) ms
 * β− (69.9%)
 * 77Zn
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (30.1%)
 * 76Zn
 * rowspan=3|78Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 49
 * rowspan=3|77.951917(14)
 * rowspan=3|330.7(20) ms
 * β−, n (50.6%)
 * 77Zn
 * rowspan=3|(6−)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (49.4%)
 * 78Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 76Zn
 * rowspan=3|79Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 50
 * rowspan=3|78.95447(11)
 * rowspan=3|241.3(21) ms
 * β−, n (66%)
 * 78Zn
 * rowspan=3|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (34%)
 * 79Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 77Zn
 * rowspan=3|80Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 51
 * rowspan=3|79.96062(32)#
 * rowspan=3|113.3(64) ms
 * β−, n (59%)
 * 79Zn
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (41%)
 * 80Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 78Zn
 * rowspan=3|81Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 52
 * rowspan=3| 80.96574(32)#
 * rowspan=3| 73.2(68) ms
 * β−, n (81%)
 * 80Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (19%)
 * 81Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 79Zn
 * rowspan=3|82Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 53
 * rowspan=3| 81.97238(43)#
 * rowspan=3| 34(7) ms
 * β−
 * 82Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 81Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 80Zn
 * rowspan=3|83Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 54
 * rowspan=3| 82.97811(54)#
 * rowspan=3| 21# ms [>410 ns]
 * β−?
 * 83Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 82Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 81Zn
 * rowspan=2|84Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 55
 * rowspan=2| 83.98527(54)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−?
 * 84Zn
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 84Zn
 * 78Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 76Zn
 * rowspan=3|79Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 50
 * rowspan=3|78.95447(11)
 * rowspan=3|241.3(21) ms
 * β−, n (66%)
 * 78Zn
 * rowspan=3|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (34%)
 * 79Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 77Zn
 * rowspan=3|80Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 51
 * rowspan=3|79.96062(32)#
 * rowspan=3|113.3(64) ms
 * β−, n (59%)
 * 79Zn
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (41%)
 * 80Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 78Zn
 * rowspan=3|81Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 52
 * rowspan=3| 80.96574(32)#
 * rowspan=3| 73.2(68) ms
 * β−, n (81%)
 * 80Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (19%)
 * 81Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 79Zn
 * rowspan=3|82Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 53
 * rowspan=3| 81.97238(43)#
 * rowspan=3| 34(7) ms
 * β−
 * 82Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 81Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 80Zn
 * rowspan=3|83Cu
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 54
 * rowspan=3| 82.97811(54)#
 * rowspan=3| 21# ms [>410 ns]
 * β−?
 * 83Zn
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 82Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 81Zn
 * rowspan=2|84Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 55
 * rowspan=2| 83.98527(54)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−?
 * 84Zn
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 84Zn
 * 82Zn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 81Zn
 * rowspan=2|84Cu
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 55
 * rowspan=2| 83.98527(54)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−?
 * 84Zn
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 84Zn
 * β−, n?
 * 84Zn
 * 84Zn

Copper nuclear magnetic resonance
Both stable isotopes of copper (63Cu and 65Cu) have nuclear spin of 3/2−, and thus produce nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, although the spectral lines are broad due to quadrupolar broadening. 63Cu is the more sensitive nucleus while 65Cu yields very slightly narrower signals. Usually though 63Cu NMR is preferred.

Medical applications
Copper offers a relatively large number of radioisotopes that are potentially useful for nuclear medicine.

There is growing interest in the use of $64$Cu, $62$Cu, $61$Cu, and $60$Cu for diagnostic purposes and $67$Cu and $64$Cu for targeted radiotherapy. For example, $64$Cu has a longer half-life than most positron-emitters (12.7 hours) and is thus ideal for diagnostic PET imaging of biological molecules.

title: Isotopes of copper


text:
Isotopes of nickel

Naturally occurring nickel (28Ni) is composed of five stable isotopes; Nickel, 60Nickel, 61Nickel, 62Nickel and 64Nickel, with Nickel being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 26 radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 59Nickel with a half-life of 76,000 years, 63Nickel with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56Nickel with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 8 meta states.

List of isotopes
[12(+5−3) ms] [0.24(+55−24) s] [>300 ns] [>300 ns]
 * rowspan=2| 48Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 20
 * rowspan=2| 48.01975(54)#
 * rowspan=2| 2.8(8) ms
 * 2p (70%)
 * 46Fe
 * rowspan=2| 0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (30%)
 * 48Co
 * rowspan=2| 49Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=2| 49.00966(43)#
 * rowspan=2| 13(4) ms
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=2| 49.00966(43)#
 * rowspan=2| 13(4) ms
 * β+, p (83.4%)
 * 48Fe
 * rowspan=2| 7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (16.6%)
 * 49Co
 * rowspan=3| 50Nickel
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 22
 * rowspan=3| 49.99593(28)#
 * rowspan=3| 18.5(12) ms
 * β+, p (73%)
 * 49Fe
 * rowspan=3| 0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β+, 2p (14%)
 * 48Mn
 * β+ (13%)
 * 50Co
 * rowspan=3| 51Nickel
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3| 50.98772(28)#
 * rowspan=3| 23.8(2) ms
 * β+, p (87.2%)
 * 50Fe
 * rowspan=3| 7/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β+ (12.3%)
 * 51Co
 * β+, 2p (0.5%)
 * 49Mn
 * rowspan=2|52Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2|51.97568(9)#
 * rowspan=2|38(5) ms
 * β+ (83%)
 * 52Co
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (17%)
 * 51Fe
 * rowspan=2|53Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2|52.96847(17)#
 * rowspan=2|45(15) ms
 * β+ (55%)
 * 53Co
 * rowspan=2|(7/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (45%)
 * 52Fe
 * 54Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 53.95791(5)
 * 104(7) ms
 * β+
 * 54Co
 * 0+
 * 55Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * 54.951330(12)
 * 204.7(17) ms
 * β+
 * 55Co
 * 7/2−
 * 56Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 55.942132(12)
 * 6.075(10) d
 * β+
 * 56Cobalt
 * 0+
 * 57Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 56.9397935(19)
 * 35.60(6) h
 * β+
 * 57Cobalt
 * 3/2−
 * 58Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 57.9353429(7)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally stable
 * 0+
 * 0.680769(89)
 * rowspan=2 | 59Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 31
 * rowspan=2 | 58.9343467(7)
 * rowspan=2 | 7.6(5)×104 y
 * EC (99%)
 * rowspan=2 | 59Cobalt
 * rowspan=2 | 3/2−
 * rowspan=2 |
 * rowspan=2 |
 * β+ (1.5%)
 * 60Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 59.9307864(7)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.262231(77)
 * 61Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 60.9310560(7)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 3/2−
 * 0.011399(6)
 * 62Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 61.9283451(6)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.036345(17)
 * 63Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 62.9296694(6)
 * 100.1(20) y
 * β−
 * 63Copper
 * 1/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 63Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 87.15(11) keV
 * 1.67(3) μs
 * 5/2−
 * 64Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 63.9279660(7)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.009256(9)
 * 65Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 64.9300843(7)
 * 2.5172(3) h
 * β−
 * 65Copper
 * 5/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 65Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 63.37(5) keV
 * 69(3) μs
 * 1/2−
 * 66Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 65.9291393(15)
 * 54.6(3) h
 * β−
 * 66Copper
 * 0+
 * 67Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 66.931569(3)
 * 21(1) s
 * β−
 * 67Copper
 * 1/2−
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 67Nickel
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1007(3) keV
 * rowspan=2|13.3(2) μs
 * β−
 * 67Copper
 * rowspan=2|9/2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT
 * 67Ni
 * 68Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 67.931869(3)
 * 29(2) s
 * β−
 * 68Copper
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 68Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1770.0(10) keV
 * 276(65) ns
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 68Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2849.1(3) keV
 * 860(50) μs
 * 5−
 * 69Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 68.935610(4)
 * 11.5(3) s
 * β−
 * 69Copper
 * 9/2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 69Nickel
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 321(2) keV
 * rowspan=2|3.5(4) s
 * β−
 * 69Copper
 * rowspan=2|(1/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT
 * 69Ni
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 69Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2701(10) keV
 * 439(3) ns
 * (17/2−)
 * 70Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 69.93650(37)
 * 6.0(3) s
 * β−
 * 70Copper
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 70Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2860(2) keV
 * 232(1) ns
 * 8+
 * 71Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 70.94074(40)
 * 2.56(3) s
 * β−
 * 71Copper
 * 1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|72Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=2|71.94209(47)
 * rowspan=2|1.57(5) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 72Copper
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 71Copper
 * rowspan=2|73Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=2|72.94647(32)#
 * rowspan=2|0.84(3) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 73Copper
 * rowspan=2|(9/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 72Copper
 * rowspan=2|74Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=2|73.94807(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.68(18) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 74Copper
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 73Copper
 * rowspan=2|75Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=2|74.95287(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.6(2) s
 * β− (98.4%)
 * 75Copper
 * rowspan=2|(7/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.6%)
 * 74Copper
 * rowspan=2|76Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 48
 * rowspan=2|75.95533(97)#
 * rowspan=2|470(390) ms
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 69Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2701(10) keV
 * 439(3) ns
 * (17/2−)
 * 70Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 69.93650(37)
 * 6.0(3) s
 * β−
 * 70Copper
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 70Nickel
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2860(2) keV
 * 232(1) ns
 * 8+
 * 71Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 70.94074(40)
 * 2.56(3) s
 * β−
 * 71Copper
 * 1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|72Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=2|71.94209(47)
 * rowspan=2|1.57(5) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 72Copper
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 71Copper
 * rowspan=2|73Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=2|72.94647(32)#
 * rowspan=2|0.84(3) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 73Copper
 * rowspan=2|(9/2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 72Copper
 * rowspan=2|74Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=2|73.94807(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.68(18) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 74Copper
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 73Copper
 * rowspan=2|75Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=2|74.95287(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.6(2) s
 * β− (98.4%)
 * 75Copper
 * rowspan=2|(7/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.6%)
 * 74Copper
 * rowspan=2|76Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 48
 * rowspan=2|75.95533(97)#
 * rowspan=2|470(390) ms
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 73Copper
 * rowspan=2|75Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=2|74.95287(43)#
 * rowspan=2|0.6(2) s
 * β− (98.4%)
 * 75Copper
 * rowspan=2|(7/2+)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (1.6%)
 * 74Copper
 * rowspan=2|76Nickel
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 48
 * rowspan=2|75.95533(97)#
 * rowspan=2|470(390) ms
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 28
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 48
 * rowspan=2|75.95533(97)#
 * rowspan=2|470(390) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 76Copper
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 75Copper
 * 77Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 76.96055(54)#
 * 300# ms
 * 76.96055(54)#
 * 300# ms
 * β−
 * 77Copper
 * 9/2+#
 * 78Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 77.96318(118)#
 * 120# ms
 * style="text-align:right" | 50
 * 77.96318(118)#
 * 120# ms
 * β−
 * 78Copper
 * 0+
 * 79Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 51
 * 78.970400(640)#
 * 43.0 ms +86−75
 * β−
 * 79Copper
 * 80Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 78.970400(640)#
 * 24 ms +26−17
 * β−
 * 80Copper
 * 80Nickel
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * style="text-align:right" | 52
 * 78.970400(640)#
 * 24 ms +26−17
 * β−
 * 80Copper

