text:
Talk:SoulDecision

Reasons for Article Re-write
The article as it previously was EXTREMELY biased. This is an on-line encyclopedia, not a I Hate Soul Decision Rant. It was completely unfair to write this article with such extreme bias against this group.

Wikipedia is to give people information not to extress to people your own hatred towards certain groups.

Please work within this article and discuss any changes.

Problems with earlier version of article
-The article started off with the header "Soul Decision, The Canadian Backstreet Boys just not as Talented"???? What kind header is that? Why would they be compared to the Backstreet boys, and whether or not they are more or less talented is irrelevant!!

-""Ooh it's kind of crazy" had a catchy hook, maybe fun if you're 12"???? What kind of thing to say is that in an article? Who cares what you think about how old people should be to enjoy it. It was one of their singles, that's a fact!

-750,000 may be a "flop" to you, but to a Canadian act that's a big hit. It only takes 100,000 to go platinum in Canada, which means they went platinum 7 X over. For an unknown group in Canada to sell 750,000 on their first US album, that's a modest hit.

-"Trevor Guthrie is known for being a Diva, even though he is far from famous. But that little fame he has he thinks he Beyonce. He is known for disrespecting young ladies in his own chat room, one in paticular was the new pop starlit Crystalcherry."

Ok, this is going completely off topic. What kind of encyclopedia would mention that? Why not say something like "lead singer Trevor Guthrie has had some occasional problems with his image" or something a bit more sophisticated like that?

It goes on and on and on.....Let's try to keep these articles professional! Thanks.

= = = = 2010.05.30: Band's 2 albums and 3 tracks (with a fourth coded for but no page) have there own wiki articles  They need to be collapsed into a section of this one main article. I recommend the deletion of the standalone song & album pages if not soon fixed by a fan, agent, or someone who simply has the time & inclination. Tickerhead (talk) 00:58, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:SoulDecision


text:
David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford

David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford (c. 1360 – 1407) was a Scottish peer who was created Earl of Crawford in 1398.

Life
Crawford was the son of Sir Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk and Katherine Stirling. Succeeding his father in 1381, he was known until his elevation to the peerage as Sir David Lindsay of Glenesk. He was also the 10th baron of Crawford, Lanarkshire. In 1398, his father-in-law Robert II gave him the title of earl, along with Crawford Castle.

Many historians believe that Lindsay was also the organiser for the Battle of the Clans at Perth in 1396. Additionally, Lindsay was a noted jousting champion who fought the English champion Lord Welles in a remarkable duel on St. George's Day 1390. In the duel, Lindsay unhorsed Welles so easily that the crowd began yelling that he had nailed himself to his saddle. To prove he had not, Lindsay jumped off his horse and then back on, while still wearing his full suit of armour. After he realized Welles was wounded he rushed to his aid and helped him to a nearby hospital. He visited Welles every day while he was recovering and they became good friends.

Lord Crawford died at Finavon Castle in 1407 and was buried at the church of the Greyfriars at Dundee.

Marriage and issue
He married Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of King Robert II and Euphemia de Ross. They had four children:

 * Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Earl of Crawford (c. 1387–1438)
 * Gerard Lindsay (died 1421)
 * David Lindsay, Lord of Newdosk (born 1407)
 * Elizabeth Lindsay (born 1381), married Robert Erskine, 1st Lord Erskine and had issue.

Earl David and Elizabeth Stewart are also assigned a number of children in error in many records, including
 * allegedly Marjorie Lindsay, assigned as the wife of Sir William Douglas of Lochleven. This is an error for Marjory Stewart who married firstly Sir Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk as his 2nd wife (and David's stepmother in fact), and secondly Sir Henry Douglas of Lochleven, by whom she was the mother of Sir William Douglas
 * allegedly Isabella Lindsay (born 1407), who married Sir John Maxwell. This was in fact the daughter of Sir James Lindsay of Crawford (uncle of Earl David) by his wife Egidia, or Giles, Stewart
 * Ingelram Lindsay, Bishop of Aberdeen (died 1458). Ingram Lindsay was dispensed on account of his having been illegitimate; he was acknowledged by Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Earl of Crawford as a kinsman and he may have been Earl David's son, but clearly not by Elizabeth Stewart.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford


text:
Satmode

SATMODE is a set of technologies originally developed for interactive TV and based on an always-on return channel via satellite designed for ultra low-cost feasibility.

Although no SATMODE network has been deployed up to now for interactive TV, the SATMODE technology is used in the ASTRA2Connect two-way satellite broadband Internet service available across Europe.

Purpose of the technology
SATMODE is an interactive TV solution via satellite, targeting the mass-market through consumer products.

SATMODE supports services to the viewer, like the following ones:
 * Interactive advertising
 * Betting
 * Communication: Chat, SMS, e-mail
 * Tele-Voting, Polls, Play-along, Quiz
 * Games: standalone or multiplayer
 * Home Shopping
 * Personal Data Consultation / banking
 * Walled Garden Internet Services

SATMODE also supports features allowing the technical management of the iTV platform:
 * Enhanced conditional access
 * Audience metering
 * Statistics gathering
 * Hard disk drive content management

The system is scalable up to the complete DTH population and is designed to minimize the terminal cost.

Modem Layer
The modem layer is specified by a CENELEC standard (EN50478).

The system flexibility allows SATMODE to be used in extreme scenarios by adjusting the modem parameters:
 * Very power limited scenarios (it’s the case for most VSAT Ku-band satellites)
 * Aggressive multi-beam satellite space segment allowing to increase the return channel speed for a given translit power

To reach the flexibility goal and nevertheless keep full interoperatibility of terminals, SATMODE uses a fully specified waveform toolbox.

The choice of constant envelope modulations is made to minimize the terminal cost. Thanks to this property, very low cost outdoor units (ODUs) operating at full saturation and in non-linear mode can be used.

Moderate bit rates allow to use very low power transmitters (typically 100 mW), keeping the cost compatible with the mass-market.

The selected access scheme -- slotted ALOHA -- is efficient on iTV traffic and very easy to scale up to a very high number of terminals only sending a few packets from time to time.

The building blocks of the SATMODE toolbox are:
 * Binary or quaternary CPM
 * Programmable phase filter for CPM modulations (GMSK being a specific case)
 * Flexible Turbo or Turbo-like
 * Programmable interleavers (3)
 * Programmable constituent codes with bypass possibilities (2)
 * Programmable Unique Word structure
 * Tables extraction from a DVB TS (DVB-S or DVB-S2 broadcast)

All the parameters are sent by the HUB through DVB tables, even allowing changes during operation:
 * FCT: Sprectrum organisation in Carrier Groups
 * FAT: Spectrum Allocation to services

Signalisation information sent to specific terminals is also embedded in DVB tables (SMT tables).

The terminal is fully defined: it must be able to play the complete waveform space. The HUB is in the ground station. The HUB usually only implements one scheme and sends the tables to the terminals to instruct them to play that scheme.

SATMODE Project
The SATMODE development project has been funded at 50% by ESA.

title: Satmode


text:
User talk:Greggae

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. Bratsche talk 5 pillars 18:36, August 22, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Greggae


text:
Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-08-29/In the news

Citations in the news
Wikipedia was cited in the last week in the following publications:

 * Western Mail
 * Minneapolis Star Tribune
 * Denver Post
 * San Antonio Express-News
 * Sacramento Bee
 * Canberra Times
 * National Post
 * The Capital Times
 * Hamilton Spectator
 * Toronto Star
 * Rocky Mountain News
 * St. Petersburg Times
 * Chattanooga Times Free Press

See also: User:Lotsofissues/Citations


text:
User talk:Jhocking

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Meelar (talk) 18:36, August 22, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jhocking


text:
Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-08-29/News and notes

Q3 Wikimedia Funding Drive off to strong start
Through just ten days, the Wikimedia fundraising drive has raised more than USD $115,000, over half of the 21-day fundraiser's goal. A $200,000 funding drive started on 19 August. The drive aims to pay for the significant server costs, which have risen dramatically recently.