Notable isotopes
The known isotopes of nickel range in mass number from 48Nickel to 82Nickel, and include:

Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most neutron-poor nickel isotope known. With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Nickel is "doubly magic" (like 208Lead) and therefore much more stable (with a lower limit of its half-life-time of .5 μs) than would be expected from its position in the chart of nuclides. It has the highest ratio of protons to neutrons (proton excess) of any known doubly magic nuclide.

Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in supernovae. In the last phases of stellar evolution of very large stars, nuclear fusion of lighter elements like hydrogen and helium comes to an end. Later in the star’s life cycle, elements including magnesium, silicon, and sulfur are fused to form heavier elements. Once the last nuclear fusion reactions cease, the star collapses to produce a supernova. During the supernova, silicon burning produces 56Ni. This isotope of nickel is favored because it has an equal number of neutrons and protons, making it readily produced by fusing two 28Si atoms. 56Ni is the final element that can be formed in the alpha process. Past 56Ni, nuclear reactions would be endoergic and would be energetically unfavorable. Once 56Ni is formed it subsequently decays to 56Co and then 56Fe. The radioactive decay of  56Ni and 56Co supplies much of the energy for the light curves observed for stellar supernovae. The shape of the light curve of these supernovae display characteristic timescales corresponding to the decay of 56Ni to 56Co and then to 56Fe.

Nickel-58 is the most abundant isotope of nickel, making up 68.077% of the natural abundance. Possible sources include electron capture from copper-58 and EC + p from zinc-59.

Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years. 59Nickel has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Nickel has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment.

Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Iron (half-life = 2.6 My). Because 60Iron had such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the Solar System at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Nickel. Therefore, the abundance of 60Nickel present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the Solar System and its early history/very early history. Unfortunately, nickel isotopes appear to have been heterogeneously distributed in the early Solar System. Therefore, so far, no actual age information has been attained from 60Nickel excesses. 60Nickel is also the stable end-product of the decay of 60Zinc, the product of the final rung of the alpha ladder. Other sources may also include beta decay from cobalt-60 and electron capture from copper-60.

Nickel-61 is the only stable isotope of nickel with a nuclear spin (I = 3/2), which makes it useful for studies by EPR spectroscopy.

Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope for any element, when including the electron shell in the calculation. More energy is released forming this isotope than any other, although fusion can form heavier isotopes. For instance, two [[Calcium|40Calcium]] atoms can fuse to form [[Krypton|80Krypton]] plus 4 positrons (plus 4 neutrinos), liberating 77 keV per nucleon, but reactions leading to the iron/nickel region are more probable as they release more energy per baryon.

Nickel-63 has two main uses: Detection of explosives traces, and in certain kinds of electronic devices, such as gas discharge tubes used as surge protectors. A surge protector is a device that protects sensitive electronic equipment like computers from sudden changes in the electric current flowing into them. It is also used in Electron capture detector in gas chromatography for the detection mainly of halogens. It is proposed to be used for miniature betavoltaic generators for pacemakers.

Nickel-64 is another stable isotope of nickel. Possible sources include beta decay from cobalt-64, and electron capture from copper-64.

Nickel-78 is one of the element's heaviest known isotopes. With 28 protons and 50 neutrons, nickel-78 is doubly magic, resulting in much greater nuclear binding energy and stability despite having a lopsided neutron-proton ratio. It has a half-life of 122 ± 5.1 milliseconds. As a consequence of its magic neutron number, nickel-78 is believed to have an important involvement in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron. 78Ni, along with N = 50 isotones 79Cu and 80Zn, are thought to constitute a waiting point in the r-process, where further neutron capture is delayed by the shell gap and a buildup of isotopes around A = 80 results.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Isotopes of nickel


text:
Isotopes of cobalt

Naturally occurring cobalt, Co, consists of a single stable isotope, $59$Co (thus, cobalt is a mononuclidic element). Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized; the most stable are $60$Co with a half-life of 5.2714 years, $57$Co (271.8 days), $56$Co (77.27 days), and $58$Co (70.86 days). All other isotopes have half-lives of less than 18 hours and most of these have half-lives of less than 1 second. This element also has 11 meta states, all of which have half-lives of less than 15 minutes.

The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from $47$Co to $75$Co. The main decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass less than that of the stable isotope, $59$Co, is electron capture and the main mode of decay for those of greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The main decay products before $59$Co are iron isotopes and the main products after are nickel isotopes.

Radioisotopes can be produced by various nuclear reactions. For example, $57$Co is produced by cyclotron irradiation of iron. The main reaction is the (d,n) reaction $56$Fe + $2$H → n + $57$Co.