Briefly

 * The Swedish Wikipedia passes 100,000 articles. The 100,000th article is believed to be sv:Jógvan við Keldu or sv:Epiglottal klusil. Wikinews has coverage: "Swedish Wikipedia reaches 100,000 articles".
 * The English Wikipedia has reached 700,000 articles.
 * The German Wikipedia has reached 500 featured articles.
 * The Czech Wikipedia has reached 15,000 articles.
 * The Portuguese Wikipedia has reached 70,000 articles.
 * The Arabic Wikipedia has reached 5,000 articles.
 * The Sicilian Wikipedia reached 2,000 articles.
 * The Limburgian Wikipedia has reached 1,000 articles.
 * The Russian Wikipedia has reached 30,000 articles.
 * The Turkish Wikipedia has reached 5,000 articles.


text:
Reddi Kingdom

The Reddi kingdom or Kondavidu Reddi kingdom (1325–1448 CE) was established in southern India by Prolaya Vema Reddi. Most of the region that was ruled by the Reddi dynasty is now part of modern-day coastal and central Andhra Pradesh. They helped the Bahmani Sultanate and defeated the Vijayanagar empire in the War of the Goldsmith's Daughter.

Etymology
The Telugu term "Reddi", whose earlier forms were "Raddi", "Rattodi", and "Rattakudi", linked to the Sanskrit term "Rashtrakuta", was used for village headmen, who were responsible for organising the cultivation of the agricultural lands of the villages and collecting taxes. From the seventh century, some of the members of the Rattakudi families had important posts in the administration of the kingdoms. A copperplate record mentioned the grandfather of the founder of the dynasty as a sainya-nayaka, a commander of the forces.

Origin
The fall of the Kakatiya Kingdom in 1323, after being subject to seizures by the Tughlaq dynasty, led to a political vacuum in the Andhras.The Islamic conquerors failed to keep the region under effective control and constant infighting among themselves coupled with the martial abilities of the local Telugu warriors led to the loss of the entire region by 1347.

Whilst, this led to the rise of the Musunuris (initially were based in Coastal Andhra) and Recharlas in the Telangana region, the coastal belt saw the rise of a third warrior lineage—the Reddis.

Established in about 1325 by Prolaya Vema Reddi (also known as Komati Vema), his territory extended along the coast to Nellore in the south and Srisailam, in the west. He was succeeded by Anavota Reddi who consolidated the kingdom extensively and established its capital at Kondavidu in Guntur District.

By 1395, a second Reddi kingdom was established by a branch of the same lineage, with its capital in Rajahmundry, East Godavari District.

The Reddi kings’ ancestors were part of the Kakatiya military and held important posts such as the sainya-nayaka.

Extent of rule

The Reddi kings ruled coastal and central Andhra for over a hundred years from 1325 to 1448. At its maximum extent, the Reddi kingdom stretched from Cuttack, Orissa to the north, Kanchi to the south and Srisailam to the west. The initial capital of the kingdom was Addanki. Later, it was moved to Kondavidu and a subsidiary branch was established at Rajahmundry. The Reddis were known for their fortifications. Two major hill forts, one at Kondapalli, 20 km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondavidu about 30 km west of Guntur stand testimony to the fort building skill of the Reddi kings. The forts of Bellamkonda, Vinukonda and Nagarjunakonda in the Palnadu region were also part of the Reddi kingdom. The dynasty remained in power till the middle of the 15th century. In 1424, Kondavidu was annexed to the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajahmundry was conquered by the Gajapatis some twenty five years after. The Gajapatis eventually lost control of coastal Andhra after the defeat of Gajapati Prataprudra Deva by Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara. The territories of the Reddi kingdom thus came under the control of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Religion

The Reddi rulers played a prominent part in post-Kakatiyas of Telangana. The Kakatiya empire came to an end in 1323 after the army of the Delhi sultanate invaded Warangal and captured Kakatiya ruler Pratapa Rudra. Warangal fell to the invaders and Ulugh Khan commanded Warangal and Telangana. During this time of foreign invasion and chaos in Telugu country, seeds of revolt were sown by two princes, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva.

It was during this chaotic period in Andhra history that Prolaya Vema Reddi established the Reddi kingdom in 1325. The Reddi rulers patronised and protected Hinduism and its institutions. The Brahmins were given liberal grants by the Reddi kings and the agraharas of Brahmins were restored. Vedic studies were encouraged. The Hindu temples of Srisailam and Ahobilam were provided with more facilities. Prolaya Vema Reddi bestowed a number of agraharas on the Brahmins. He was revered by the title of Apratima-Bhudana-Parasurama. He commissioned major repairs to the Srisailam Mallikarjuna Swami temple, and had a flight of steps built from the Krishna River to the temple. The Narasimha Swamy temple at Ahobilam was built during his reign. He built 108 temples for Shiva.

Literature
Telugu literature blossomed under the Reddi kings. The Reddi kings also patronized Sanskrit. Several of the Reddi kings themselves were distinguished scholars and authors. Kumaragiri Reddi, Kataya Vema Reddi and Pedakomati Vema Reddi were the most outstanding among them. Errapragada (Errana), Srinatha and Potana were the remarkable poets of this period. Errapragada, the last of the Kavitraya (Trinity of Poets) was the court poet of Prolaya Vema Reddi. He completed the Telugu translation of the Mahabharata. He completed the rendition of the Aranya Parva of Mahabharata left incomplete by Nannaya Bhattu (Aadi Kavi who started the translation of Mahabharata into Telugu). He wrote Hari Vamsa and Narasimha Purana. Errana's translation of the Ramayana in Chapu form (a style of poetry) has been lost.

Administration
The administration was carried according to the "Dharmasutras". One-sixth of agriculture surplus was levied as tax. Under the reign of Anavota Reddi, custom duties and taxes on trade were lifted. As a result, trade flourished. Sea trade was carried through the port Motupalli. A large number of merchants settled down near it. Celebrating 'Vasantotsavalu' was revived during the rule of Anavema Reddi. The Brahmins were given liberal grants by the Reddi kings. Caste system was observed. Heavy taxes by Racha Vema Reddi made him highly unpopular.

title: Reddi Kingdom


text:
Droopy, Master Detective

Droopy, Master Detective is an American animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Cartoons in association with Turner Entertainment, and a spin-off of Tom & Jerry Kids. It debuted on Fox's Saturday morning block Fox Kids and ran for 13 episodes from September 11 to December 3, 1993; in 1994, it was dropped from Fox's Saturday morning schedule on January 1, and returned on weekday afternoons in August and September.

Premise
Droopy, Master Detective is a spoof of detective films and cop shows, featuring Droopy and his son, Dripple, as detectives on the mean streets of a big city. Newly made seven-minute episodes were mixed in with new seven-minute cartoons featuring the Tom and Jerry Kids characters. The rest of the half-hour program mostly was taken up by Screwy Squirrel, another Tex Avery creation from the 1940s.

In these new cartoons, Screwy made his home in a public park, making life miserable for hot-headed park attendant Dweeble and his dog Rumpley — both, rather typical Hanna-Barbera comedy foes rather than Tex Avery-inspired characters. It also included two more characters from the previous show: Wild Mouse and Lightning Bolt the Super Squirrel.