List of isotopes

 * $47$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 20
 * 47.01149(54)#
 * 7/2−#
 * $48$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 21
 * 48.00176(43)#
 * p
 * $47$Fe
 * 6+#
 * rowspan=2|$49$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 22
 * rowspan=2|48.98972(28)#
 * rowspan=2|<35 ns
 * p (>99.9%)
 * $48$Fe
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$+$ (<.1%)
 * $49$Fe
 * rowspan=2|$50$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2|49.98154(18)#
 * rowspan=2|44(4) ms
 * β$+$, p (54%)
 * $49$Mn
 * rowspan=2|(6+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$+$ (46%)
 * $50$Fe
 * $51$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * 50.97072(16)#
 * 60# ms [>200 ns]
 * β$+$
 * $51$Fe
 * 7/2−#
 * $52$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * 51.96359(7)#
 * 115(23) ms
 * β$+$
 * $52$Fe
 * (6+)
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | $52m$Co
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 380(100)# keV
 * rowspan=2|104(11)# ms
 * β$+$
 * $52$Fe
 * rowspan=2|2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT
 * $52$Co
 * $53$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 52.954219(19)
 * 242(8) ms
 * β$+$
 * $53$Fe
 * 7/2−#
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | $53m$Co
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3197(29) keV
 * rowspan=2|247(12) ms
 * β$+$ (98.5%)
 * $53$Fe
 * rowspan=2|(19/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * p (1.5%)
 * $52$Fe
 * $54$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * 53.9484596(8)
 * 193.28(7) ms
 * β$+$
 * $54$Fe
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $54m$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 197.4(5) keV
 * 1.48(2) min
 * β$+$
 * $54$Fe
 * (7)+
 * $55$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 54.9419990(8)
 * 17.53(3) h
 * β$+$
 * $55$Fe
 * 7/2−
 * $56$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 55.9398393(23)
 * 77.233(27) d
 * β$+$
 * $56$Fe
 * 4+
 * $57$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 56.9362914(8)
 * 271.74(6) d
 * EC
 * $57$Fe
 * 7/2−
 * $58$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 57.9357528(13)
 * 70.86(6) d
 * β$+$
 * $58$Fe
 * 2+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $58m1$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 24.95(6) keV
 * 9.04(11) h
 * IT
 * $58$Co
 * 5+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $58m2$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 53.15(7) keV
 * 10.4(3) μs
 * 4+
 * $59$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 58.9331950(7)
 * colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|Stable
 * 7/2−
 * 1.0000
 * $60$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 59.9338171(7)
 * 5.2714(6) y
 * β$−$, γ
 * $60$Ni
 * 5+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | $60m$Co
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 58.59(1) keV
 * rowspan=2|10.467(6) min
 * IT (99.76%)
 * $60$Co
 * rowspan=2|2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$−$ (.24%)
 * $60$Ni
 * $61$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 60.9324758(10)
 * 1.650(5) h
 * β$−$
 * $61$Ni
 * 7/2−
 * $62$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 61.934051(21)
 * 1.50(4) min
 * β$−$
 * $62$Ni
 * 2+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | $62m$Co
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 22(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|13.91(5) min
 * β$−$ (99%)
 * $62$Ni
 * rowspan=2|5+
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (1%)
 * $62$Co
 * $63$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 62.933612(21)
 * 26.9(4) s
 * β$−$
 * $63$Ni
 * 7/2−
 * $64$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 63.935810(21)
 * 0.30(3) s
 * β$−$
 * $64$Ni
 * 1+
 * $65$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 64.936478(14)
 * 1.20(6) s
 * β$−$
 * $65$Ni
 * (7/2)−
 * $66$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 65.93976(27)
 * 0.18(1) s
 * β$−$
 * $66$Ni
 * (3+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $66m1$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 175(3) keV
 * 1.21(1) μs
 * (5+)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $66m2$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 642(5) keV
 * >100 μs
 * (8-)
 * $67$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 66.94089(34)
 * 0.425(20) s
 * β$−$
 * $67$Ni
 * (7/2−)#
 * $68$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 67.94487(34)
 * 0.199(21) s
 * β$−$
 * $68$Ni
 * (7-)
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $68m$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 150(150)# keV
 * 1.6(3) s
 * (3+)
 * rowspan=2|$69$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 42
 * rowspan=2|68.94632(36)
 * rowspan=2|227(13) ms
 * β$−$ (>99.9%)
 * $69$Ni
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$−$, n (<.1%)
 * $68$Ni
 * rowspan=2|$70$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|69.9510(9)
 * rowspan=2|119(6) ms
 * β$−$ (>99.9%)
 * $70$Ni
 * rowspan=2|(6-)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$−$, n (<.1%)
 * $69$Ni
 * style="text-indent:1em" | $70m$Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * 500(180) ms
 * (3+)
 * rowspan=2|$71$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=2|70.9529(9)
 * rowspan=2|97(2) ms
 * β$−$ (>99.9%)
 * $71$Ni
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$−$, n (<.1%)
 * $70$Ni
 * rowspan=2|$72$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=2|71.95781(64)#
 * rowspan=2|62(3) ms
 * β$−$ (>99.9%)
 * $72$Ni
 * rowspan=2|(6- ,7-)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$−$, n (<.1%)
 * $71$Ni
 * $73$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 72.96024(75)#
 * 41(4) ms
 * 7/2−#
 * $74$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 73.96538(86)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * $75$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 74.96833(86)#
 * 40# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2−#
 * $76$Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 40# ms
 * β$-$
 * $76$Ni
 * 8-#
 * (3+)
 * rowspan=2|$57$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 42
 * rowspan=2|68.94632(36)
 * rowspan=2|227(13) ms
 * β$12$ (>99.9%)
 * $60$Ni
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$60$, n (<.1%)
 * $60$Ni
 * rowspan=2|$60$Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|69.9510(9)
 * rowspan=2|119(6) ms
 * β$57$ (>99.9%)
 * $57$Ni
 * rowspan=2|(6-)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β$57$, n (<.1%)
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * style="text-indent:1em" | ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 200(200)# keV
 * 500(180) ms
 * (3+)
 * rowspan=2|⇭⇭⇭Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=2|70.9529(9)
 * rowspan=2|97(2) ms
 * β⇭⇭⇭ (>99.9%)
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β⇭⇭⇭, n (<.1%)
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * rowspan=2|⇭⇭⇭Co
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=2|71.95781(64)#
 * rowspan=2|62(3) ms
 * β⇭⇭⇭ (>99.9%)
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * rowspan=2|(6- ,7-)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β⇭⇭⇭, n (<.1%)
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 72.96024(75)#
 * 41(4) ms
 * 7/2−#
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 73.96538(86)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 74.96833(86)#
 * 40# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2−#
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 40# ms
 * β⇭⇭⇭
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * 8-#
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 47
 * 73.96538(86)#
 * 50# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 74.96833(86)#
 * 40# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2−#
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 40# ms
 * β⇭⇭⇭
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * 8-#
 * ⇭⇭⇭Co
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * style="text-align:right" | 49
 * 40# ms
 * β⇭⇭⇭
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * 8-#
 * ⇭⇭⇭Ni
 * 8-#

Stellar nucleosynthesis of cobalt-56
One of the terminal nuclear reactions in stars prior to supernova produces 56Ni. Following its production, 56Ni decays to 56Co, and then 56Co subsequently decays to 56Fe. These decay reactions power the luminosity displayed in light decay curves. Both the light decay and radioactive decay curves are expected to be exponential. Therefore, the light decay curve should give an indication of the nuclear reactions powering it. This has been confirmed by observation of bolometric light decay curves for SN 1987A. Between 600 and 800 days after SN1987A occurred, the bolometric light curve decreased at an exponential rate with half-life values from τ1/2 = 68.6 days to τ1/2 = 69.6 days. The rate at which the luminosity decreased closely matched the exponential decay of 56Co with a half-life of τ1/2 = 77.233 days.

Use of cobalt radioisotopes in medicine
Cobalt-57 (⇭⇭⇭Co or Co-57) is used in medical tests; it is used as a radiolabel for vitamin B⇭⇭⇭ uptake. It is useful for the Schilling test.

Cobalt-60 (⇭⇭⇭Co or Co-60) is used in radiotherapy. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The ⇭⇭⇭Co source is about 2 cm in diameter and as a result produces a geometric penumbra, making the edge of the radiation field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. The ⇭⇭⇭Co source is useful for about 5 years but even after this point is still very radioactive, and so cobalt machines have fallen from favor in the Western world where Linacs are common.

Industrial uses for radioactive isotopes
Cobalt-60 (⇭⇭⇭Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in predictable quantities, and for its high radioactivity simply by exposing natural cobalt to neutrons in a reactor. The uses for industrial cobalt include:
 * Sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste
 * Radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization)
 * Industrial radiography (e.g., weld integrity radiographs)
 * Density measurements (e.g., concrete density measurements)
 * Tank fill height switches

⇭⇭⇭Co is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy of iron-containing samples. Electron capture by ⇭⇭⇭Co forms an excited state of the ⇭⇭⇭Fe nucleus, which in turn decays to the ground state with the emission of a gamma ray. Measurement of the gamma-ray spectrum provides information about the chemical state of the iron atom in the sample.

title: Isotopes of cobalt


text:
Toni Brogno

Antonio "Toni" Brogno (born 19 July 1973) is a Belgian former professional footballer who played as a striker. He played for Sedan, OH Leuven, Westerlo Sporting Charleroi, where his brother Dante Brogno was an assistant manager, and Olympic Charleroi. He finished top scorer of the Belgian First Division in 1999–2000 with the same number of goals (30) as Ole Martin Årst. He also played for the national football team seven times.

Honours
Individual
 * Belgian First Division top scorer: 1999–2000 (30 goals)

title: Toni Brogno


text:
Isotopes of manganese

Naturally occurring manganese (25Mn) is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. Twenty-seven radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than a minute. This element also has seven meta states.

Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before supernova explosions. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn occurs only in tiny amounts due to the action of cosmic rays on iron in rocks. Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating. Mn−Cr isotopic ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the Solar System. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn−Cr isotopic systematics must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the Solar System.