Main

 * Don Messick as Droopy
 * Charlie Adler as Dripple, Screwball Squirrel, Lightning Bolt the Super Squirrel
 * William Callaway as Rumpley
 * Teresa Ganzel as Miss Vavoom, Misty Mouse (in "Primeval Prey")
 * Frank Welker as McWolf, Dweeble, Wild Mouse, Grunch the Caveman

Additional voices

 * Brandon Adams
 * Joe Alaskey
 * Patricia Alice Albrecht
 * Lewis Arquette
 * René Auberjonois
 * Michael Bell as Roqueford Le Poulet (in "The Case of Pierre Le Poulet")
 * Gregg Berger
 * Sheryl Bernstein
 * Susan Blu as Auntie Snoople (in "Aunt Snoople")
 * Sorrell Booke
 * Charlie Brill
 * Nicole Brown
 * Julie McWhirter as Tera Boom-Boom (in "Droopy and the Cyberdolts")
 * S. Scott Bullock
 * Arthur Burghardt
 * Greg Burson
 * Hamilton Camp
 * Nancy Cartwright
 * Marsha Clark
 * Selette Cole
 * Townsend Coleman
 * Danny Cooksey
 * Bud Cort
 * Jesse Corti
 * Peter Cullen
 * Brian Cummings
 * Jim Cummings as The Blobfather (in "The Monster Mob"), Baby Bandit (in "The Babyman Bank Heists"), Frankenator (in "The Monster Mob"), McWolf's Horse, Pierre Le Poulet (in "The Case of Pierre Le Poulet"), The Raj
 * Tim Curry
 * Jennifer Darling as Fifi
 * Mari Devon
 * Nancy Dussault
 * Maggie Egan
 * June Foray
 * Pat Fraley as The Yolker (in "Return of the Yolker")
 * Brad Garrett
 * Kathy Garver
 * Dick Gautier
 * Barry Gordon
 * Joan Gerber
 * Archie Hahn
 * Phil Hartman
 * Pamela Hayden
 * George Hearn
 * Dana Hill
 * Jerry Houser
 * Charity James
 * Nick Jameson
 * Tony Jay
 * Arte Johnson as Shadowman (in "Shadowman and the Blue Pigeon")
 * Vicki Juditz
 * Zale Kessler
 * Kip King
 * Paul Kreppel
 * Maurice LaMarche as Thundergut the Super Squirrel (in "Battle of the Super Squirrels")
 * David Lander
 * Nancy Linari as Zombina (in "The Monster Mob")
 * Allan Lurie
 * Sherry Lynn
 * Tress MacNeille
 * Kenneth Mars
 * Chuck McCann as King of the Sea (in "Droopy's Deep Sea Mystery"), Baby Bandit's Henchman (in "The Babyman Bank Heists")
 * Edie McClurg
 * Diane Michelle
 * Brian Stokes Mitchell
 * Alan Oppenheimer
 * Bibi Osterwald
 * Gary Owens as the Narrator
 * Valery Pappas
 * Patricia Parris
 * Rob Paulsen as Edna Evergreen, Crummy McMummy (in "The Monster Mob"), Prime Minister Luck-Nuck, Oliver J. Tudball (in "The Case of the Snooty Star")
 * Patrick Pinney
 * Henry Polic II
 * Tony Pope
 * Hal Rayle
 * Clive Revill
 * Robert Ridgely
 * Kimmy Robertson
 * Stuart Robinson
 * Roger Rose as Johnsy Megabucks
 * Neil Ross
 * Ronnie Schell
 * Susan Silo
 * Sarah Silverman as Melody WOOO-WOOO Stardust (in "The Case of the Snooty Star")
 * Hal Smith
 * Kath Soucie
 * Michael Stanton
 * Sally Struthers
 * Barbara Stuart
 * Marcelo Tubert
 * Janet Waldo as Wild Mouse's Mother (in "Primeval Prey")
 * B.J. Ward as The Mistress of Baskerville Manor (in "Sherlock Droopy Gets Hounded")
 * Jimmy Weldon
 * Jane Wiedlin
 * Lee Wilkof
 * April Winchell
 * Paul Winchell as Rumpley's Dad
 * Joanne Worley
 * Kris Zimmerman
 * Patric Zimmerman

Home media
The show is currently only available on the Boomerang subscription streaming service app. As of October 15, 2023 it is currently available on iTunes Store in SD.

title: Droopy, Master Detective


text:
Ducal Palace

Several palaces are named Ducal Palace (Italian: Palazzo Ducale ) because it was the seat or residence of a duke.

Notable palaces with the name include:

France

 * Palace of the Dukes of Burgundy, Dijon
 * Palace of the Dukes of Lorraine, Nancy
 * Palais ducal de Nevers, Nevers

Italy

 * Ducal Palace, Alvito
 * Ducal Palace, Atina
 * Ducal Palace, Castiglione del Lago
 * Ducal Palace, Colorno
 * Doge's Palace, Genoa
 * Ducal Palace, Guastalla
 * Ducal Palace, Gubbio
 * Ducal Palace, Lucca
 * Ducal Palace, Mantua
 * Ducal Palace, Massa
 * Ducal Palace, Modena
 * Ducal Palace, Parete
 * Ducal Palace, Pesaro
 * Ducal Palace, Reggio Emilia
 * Ducal Palace, Sabbioneta
 * Ducal Palace, Sassari
 * Ducal Palace, Sassuolo
 * Ducal Palace, Serradifalco
 * Palazzo Ducale, Urbino
 * Doge's Palace, Venice

Lithuania

 * Old Kaunas Ducal Palace, Kaunas

Portugal

 * Ducal Palace, Vila Viçosa
 * Palace of the Dukes of Braganza, Guimarães
 * Palace of the Dukes of Cadaval, Évora
 * Palace of the Dukes of Palmela, Lisbon

Spain

 * Ducal Palace, Gandia
 * Ducal Palace, Lerma
 * Ducal Palace, Pastrana
 * Palace of the Dukes of Medinaceli, Cogolludo
 * Palace of the Duke of Uceda, Madrid

title: Ducal Palace


text:
Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-08-29/Arbitration report

The Arbitration Committee did not close any cases this week.

DotSix
DotSix, the name for an IP address engaged in vandalism, sockpuppeting, and editing of other users' comments in his RFAr, has been banned from all pages except his talk page and his RFAr pages. The case is currently in the evidence phase.

Other cases
Cases against Gabrielsimon and -Ril- are in the working phase. Cases against Stevertigo and Rainbowwarrior1977 are in the evidence phase.

Requests against Ultramarine and Ed Poor have both garnered four votes, the bare minimum for a RFA to be accepted.


text: Talk:Ducal Palace

title: Talk:Ducal Palace


text:
Talk:Songo River Queen II

--Newsreporter 18:39, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified one external link on Songo River Queen II. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051006/http://www.keepmecurrent.com/lakes_region_weekly/news/bon-voyage-queen/article_6a64b4ca-e071-11e0-8189-001cc4c03286.html to http://www.keepmecurrent.com/lakes_region_weekly/news/bon-voyage-queen/article_6a64b4ca-e071-11e0-8189-001cc4c03286.html

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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:09, 16 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Songo River Queen II


text:
Social Issues Research Centre

The Social Issues Research Centre (SIRC) is a non-profit think tank working on social and lifestyle issues. It is based in Oxford, but is not part of, and has no relationship to, Oxford University.

Organisation and focus
SIRC has a ‘social intelligence’ unit, monitoring and assessing social, cultural and ideological trends. SIRC's approach has an anthropological and psychological rather than a sociological flavour.

The SIRC has played a central role in advising the government on the development of a "Code of Practice on Science and Health Communication" for communication science issues to the media, which has been criticised for promoting mainstream views and suppressing dissenting voices.