The isotopes of manganese range from 46Mn to 73Mn. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 55Mn, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=4|46Mn
 * rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=4|45.986669(93)
 * rowspan=4|36.2(4) ms
 * β+, p (57.0%)
 * 45V
 * rowspan=4|(4+)
 * rowspan=4|
 * β+ (25%)
 * 46Cr
 * β+, 2p (18%)
 * 44Ti
 * β+, α?
 * 42Ti
 * rowspan=2|47Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 22
 * rowspan=2|46.975774(34)
 * rowspan=2|88.0(13) ms
 * β+
 * 47Cr
 * rowspan=2|5/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p? (<1.7%)
 * 46V
 * rowspan=3|48Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3|47.9685488(72)
 * rowspan=3|158.1(22) ms
 * β+ (99.72%)
 * 48Cr
 * rowspan=3|4+
 * rowspan=3|
 * β+, p (0.28%)
 * 47V
 * β+, α (6×10−4%)
 * 44Ti
 * 49Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * 48.9596134(24)
 * 382(7) ms
 * β+
 * 49Cr
 * 5/2−
 * 50Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * 49.95423816(12)
 * 283.21(7) ms
 * β+
 * 50Cr
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 50mMn
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 225.31(7) keV
 * 1.75(3) min
 * β+
 * 50Cr
 * 5+
 * 51Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 50.94820877(33)
 * 45.81(21) min
 * β+
 * 51Cr
 * 5/2−
 * 52Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * 51.94555909(14)
 * 5.591(3) d
 * β+
 * 52Cr
 * 6+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 52mMn
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 377.749(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|21.1(2) min
 * β+ (98.22%)
 * 52Cr
 * rowspan=2|2+
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (1.78%)
 * 52Mn
 * 53Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 52.94128750(37)
 * 3.7(4)×106 y
 * EC
 * 53Cr
 * 7/2−
 * trace
 * rowspan=3|54Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 29
 * rowspan=3|53.9403558(11)
 * rowspan=3|312.081(32) d
 * EC
 * 54Cr
 * rowspan=3|3+
 * rowspan=3|
 * β− (9.3×10−5%)
 * 54Fe
 * β+ (1.28×10−7%)
 * 54Cr
 * 55Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 54.93804304(28)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 5/2−
 * 1.0000
 * 56Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 55.93890282(31)
 * 2.5789(1) h
 * β−
 * 56Fe
 * 3+
 * 57Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 56.9382859(16)
 * 85.4(18) s
 * β−
 * 57Fe
 * 5/2−
 * 58Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 57.9400666(29)
 * 3.0(1) s
 * β−
 * 58Fe
 * 1+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 58mMn
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 71.77(5) keV
 * rowspan=2|65.4(5) s
 * β−
 * 58Fe
 * rowspan=2|4+
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT?
 * 58Mn
 * 59Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 58.9403911(25)
 * 4.59(5) s
 * β−
 * 59Fe
 * 5/2−
 * 60Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 59.9431366(25)
 * 280(20) ms
 * β−
 * 60Fe
 * 1+
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 60mMn
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 271.90(10) keV
 * rowspan=2|1.77(2) s
 * β− (88.5%)
 * 60Fe
 * rowspan=2|4+
 * rowspan=2|
 * IT (11.5%)
 * 60Mn
 * rowspan=2|61Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2|60.9444525(25)
 * rowspan=2|709(8) ms
 * β−
 * 61Fe
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 60Fe
 * rowspan=2|62Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2|61.9479074(70)
 * rowspan=2|92(13) ms
 * β−
 * 62Fe
 * rowspan=2|1+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 61Fe
 * rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 62mMn
 * rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 343(6) keV
 * rowspan=3|671(5) ms
 * β−
 * 62Fe
 * rowspan=3|4+
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 61Fe
 * IT?
 * 61Mn
 * rowspan=2|63Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2|62.9496647(40)
 * rowspan=2|275(4) ms
 * β−
 * 63Fe
 * rowspan=2|5/2−
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n?
 * 62Fe
 * rowspan=2|64Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2|63.9538494(38)
 * rowspan=2|88.8(24) ms
 * β− (97.3%)
 * 64Fe
 * rowspan=2|1+
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (2.7%)
 * 63Fe
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 64mMn
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 174.1(5) keV
 * 439(31) μs
 * IT
 * 64Mn
 * (4+)
 * rowspan=2|65Mn
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2|64.9560197(40)
 * rowspan=2|91.9(7) ms
 * β− (92.1%)
 * 65Fe
 * rowspan=2|(5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (7.9%)
 * 64Fe
 * rowspan=3|66Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=3|65.960547(12)
 * rowspan=3|63.8(9) ms
 * β− (92.6%)
 * 66Fe
 * rowspan=3|(1+)
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (7.4%)
 * 65Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 64Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 66mMn
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 464.5(4) keV
 * rowspan=2|780(40) μs
 * IT
 * 66Mn
 * rowspan=2|(5−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−?
 * 66Fe
 * rowspan=3|67Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 42
 * rowspan=3|66.96395(22)#
 * rowspan=3|46.7(23) ms
 * β− (90%)
 * 67Fe
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (10%)
 * 66Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Fe
 * rowspan=3|68Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=3|67.96895(32)#
 * rowspan=3|33.7(15) ms
 * β− (82%)
 * 68Fe
 * rowspan=3|(3)
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (18%)
 * 67Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 66Fe
 * rowspan=3|69Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|68.97278(43)#
 * rowspan=3|22.1(16) ms
 * β− (60%)
 * 69Fe
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (40%)
 * 68Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 67Fe
 * rowspan=3|70Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=3|69.97805(54)#
 * rowspan=3|19.9(17) ms
 * β−
 * 70Fe
 * rowspan=3| (4,5)
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 69Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Fe
 * rowspan=3|71Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=3|70.98216(54)#
 * rowspan=3|16# ms [>400 ns]
 * β−?
 * 71Fe
 * rowspan=3| 5/2-#
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 70Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 69Fe
 * rowspan=3|72Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=3|71.98801(64)#
 * rowspan=3|12# ms [>620 ns]
 * β−?
 * 72Fe
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 71Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 70Fe
 * 73Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 72.99281(64)#
 * 12# ms [>410 ns]
 * β−?
 * 73Fe
 * 5/2−#
 * β−, n (18%)
 * 67Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 66Fe
 * rowspan=3|69Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|68.97278(43)#
 * rowspan=3|22.1(16) ms
 * β− (60%)
 * 69Fe
 * rowspan=3|5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n (40%)
 * 68Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 67Fe
 * rowspan=3|70Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=3|69.97805(54)#
 * rowspan=3|19.9(17) ms
 * β−
 * 70Fe
 * rowspan=3| (4,5)
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 69Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Fe
 * rowspan=3|71Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=3|70.98216(54)#
 * rowspan=3|16# ms [>400 ns]
 * β−?
 * 71Fe
 * rowspan=3| 5/2-#
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 70Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 69Fe
 * rowspan=3|72Mn
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 25
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 47
 * rowspan=3|71.98801(64)#
 * rowspan=3|12# ms [>620 ns]
 * β−?
 * 72Fe
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 71Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 70Fe
 * 73Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 72.99281(64)#
 * 12# ms [>410 ns]
 * β−?
 * 73Fe
 * 5/2−#
 * β−, n?
 * 71Fe
 * β−, 2n?
 * 70Fe
 * 73Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * style="text-align:right" | 48
 * 72.99281(64)#
 * 12# ms [>410 ns]
 * β−?
 * 73Fe
 * 5/2−#
 * β−?
 * 73Fe
 * 5/2−#

title: Isotopes of manganese


text:
Isotopes of iron

Naturally occurring iron (26Fe) consists of four stable isotopes: 5.845% of 54Fe (possibly radioactive with a half-life over $4.4$ years), 91.754% of 56Fe, 2.119% of 57Fe and 0.286% of 58Fe. There are 24 known radioactive isotopes, the most stable of which are 60Fe (half-life 2.6 million years) and 55Fe (half-life 2.7 years).

Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of iron has centered on determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite studies) and ore formation. In the last decade however, advances in mass spectrometry technology have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work has been driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are beginning to emerge.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=2|45Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 19
 * rowspan=2|45.01458(24)#
 * rowspan=2|1.89(49) ms
 * β+ (30%)
 * 45Mn
 * rowspan=2|3/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * 2p (70%)
 * 43Cr
 * rowspan=2|46Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 20
 * rowspan=2|46.00081(38)#
 * rowspan=2|9(4) ms [12(+4-3) ms]
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 46Mn
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 45Cr
 * rowspan=2|47Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=2|46.99289(28)#
 * rowspan=2|21.8(7) ms
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 47Mn
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 46Cr
 * rowspan=2|48Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 22
 * rowspan=2|47.98050(8)#
 * rowspan=2|44(7) ms
 * β+ (96.41%)
 * 48Mn
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (3.59%)
 * 47Cr
 * rowspan=2|49Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2|48.97361(16)#
 * rowspan=2|70(3) ms
 * β+, p (52%)
 * 48Cr
 * rowspan=2|(7/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+ (48%)
 * 49Mn
 * rowspan=2|50Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2|49.96299(6)
 * rowspan=2|155(11) ms
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 50Mn
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (<.1%)
 * 49Cr
 * 51Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * 50.956820(16)
 * 305(5) ms
 * β+
 * 51Mn
 * 5/2−
 * 52Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 51.948114(7)
 * 8.275(8) h
 * β+
 * 52mMn
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 52mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 6.81(13) MeV
 * 45.9(6) s
 * β+
 * 52Mn
 * (12+)#
 * 53Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * 52.9453079(19)
 * 8.51(2) min
 * β+
 * 53Mn
 * 7/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 53mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3040.4(3) keV
 * 2.526(24) min
 * IT
 * 53Fe
 * 19/2−
 * 54Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 53.9396090(5)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.05845(35)
 * 0.05837–0.05861
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 54mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 6526.9(6) keV
 * 364(7) ns
 * 10+
 * 55Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 54.9382934(7)
 * 2.737(11) y
 * EC
 * 55Mn
 * 3/2−
 * 56Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 55.9349363(5)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.91754(36)
 * 0.91742–0.91760
 * 57Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 56.9353928(5)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 1/2−
 * 0.02119(10)
 * 0.02116–0.02121
 * 58Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 57.9332744(5)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.00282(4)
 * 0.00281–0.00282
 * 59Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 58.9348755(8)
 * 44.495(9) d
 * β−
 * 59Co
 * 3/2−
 * 60Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 59.934072(4)
 * 2.6×106 y
 * β−
 * 60Co
 * 0+
 * trace
 * 61Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 60.936745(21)
 * 5.98(6) min
 * β−
 * 61Co
 * 3/2−,5/2−
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 61mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 861(3) keV
 * 250(10) ns
 * 9/2+#
 * 62Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 61.936767(16)
 * 68(2) s
 * β−
 * 62Co
 * 0+
 * 63Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 37
 * 62.94037(18)
 * 6.1(6) s
 * β−
 * 63Co
 * (5/2)−
 * 64Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 63.9412(3)
 * 2.0(2) s
 * β−
 * 64Co
 * 0+
 * 65Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 64.94538(26)
 * 1.3(3) s
 * β−
 * 65Co
 * 1/2−#
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 65mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 364(3) keV
 * 430(130) ns
 * (5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|66Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2|65.94678(32)
 * rowspan=2|440(40) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 66Co
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 65Co
 * rowspan=2|67Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2|66.95095(45)
 * rowspan=2|394(9) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 67Co
 * rowspan=2|1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 66Co
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 67mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 367(3) keV
 * 64(17) μs
 * (5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|68Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 42
 * rowspan=2|67.95370(75)
 * rowspan=2|187(6) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 68Co
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n
 * 67Co
 * rowspan=2|69Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|68.95878(54)#
 * rowspan=2|109(9) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 69Co
 * rowspan=2|1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 68Co
 * 70Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 69.96146(64)#
 * 94(17) ms
 * 0+
 * 71Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 70.96672(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2+#
 * 72Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 71.96962(86)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|66Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 40
 * rowspan=2|65.94678(32)
 * rowspan=2|440(40) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 66Co
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 65Co
 * rowspan=2|67Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 41
 * rowspan=2|66.95095(45)
 * rowspan=2|394(9) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 67Co
 * rowspan=2|1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 66Co
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 67mFe
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 367(3) keV
 * 64(17) μs
 * (5/2−)
 * rowspan=2|68Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 42
 * rowspan=2|67.95370(75)
 * rowspan=2|187(6) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 68Co
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n
 * 67Co
 * rowspan=2|69Fe
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 26
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=2|68.95878(54)#
 * rowspan=2|109(9) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 69Co
 * rowspan=2|1/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 68Co
 * 70Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 44
 * 69.96146(64)#
 * 94(17) ms
 * 0+
 * 71Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 70.96672(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2+#
 * 72Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 71.96962(86)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 71Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 45
 * 70.96672(86)#
 * 30# ms [>300 ns]
 * 7/2+#
 * 72Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 71.96962(86)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 7/2+#
 * 72Fe
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * style="text-align:right" | 46
 * 71.96962(86)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 71.96962(86)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 0+
 * 0+
 * 0+