Criticism
When the SIRC criticised journalists for publishing stories on health scares, the BMJ asked "how seriously should journalists take an attack from an organisation that is so closely linked to the drinks industry?." The commissioning of the SIRC by pharmaceutical industry group HRT Aware to write a well-received report highlighting favourable outcomes from HRT was also noted in an editorial in the BMJ as part of a PR campaign following the 2002 Women's Health Initiative study. The BMJ noted that SIRC shared its leading staff and offices with the research company MCM Research, which asked on its website: "Do your PR initiatives sometimes look too much like PR initiatives?"

Staff
The Advisory Board includes the social anthropologists Professor Lionel Tiger, Professor Dwight Heath and Professor Robin Fox.

Directors include
 * Kate Fox. She has published on beauty & body image, the psychology of scent, pub behaviour, body language, etiquette, gossip, drugs, flirting, celebrations and stress.
 * Peter Marsh – best known for work on football hooliganism and the connections between drinking and disorder.

Funding
SIRC is partly funded by income from MCM Research, "an Oxford-based company which specialises in applications of social science to real-world issues and problems". SIRC also obtains funding in its own right.

title: Social Issues Research Centre


text: Category:UC Sampdoria

title: Category:UC Sampdoria


text:
Spider diagram

In mathematics, a unitary spider diagram adds existential points to an Euler or a Venn diagram. The points indicate the existence of an attribute described by the intersection of contours in the Euler diagram. These points may be joined forming a shape like a spider. Joined points represent an "or" condition, also known as a logical disjunction.

A spider diagram is a boolean expression involving unitary spider diagrams and the logical symbols $$\land,\lor,\lnot$$. For example, it may consist of the conjunction of two spider diagrams, the disjunction of two spider diagrams, or the negation of a spider diagram.

Example
In the image shown, the following conjunctions are apparent from the Euler diagram.
 * $$A \land B$$
 * $$B \land C$$
 * $$F \land E$$
 * $$G \land F$$

In the universe of discourse defined by this Euler diagram, in addition to the conjunctions specified above, all of the sets from A through G, except for C, are available separately. The set C is only available as a subset of B. Often, in complicated diagrams, singleton sets and/or conjunctions may be obscured by other set combinations.

The two spiders in the example correspond to the following logical expressions:
 * Red spider: $$(F \land E) \lor (G) \lor (D)$$
 * Blue spider: $$(A) \lor (C \land B) \lor (F)$$

title: Spider diagram


text:
User:Pfalstad

http://www.falstad.com

title: User:Pfalstad


text:
Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance (, [ˈjéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥]) was an alliance of three Nahua city-states: Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan. These three city-states ruled that area in and around the Valley of Mexico from 1428 until the combined forces of the Spanish conquistadores and their native allies who ruled under Hernán Cortés defeated them in 1521.

The alliance was formed from the victorious factions of a civil war fought between the city of Azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces. Despite the initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed city-states, the capital Tenochtitlan became dominant militarily. By the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the alliance were effectively ruled from Tenochtitlan, while other partners of the alliance had taken subsidiary roles.

The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded after its formation. The alliance controlled most of central Mexico at its height, as well as some more distant territories within Mesoamerica, such as the Xoconochco province, an Aztec exclave near the present-day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been described by scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect". The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability and facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy.

Aztec religion was a monistic pantheism in which the Nahua concept of teotl was construed as the supreme god Ometeotl, as well as a diverse pantheon of lesser gods and manifestations of nature. The popular religion tended to embrace the mythological and polytheistic aspects, and the empire's state religion sponsored both the monism of the upper classes and the popular heterodoxies. The empire even officially recognized the largest cults such that the deity was represented in the central temple precinct of the capital Tenochtitlan. The imperial cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica Huītzilōpōchtli. Peoples were allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long as they added the imperial god Huītzilōpōchtli to their local pantheons.