 * Atomic masses of the stable nuclides (54Fe, 56Fe, 57Fe, and 58Fe) are given by the AME2012 atomic mass evaluation. The one standard deviation errors are given in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.

Iron-54
54Fe is observationally stable, but theoretically can decay to 54Cr, with a half-life of more than $4.4$ years via double electron capture (εε).

Iron-56
$56$Fe is the most abundant isotope of iron. It is also the isotope with the lowest mass per nucleon, 930.412 MeV/c$2$, though not the isotope with the highest nuclear binding energy per nucleon, which is nickel-62. However, because of the details of how nucleosynthesis works, $56$Fe is a more common endpoint of fusion chains inside supernovae, where it is mostly produced as 56Ni. Thus, 56Ni is more common in the universe, relative to other metals, including $62$Ni, $58$Fe and $60$Ni, all of which have a very high binding energy.

The high nuclear binding energy for 56Fe represents the point where further nuclear reactions become energetically unfavorable. Because of this, it is among the heaviest elements formed in stellar nucleosynthesis reactions in massive stars. These reactions fuse lighter elements like magnesium, silicon, and sulfur to form heavier elements. Among the heavier elements formed is 56Ni, which subsequently decays to 56Co and then 56Fe.

Iron-57
$57$Fe is widely used in Mössbauer spectroscopy and the related nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy due to the low natural variation in energy of the 14.4 keV nuclear transition. The transition was famously used to make the first definitive measurement of gravitational redshift, in the 1960 Pound–Rebka experiment.

Iron-58
Iron-58 can be used to combat anemia and low iron absorption, to metabolically track iron-controlling human genes, and for tracing elements in nature. Iron-58 is also an assisting reagent in the synthesis of superheavy elements.

Iron-60
Iron-60 is an iron isotope with a half-life of 2.6 million years, but was thought until 2009 to have a half-life of 1.5 million years. It undergoes beta decay to cobalt-60, which then decays with a half-life of about 5 years to stable nickel-60. Traces of iron-60 have been found in lunar samples.

In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the granddaughter isotope of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found, which is evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the Solar System and its early history.

Iron-60 found in fossilised bacteria in sea floor sediments suggest there was a supernova in the vicinity of the Solar System approximately 2 million years ago. Iron-60 is also found in sediments from 8 million years ago. In 2019, researchers found interstellar 60Fe in Antarctica, which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud.

The distance to the supernova of origin can be estimated by relating the amount of iron-60 intercepted as Earth passes through the expanding supernova ejecta. Assuming that the material ejected in a supernova expands uniformly out from its origin as a sphere with a surface area of 4πr2. The fraction of the material intercepted by the Earth is dependent on its cross-sectional area (πR2earth) as it passes through the expanding debris. Where Mej is the mass of ejected material.$$M_{\text {Fraction intercepted }}=\frac{\pi R_{\text {Earth }}^{2}}{4 \pi r^{2}} M_{e j}$$Assuming the intercepted material is distributed uniformly across the surface of the Earth (4πR2earth), the mass surface density (Σej) of the supernova ejecta on Earth is: $$ \Sigma_{e j}=\frac{M_{\text {Fraction intercepted }}}{A_{\text {surface,Earth }}}=\frac{M_{e j}}{16 \pi r^2}$$The number of 60Fe atoms per unit area found on Earth can be estimated if the typical amount of 60Fe ejected from a supernova is known. This can be done by dividing the surface mass density (Σej) by the atomic mass of 60Fe. $$ N_{60}=\left(\frac{M_{e j, 60} / m_{60}}{16 \pi r^2}\right) $$The equation for N60 can be rearranged to find the distance to the supernova.$$

r=\sqrt{\frac{M_{e j, 60}}{16 \pi m_{60} N_{60}}} $$An example calculation for the distance to the supernova point of origin is given below. This calculation uses speculative values for terrestrial 60Fe atom surface density (N60 ≈ 4 × 1011 atoms2/m) and a rough estimate of the mass of 60Fe ejected in a supernova explosion (10-5 M☉). $$

r=\sqrt{\frac{10^{-5} M_{\odot}}{16 \pi\left(60 m_p\right) N_{60}}}

$$$$

r=3 \times 10^{18} m=100 p c

$$More sophisticated analyses have been reported that take into consideration the flux and deposition of 60Fe as well as possible interfering background sources.

Cobalt-60, the decay product of iron-60, emits 1.173 MeV and 1.333 MeV as it decays. These gamma-ray lines have long been important targets for gamma-ray astronomy, and have been detected by the gamma-ray observatory INTEGRAL. The signal traces the Galactic plane, showing that 60Fe synthesis is ongoing in our Galaxy, and probing element production in massive stars.

title: Isotopes of iron


text:
Isotopes of chromium

Naturally occurring chromium (24Cr) is composed of four stable isotopes; 50Cr, 52Cr, 53Cr, and 54Cr with 52Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance). 50Cr is suspected of decaying by β+β+ to 50Ti with a half-life of (more than) 1.8×1017 years. Twenty-two radioisotopes, all of which are entirely synthetic, have been characterized, the most stable being 51Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has two meta states, 45mCr, the more stable one, and 59mCr, the least stable isotope or isomer.

53Cr is the radiogenic decay product of 53Mn. Chromium isotopic contents are typically combined with manganese isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology. Mn-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the Solar System. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotope systematics must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Cr provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the Solar System. The same isotope is preferentially involved in certain leaching reactions, thereby allowing its abundance in seawater sediments to be used as a proxy for atmospheric oxygen concentrations.

The isotopes of chromium range from 42Cr to 70Cr. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 52Cr, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.

List of isotopes

 * rowspan=2|42Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 18
 * rowspan=2|42.00643(32)#
 * rowspan=2|14(3) ms [13(+4-2) ms]
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 42V
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * 2p (<.1%)
 * 40Ti
 * rowspan=4|43Cr
 * rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 19
 * rowspan=4|42.99771(24)#
 * rowspan=4|21.6(7) ms
 * β+ (71%)
 * 43V
 * rowspan=4|(3/2+)
 * rowspan=4|
 * rowspan=4|
 * β+, p (23%)
 * 42Ti
 * β+, 2p (6%)
 * 41Sc
 * β+, α (<.1%)
 * 39Sc
 * rowspan=2|44Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 20
 * rowspan=2|43.98555(5)#
 * rowspan=2|54(4) ms [53(+4-3) ms]
 * β+ (93%)
 * 44V
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (7%)
 * 43Ti
 * rowspan=2|45Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=2|44.97964(54)
 * rowspan=2|50(6) ms
 * β+ (73%)
 * 45V
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, p (27%)
 * 44Ti
 * rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 45mCr
 * rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 50(100)# keV
 * rowspan=2|1# ms
 * IT
 * 45Cr
 * rowspan=2|3/2+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+
 * 45V
 * 46Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 22
 * 45.968359(21)
 * 0.26(6) s
 * β+
 * 46V
 * 0+
 * 47Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * 46.962900(15)
 * 500(15) ms
 * β+
 * 47V
 * 3/2−
 * 48Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * 47.954032(8)
 * 21.56(3) h
 * β+
 * 48V
 * 0+
 * 49Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * 48.9513357(26)
 * 42.3(1) min
 * β+
 * 49V
 * 5/2−
 * 50Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 49.9460442(11)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.04345(13)
 * 0.04294–0.04345
 * 51Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 27
 * 50.9447674(11)
 * 27.7025(24) d
 * EC
 * 51V
 * 7/2−
 * 52Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 51.9405075(8)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.83789(18)
 * 0.83762–0.83790
 * 53Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 52.9406494(8)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 3/2−
 * 0.09501(17)
 * 0.09501–0.09553
 * 54Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 53.9388804(8)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 0+
 * 0.02365(7)
 * 0.02365–0.02391
 * 55Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 54.9408397(8)
 * 3.497(3) min
 * β−
 * 55Mn
 * 3/2−
 * 56Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 55.9406531(20)
 * 5.94(10) min
 * β−
 * 56Mn
 * 0+
 * 57Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 33
 * 56.943613(2)
 * 21.1(10) s
 * β−
 * 57Mn
 * (3/2−)
 * 58Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 34
 * 57.94435(22)
 * 7.0(3) s
 * β−
 * 58Mn
 * 0+
 * 59Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 35
 * 58.94859(26)
 * 460(50) ms
 * β−
 * 59Mn
 * 5/2−#
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 59mCr
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 503.0(17) keV
 * 96(20) μs
 * (9/2+)
 * 60Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 36
 * 59.95008(23)
 * 560(60) ms
 * β−
 * 60Mn
 * 0+
 * rowspan=2|61Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2|60.95472(27)
 * rowspan=2|261(15) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 61Mn
 * rowspan=2|5/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 60Mn
 * rowspan=2|62Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 38
 * rowspan=2|61.95661(36)
 * rowspan=2|199(9) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 62Mn
 * rowspan=2|0+
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n
 * 61Mn
 * rowspan=2|63Cr
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 39
 * rowspan=2|62.96186(32)#
 * rowspan=2|129(2) ms
 * β−
 * 63Mn
 * rowspan=2|(1/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n
 * 62Mn
 * 64Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 63.96441(43)#
 * 43(1) ms
 * β−
 * 64Mn
 * 0+
 * 65Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 64.97016(54)#
 * 27(3) ms
 * β−
 * 65Mn
 * (1/2−)#
 * 66Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 65.97338(64)#
 * 10(6) ms
 * β−
 * 66Mn
 * 0+
 * 67Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 66.97955(75)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 67Mn
 * 1/2−#
 * rowspan=3|68Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|67.98316(54)#
 * rowspan=3|10# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 68Mn
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 67Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 66Mn
 * rowspan=3|69Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=3|68.98966(54)#
 * rowspan=3|6# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 69Mn
 * rowspan=3|7/2+#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 68Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 67Mn
 * rowspan=3|70Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=3|69.99395(64)#
 * rowspan=3|6# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 70Mn
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 69Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Mn
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 64.97016(54)#
 * 27(3) ms
 * β−
 * 65Mn
 * (1/2−)#
 * 66Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 65.97338(64)#
 * 10(6) ms
 * β−
 * 66Mn
 * 0+
 * 67Cr
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * style="text-align:right" | 43
 * 66.97955(75)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * β−
 * 67Mn
 * 1/2−#
 * rowspan=3|68Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|67.98316(54)#
 * rowspan=3|10# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 68Mn
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 67Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 66Mn
 * rowspan=3|69Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 45
 * rowspan=3|68.98966(54)#
 * rowspan=3|6# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 69Mn
 * rowspan=3|7/2+#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 68Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 67Mn
 * rowspan=3|70Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=3|69.99395(64)#
 * rowspan=3|6# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 70Mn
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 69Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Mn
 * rowspan=3|70Cr
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 24
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 46
 * rowspan=3|69.99395(64)#
 * rowspan=3|6# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 70Mn
 * rowspan=3|0+
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 69Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Mn
 * β−, 2n?
 * 68Mn
 * 68Mn

Chromium-51
Chromium-51 is a synthetic radioactive isotope of chromium having a half-life of 27.7 days and decaying by electron capture with emission of gamma rays (0.32 MeV); it is used to label red blood cells for measurement of mass or volume, survival time, and sequestration studies, for the diagnosis of gastrointestinal bleeding, and to label platelets to study their survival. It has a role as a radioactive label. Chromium Cr-51 has been used as a radioactive label for decades. It is used as a diagnostic radiopharmaceutical agent in nephrology to determine glomerular filtration rate, and in hematology to determine red blood cell volume or mass, study the red blood cell survival time and evaluate blood loss.

title: Isotopes of chromium


text:
Isotopes of vanadium

Naturally occurring vanadium (23V) is composed of one stable isotope 51V and one radioactive isotope 50V with a half-life of 2.71×1017 years. 24 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized (in the range of mass number between 40 and 65) with the most stable being 49V with a half-life of 330 days, and 48V with a half-life of 15.9735 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour, the majority of them below 10 seconds, the least stable being 42V with a half-life shorter than 55 nanoseconds, with all of the isotopes lighter than it, and none of the heavier, have unknown half-lives. In 4 isotopes, metastable excited states were found (including 2 metastable states for 60V), which adds up to 5 meta states.

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope 51V is electron capture. The next most common mode is beta decay. The primary decay products before 51V are element 22 (titanium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 24 (chromium) isotopes.

List of isotopes

 * 40V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 17
 * 40.01109(54)#
 * p
 * 39Ti
 * 2−#
 * 41V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 18
 * 40.99978(22)#
 * p
 * 40Ti
 * 7/2−#
 * 42V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 19
 * 41.99123(21)#
 * <55 ns
 * p
 * 41Ti
 * 2−#
 * 43V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 20
 * 42.98065(25)#
 * 80# ms
 * β+
 * 43Ti
 * 7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|44V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 21
 * rowspan=2|43.97411(13)
 * rowspan=2|111(7) ms
 * β+ (>99.9%)
 * 44Ti
 * rowspan=2|(2+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β+, α (<.1%)
 * 40Ca
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 44mV
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 270(100)# keV
 * 150(3) ms
 * β+
 * 44Ti
 * (6+)
 * 45V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 22
 * 44.965776(18)
 * 547(6) ms
 * β+
 * 45Ti
 * 7/2−
 * 46V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * 45.9602005(11)
 * 422.50(11) ms
 * β+
 * 46Ti
 * 0+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 46mV
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 801.46(10) keV
 * 1.02(7) ms
 * IT
 * 46V
 * 3+
 * 47V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 24
 * 46.9549089(9)
 * 32.6(3) min
 * β+
 * 47Ti
 * 3/2−
 * 48V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 25
 * 47.9522537(27)
 * 15.9735(25) d
 * β+
 * 48Ti
 * 4+
 * 49V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 26
 * 48.9485161(12)
 * 329(3) d
 * EC
 * 49Ti
 * 7/2−
 * rowspan=2|50V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 27
 * rowspan=2|49.9471585(11)
 * rowspan=2|2.71(13)×1017 y
 * β+
 * 50Ti
 * rowspan=2|6+
 * rowspan=2|0.00250(4)
 * rowspan=2|0.002487–0.002502
 * β− (<3%)
 * 50Cr
 * 51V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 28
 * 50.9439595(11)
 * colspan=3 align=center|Stable
 * 7/2−
 * 0.99750(4)
 * 0.997498–0.997513
 * See V-51 nuclear magnetic resonance
 * 52V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 29
 * 51.9447755(11)
 * 3.743(5) min
 * β−
 * 52Cr
 * 3+
 * 53V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 30
 * 52.944338(3)
 * 1.60(4) min
 * β−
 * 53Cr
 * 7/2−
 * 54V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 31
 * 53.946440(16)
 * 49.8(5) s
 * β−
 * 54Cr
 * 3+
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 54mV
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 108(3) keV
 * 900(500) ns
 * (5+)
 * 55V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 32
 * 54.94723(11)
 * 6.54(15) s
 * β−
 * 55Cr
 * (7/2−)#
 * rowspan=2|56V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 33
 * rowspan=2|55.95053(22)
 * rowspan=2|216(4) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 56Cr
 * rowspan=2|(1+)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n
 * 55Cr
 * rowspan=2|57V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 34
 * rowspan=2|56.95256(25)
 * rowspan=2|0.35(1) s
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 57Cr
 * rowspan=2|(3/2−)
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 56Cr
 * rowspan=2|58V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 35
 * rowspan=2|57.95683(27)
 * rowspan=2|191(8) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 58Cr
 * rowspan=2|3+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 57Cr
 * rowspan=2|59V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 36
 * rowspan=2|58.96021(33)
 * rowspan=2|75(7) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 59Cr
 * rowspan=2|7/2−#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 58Cr
 * rowspan=2|60V
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 37
 * rowspan=2|59.96503(51)
 * rowspan=2|122(18) ms
 * β− (>99.9%)
 * 60Cr
 * rowspan=2|3+#
 * rowspan=2|
 * rowspan=2|
 * β−, n (<.1%)
 * 59Cr
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 60m1V
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 0(150)# keV
 * 40(15) ms
 * 1+#
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 60m2V
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 101(1) keV
 * >400 ns
 * 61V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 60.96848(43)#
 * 47.0(12) ms
 * β−
 * 61Cr
 * 7/2−#
 * 62V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 61.97378(54)#
 * 33.5(20) ms
 * β−
 * 62Cr
 * 3+#
 * 63V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 62.97755(64)#
 * 17(3) ms
 * β−
 * 63Cr
 * (7/2−)#
 * 64V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 63.98347(75)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 65V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 64.98792(86)#
 * 10# ms
 * 5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|66V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=3|65.99324(54)#
 * rowspan=3|10# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 66Cr
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 65Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 64Cr
 * rowspan=3|67V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|66.99813(64)#
 * rowspan=3|8# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 67Cr
 * rowspan=3| 5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 66Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Cr
 * 40(15) ms
 * 1+#
 * style="text-indent:1em" | 60m2V
 * colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 101(1) keV
 * >400 ns
 * 61V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 38
 * 60.96848(43)#
 * 47.0(12) ms
 * β−
 * 61Cr
 * 7/2−#
 * 62V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 39
 * 61.97378(54)#
 * 33.5(20) ms
 * β−
 * 62Cr
 * 3+#
 * 63V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 40
 * 62.97755(64)#
 * 17(3) ms
 * β−
 * 63Cr
 * (7/2−)#
 * 64V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 41
 * 63.98347(75)#
 * 10# ms [>300 ns]
 * 65V
 * style="text-align:right" | 23
 * style="text-align:right" | 42
 * 64.98792(86)#
 * 10# ms
 * 5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|66V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=3|65.99324(54)#
 * rowspan=3|10# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 66Cr
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 65Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 64Cr
 * rowspan=3|67V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|66.99813(64)#
 * rowspan=3|8# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 67Cr
 * rowspan=3| 5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 66Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Cr
 * rowspan=3|66V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 43
 * rowspan=3|65.99324(54)#
 * rowspan=3|10# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 66Cr
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 65Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 64Cr
 * rowspan=3|67V
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 23
 * rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 44
 * rowspan=3|66.99813(64)#
 * rowspan=3|8# ms (>620 ns)
 * β−?
 * 67Cr
 * rowspan=3| 5/2−#
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 66Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Cr
 * rowspan=3|
 * rowspan=3|
 * β−, n?
 * 66Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Cr
 * β−, 2n?
 * 65Cr

title: Isotopes of vanadium


text:
Tonicha Jeronimo

Tonicha Dobre (née Jeronimo; born 4 November 1977) is a British actress, born in Jersey, of partial Portuguese extraction. She is best known for her role as Linda Fowler in Emmerdale between 1994 and 1997 when her character was killed off.

Early life and education
Jeronimo has a Portuguese father named Antonio, a mother named Susan, an older sister named Filipa, and her eldest sister named Lisa.

Jeronimo and her family left Jersey when she was 11 years old, living for a short time in Portugal, before moving to Yorkshire permanently.

Jeronimo attended the Carousel School of Dancing (renamed to Studio 16 in 2016) in Jersey, from the age of 2 years old. She was one of the youngest actors ever to be offered a place at the London Studio Centre, however she had to turn the offer down, after taking her first TV acting role in Emmerdale at the age of 16 years old instead.

Career
After leaving Emmerdale she joined the Hull Truck Theatre company, where she worked regularly with the playwright John Godber, who was also the director of the theatre.

From December 1997 to January 1998, she starred in the pantomime Cinderella at the Sunderland Empire Theatre.

From February to April 1998, she toured Beauty and the Beast, at the Swansea Grand Theatre in Swansea, the Pavilion Theatre in Rhyl, the Hull New Theatre, the Forum Theatre in Billingham, and the Manchester Opera House.

From April to June 2000, she starred in John Godber's production of Seasons in the Sun at the Hull Truck Theatre, and the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds.

From December 2000 to January 2001, Jeronimo and her then-husband Stuart Wade, appeared in Simon Barry's pantomime version of Cinderella at the Grand Opera House, York. She played the title role, while husband Stuart played the role of Buttons.

From May to June 2001, she starred in Alice Bartlett's stage adaption of Little Malcolm and his Struggles Against the Eunuchs, again with Wade, at the Hull Truck Theatre, and the Theatre Royal, Wakefield.

In May 2001, she starred in Kate Bramley's production of Doctor Faustus, again with Wade, at the Hull Truck Theatre.

From December 2001 to January 2002, she starred in Cinderella for a third time, this time with her sister Filipa Jeronimo (now known as Pippa Adams), as well as Wade, at the Tameside Hippodrome in Ashton-under-Lyne.

From December 2003 to January 2004, she and Wade starred in the pantomime of Jack and the Beanstalk at the Grand Opera House in York. Jeronimo played the role of Fairy Peapod, while Wade played the role of Simple Simon.

Jeronimo and Wade owned a hairdressing business, and Wade owned a property developing business. After Jack and the Beanstalk ended, they both decided to leave acting for a while to focus on their growing family. Jeronimo also worked for West Yorkshire Police for eight years, between 2001 and 2009.

In September 2008, she founded the acting school Tonicha Lawrence Academy (abbreviated to the TLA), which is based at Gateways School in Harewood, West Yorkshire. She also founded the acting agency TLA Boutique Management at the same time. TLA Boutique Management originally offered representation to children and adults in the industry, by getting them auditions, before focusing solely on representing children. In 2020 TLA Boutique Management separated from the acting school, and was renamed Wrap Management. Wrap Management represents experienced children and adults from Northern England.

In January 2014, Jeronimo published a book titled The Business in Show.

In May 2016, she joined the cast of the BBC medical drama Casualty, playing the role of Steph Sims in three episodes between May and August. She played the mother of Carmel Sims played by Jeronimo's daughter Sydney Wade. She reprised her role as Steph Sims again in an August 2016 episode of Holby City, and a February 2017 episode of Casualty.

Personal life
In August 2000, Jeronimo married Stuart Wade (born 1 August 1969, Halifax, West Yorkshire) who played her on-screen husband Biff Fowler in Emmerdale, in Jersey. Jeronimo has three children: a daughter named Sydney Wade, a daughter named Ava Dodds, and a son named Lorcan Alexander Dodds (commonly known as Lorcan Alexander). Her daughter Sydney is also an actress.

All three children have had roles at the TLA Leeds: Sydney is a LAMDA teacher and screen teaching assistant currently at the school; Ava is a current school ambassador for dance; and Lorcan is the former head of dance at the school.

In 2017, she moved back to Jersey, to work with her sister Pippa Adams, who runs a youth acting company called Drama Lab. In 2018, she opened up a bar and restaurant called Ruby's Lounge and Bistro in Saint Helier. Her actress daughter Sydney works in the kitchen of Ruby's as a cook.

In January 2020, she married Andrei Dobre, a Romanian, with whom she has one child.

title: Tonicha Jeronimo


text:
Kurt Goldstein

Kurt Goldstein (November 6, 1878 – September 19, 1965) was a German neurologist and psychiatrist who created a holistic theory of the organism. Educated in medicine, Goldstein studied under Carl Wernicke and Ludwig Edinger where he focused on neurology and psychiatry. His clinical work helped inspire the establishment of The Institute for Research into the Consequences of Brain Injuries. Goldstein was forced to leave Germany when Hitler came to power because of his Jewish heritage. After being displaced, Goldstein wrote The Organism (1934). This focused on patients with psychological disorders, particularly cases of schizophrenia and war trauma, and the ability of their bodies to readjust to substantial losses in central control. His holistic approach to the human organism produced the principle of self actualization, defined as the driving force that maximizes and determines the path of an individual. Later, his principle influenced Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He was the co-editor of Journal of Humanistic Psychology.

Early life
Goldstein was born into a Jewish family the seventh of nine children. He lived in Upper Silesia in an eastern part of the German empire with his family. Goldstein's father was a successful owner of a lumberyard. Although not formally educated, Goldstein's father held scholarship in high regard. He felt that a good education was the most proper way to prepare for life, and because of this, ensured that all his sons obtained university degrees.

As a child, Goldstein was described as being shy, quiet, and bookish amidst his bustling surroundings. His love of reading earned him the nickname of "Professor" at the public school he attended in Kattowitz. The Goldstein family relocated to the metropolitan city of Breslau after a few years, where Goldstein attended the Humanistische Gymnasium. After graduation, Goldstein planned to study philosophy at the university level. His father did not approve of this venture, as he considered it an unprofitable art, and sent Goldstein to work at a relative's business.

Academic career
After a short period working at that business, Goldstein's father reluctantly allowed him to enroll at Breslau University. Goldstein stayed there for only one semester before he transferred to the University of Heidelberg where he was able to pursue the study of Neo-Kantian philosophy and literature where he was introduced to the concepts of Carl Wernicke. One year later, Goldstein made his way back to Breslau where he studied medicine, much to his father's satisfaction. Under the instruction of Wernicke, Goldstein focused his study on neurology and psychiatry. Goldstein obtained his medical degree at the age of 25.

In 1903, Ludwig Edinger invited Goldstein to the Senckebergisches Neurologisches Institut at the University of Frankfurt where he became Edinger's assistant (Oct 1903 - Sept 1904). Edinger became one of the most influential figures in Goldstein's career. After a stint in Königsberg, Goldstein returned to work with Edinger in 1914 at the Neurological Institute in Frankfurt as first assistant. Their goal was to investigate comparative neuroanatomy and neuropathology. After Edinger's death in 1918, Goldstein became acting director of the Neurological Institute. From 1917 to 1927, Goldstein yielded conceptual aspects of neurological conditions including tonus disturbances, agnosia, aphasia, apraxia, and general behavioral changes after a brain injury. In July 1922, he was appointed associate professor for Neurology and director of the Neurological Institute. In 1923, he assumed the role of professor of neurology.

In 1926, Fritz Perls became Goldstein's assistant for a year. Perls married Laura Posner in 1930. They would go on to become the co-developers of Gestalt therapy. Goldstein's research and theory had a considerable influence on the formation of this new psychotherapy. Later that year, Goldstein accepted a position at the University of Berlin and the director of neurology at Berlin-Moabit General Hospital. The hospital was established for Goldstein's patients to study their neurological conditions.

In 1927, Goldstein was instrumental in organizing the International Society for Psychotherapy.[NAS1]  He published material on the roles of the nurse, physician and social worker for inpatient care of brain-injured patients. In 1938, he was to read the William James Lectures on Philosophy and Psychology at Harvard and these were later published. He was clinical professor of neurology at Tufts Medical School. He was active on the staff of the Boston Dispensary's clinic for nervous diseases.

Professional career
Between 1906 and 1914, Goldstein worked in a psychiatric clinic in Königsberg. Here he realized that the patients were not receiving adequate treatment. During World War I, Goldstein treated a large number of soldiers with traumatic brain injuries at the clinic, and he established The Institute for Research into the Consequences of Brain Injuries in close cooperation with Adhémar Gelb, a gestalt psychologist. The collaboration between the two resulted in sixteen papers, the most notable of which reported on a case of visual agnosia. Goldstein served as the director of the clinic until 1930. It was there that he also developed his theory of brain-mind relationships. He applied the figure-ground principle from perception to the whole organism. In this application, the whole organism existed as the ground for the individual stimulus that formed the figure. This idea became an early criticism of the simple behavioral stimulus-response-theory.

When Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933, Goldstein, was arrested and imprisoned in a basement. After a week, he was released on the condition that he would agree to leave the country immediately and never return. For the next year Goldstein lived in Amsterdam, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, and wrote his classic The Organism.

Goldstein immigrated to the United States of America in October 1934 and became a citizen in April 1941. He worked at the Psychiatric Institute in New York City, Montefiore Hospital as attending neurologist and made connections with Columbia University in New York. Between 1940 and 1945, Goldstein worked at the Tufts Medical School in Boston as the clinical professor of neurology. In 1946 he returned to New York City, where he established a private practice.

While in the United States, Goldstein coined the phrase "self actualization". Goldstein met American psychologist Abraham Maslow, who was at Brandeis University. Maslow became influenced greatly by Goldstein's ideas, particularly self-actualization. Later, this principle would become a fundamental concept in Maslow's "Need - Hierarchy Theory of Motivation". Self-actualization was an essential component to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, but differed from Goldstein's original concept. Maslow described self-actualization as realizing one's full potential and seeking personal growth. Maslow felt that self-actualization would only be met if all fundamental needs had been satisfied first.

Holistic approach
Goldstein's holistic approach is described in his book, The Organism. Rather than looking at certain phenomena, such as the patellar reflex, as singular events, Goldstein tried to understand them as components of a holistic organism. Although he believed it was possible that reflexes could exist by themselves, Goldstein's approach postulated that they always exist in concurrence with another process in the body. While hitting the kneecap with a rubber hammer or testing the pupillary response might seem to be a simple example of an isolated reflex, Goldstein argued that a holistic approach would be necessary to fully understand what the body is experiencing. In an excerpt from The Organism, he writes:

"If, in examining a man's pupillary reflex, we obtain a relatively constant contraction of the iris, this is possible only because the individual, so to speak, surrenders his eye to us and completely foregoes the usual act of seeing, i.e. the visual prehension of some environmental feature. Of course, it is true that in real vision the diameter of the pupil changes according to the amount of light on the seen object. But it certainly is not true that the same light intensity will produce the same contraction when it affects the organ in isolation (as in the reflex examination), and when it acts upon the eye of the person who deliberately regards an objects. Although it is not easy to prove this experimentally, one only needs to contrast the pupillary reaction of a man looking interestedly at a brightly illuminated object with the reaction of an eye which has been exposed 'in isolation,' to the same light intensity. The difference in pupillary reaction is immediately manifest."

Goldstein asserts that, when observing a phenomenon within an organism, humans instinctively isolate that observation from the context in an attempt to understand it better. Yet, in doing so, they miss the essence or intrinsic nature of the organism. Rather than attempting to understand single facets of a situation, Goldstein believes it is essential to understand the situation in which the phenomenon arose.

To illustrate this idea, Goldstein gives the example of a person first learning how to ride a bicycle. Initially, the person will attempt various motions in an attempt to succeed. While some motions fail to manifest in success, eventually the individual will understand how to coordinate their body in respect to the bicycle, and ride it successfully. While a smoothly propelled bicycle may signify accomplishment, looking at the coordinated movements of the learner and the smile that results is also another sign. Thus, when looking at a single aspect of a phenomenon instead of the whole, Goldstein argues one misses the true nature of the phenomenon.

Methodology
Goldstein developed an approach whereby a situation or phenomenon is analyzed holistically, rather than simply looking at an isolated event. First, when observing a situation, interpretations should be taken in as a whole without giving special preference toward one part of the phenomenon. When describing the phenomenon, attention should not be diverted to one aspect of the phenomenon that may be of interest. The holistic approach calls instead for the phenomenon to be described from all angles without bias toward one part. Lastly, Goldstein argues that one must consider each and every phenomenon in reference to the entire situation.

Schizophrenia
Although trained as a medical doctor, Goldstein pioneered many important advances in psychology. As an early pioneer of neuropsychology, he studied the effects of brain damage on abstraction abilities. His work lead him to conclude that although physical areas of the brain, such as the frontal lobes and the subcortical ganglia, may be damaged, psychological trauma was a more pressing concern. His conclusions on schizophrenia emphasized the disease as a protective mechanism against anxiety rather than an organic defect.

War trauma
Following the research of German neurologist, Hermann Oppenheim, on war-related trauma, Goldstein focused upon understanding the trauma of soldiers returning from duty in World War I. At the time, physicians thought soldiers were merely faking symptoms in order to receive a pension after the war and there was little research to prove otherwise. Goldstein and his team attempted to look at this from a holistic perspective by theorizing that all neural networks were interconnected and thus, connected to the outside world. Therefore, any trauma one receives from the war would directly impact the neural networks.

Goldstein later attempted to rehabilitate patients suffering from war trauma. At the time, suffering veterans were placed in penitentiaries and asylums. Goldstein attempted to bring back normal function of patients by introducing multidisciplinary care teams consisting of medical, orthopedic, physiological, and psychological personnel, as well as a school facility to provide workshops for patients. His efforts resulted in successful rehabilitation of many soldiers: 73% of patients were able to return to their old jobs while only 10% remained hospitalized.

Books/monographs

 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1908). Zur Lehre von der motorischen Apraxie. J. fur Psychol. und Neurol., XI., 169-187, 270-283.
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1934). Der Aufbau des Organismus. Einführung in die Biologie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Erfahrungen am kranken Menschen. Den Haag, Nijhoff, 1934
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1939). The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man. New York: American Book Company.
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1940). Human Nature in the Light of Psychopathology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 * Goldstein, Kurt; Scheerer, Martin.(1941): Abstract and Concrete Behavior: An Experimental Study With Special Tests. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 53/1941, No. 2 (whole No. 239), p. 1-151.
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1942) After effects of brain injuries in war. New York: Grune & Stratton.
 * Goldstein, Kurt., Hanfmann, E., Rickers-Ovsiankina (1944). Case Lanuti: Extreme Concretization of Behavior Due to Damage of the Brain Cortex. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 57/1944, No. 4 (whole No. 264), p. 1-72.
 * Goldstein, Kurt., Scheerer, M., Rothmann, E. (1945). A Case of "Idiot Savant": An Experimental Study of Personality Organization. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 58/1945, No. 4 (whole No. 269), p. 1-63.
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1948). Language and Language Disturbances: Aphasic Symptom Complexes and Their Significance for Medicine and Theory of Language. New York: Grune & Stratton.
 * Goldstein, Kurt. (1967). Selected writings. ed., Aron Gurwitsch, Else M. Goldstein.

On Goldstein

 * Benzenhöfer, Udo. "Kurt Goldstein - ein herausragender Neurologe und Neuropathologe an der Universität Frankfurt am Main" Benzenhöfer, U., Ehrlich, Edinger, Goldstein et al.: Erinnerungswürdige Frankfurter Universitätsmediziner. Münster/Ulm 2012, pp. 43–65''
 * Bruns, Katja, Anthropologie zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft bei Paul Tillich und Kurt Goldstein. Historische Grundlagen und systematische Perspektiven. Kontexte. Neue Beiträge zur historischen und systematischen Theologie, Vol. 41. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2011, ISBN 978-3-7675-7143-3
 * Geroulanos, Stefanos and Todd Meyers. The Human Body in the Age of Catastrophe: Brittleness, Integration, Science, and the Great War. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018) ISBN 978-0226556598
 * Geroulanos, Stefanos and Todd Meyers, Experimente im Individuum: Kurt Goldstein und die Frage des Organismus. (Berlin, August Vlg., 2014)
 * Harrington, Anne: Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Anne Harrington dedicates a comprehensive chapter to Kurt Goldstein and his 'organismic theory'.)
 * Stahnisch, Frank W., Hoffmann, Thomas: Kurt Goldstein and the Neurology of Movement During the Interwar Years. In: Hoffstadt, Christian u. a. (Hrsg.): Was bewegt uns? Menschen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Mobilität und Beschleunigung. Bochum/Freiburg: Projekt Verlag, 2010, pp. 283–311
 * Teuber, H.-L. (1966) Kurt Goldstein's role in the development of neuropsychology, Neuropsychologia 4, 299–310.
 * Benzenhöfer, Udo, Hack-Molitor, Gisela: Zur Emigration des Neurologen Kurt Goldstein. Ulm 2017 (Frankfurter Studien zur Geschichte und Ethik der Medizin, Neue Folge 5)

title: Kurt Goldstein


text: User talk:81.76.98.77

title: User talk:81.76.98.77