Etymology and definitions
The word Aztec in modern usage would not have been used by the people themselves. It has variously been used to refer to the Aztecs or Triple Alliance, the Nahuatl-speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes (from tlaca). The name comes from the singular Nahuatl word aztecatl that means "[people] from Aztlan", reflecting the mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples.

Before the Aztec Empire
Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples, who migrated to central Mexico from the north (mainly centered sparsely around present-day states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Guanajuato) in the early 13th century. The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history, as they sought political legitimacy. Pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history say that the empire's place of origin was called Aztlán. Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent city-states. These early Nahua city-states or altepetl were ruled by dynastic heads called tlahtohqueh (singularly tlatoāni). Most of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Mexica migration.

These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other but no individual city gained dominance due to shifting alliances. The Mexica were the last of the Nahua migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250, and, by then, most of the good agricultural land had already been claimed. The Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan, a small city-state but important historically as a refuge of the Toltecs to make them settle in a relatively infertile patch of land called Chapultepec (Chapoltepēc, "in the hill of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served as mercenaries for Culhuacan.

After the Mexica served Culhuacan in battle, the ruler appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. Mythological native accounts say that the Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her skin on the command of their god Xipe Totec. The ruler of Culhuacan attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force when he learned of this. The Mexica moved to an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco where an eagle nested on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign from their gods and founded their new city Tenochtitlan on this island in the year ōme calli (or "Two House", 1325 AD).

Aztec warfare
The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a military power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power, prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.

The new Mexica city-state allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler Tezozomoc. Azcapotzalco began to expand into a small tributary empire with Mexica assistance. The Mexica ruler was not recognized as a legitimate king until this point. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their son Acamapichtli was enthroned as the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1372.

The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their rule with help from the Mexica, while the Acolhua city of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states, and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Texcoco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs by receiving Texcoco as a tributary province.

Mexica warfare was marked by a focus on capturing enemies rather than killing them from its tactics to arms. Capturing enemies was important for religious ritual and provided a means by which soldiers could distinguish themselves during campaigns.

Tepanec War
In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died,  and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between potential successors. The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned as king. But his son Maxtla soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla.

The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla, and he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments. Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the king of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the support of a dissident Tepanec city called Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.

After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and, in 1430, the three remaining cities formed a treaty now known as the Triple Alliance. The Tepanec lands were carved up among the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in future wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests was to be held by the three cities together. A tribute was divided so that two kings of the alliance would go to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco and one would go to Tlacopan. The three kings assumed the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", often translated as "Emperor") in turn. Each temporarily held a de jure position above the rulers of other city-states ("tlatoani") in this role.

In the following 100 years, the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan dominated the Valley of Mexico and extended its power to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. Two of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers and nephews of Itzcoatl Tlacaelel and Moctezuma. Moctezuma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica huetlatoani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created "Cihuacoatl" title, equivalent to something between "Prime Minister" and "Viceroy".

Imperial reforms

Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state and religion. It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and that it was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings". He rewrote the history of the Aztecs thereafter, naturally placing the Mexica in a more central role.

After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities. Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population directly, bypassing the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals. This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by calpixqueh or appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers.

Moctezuma issued new laws that separated nobles from commoners and instituted the death penalty for adultery and other offenses. A religiously supervised school was built in every neighborhood by royal decree. Commoner neighborhoods had a school called a "telpochcalli" where they received basic religious instruction and military training. A second, more prestigious type of school called a "calmecac" served to teach the nobility, as well as commoners of high standing seeking to become priests or artisans. Moctezuma also created a new title called "quauhpilli" that could be conferred on commoners. This title was a form of non-hereditary lesser nobility awarded for outstanding military or civil service (similar to the English knight). Commoners who received this title rarely married into royal families and became kings.

One component of this reform was the creation of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars. Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized by a strong preference for capturing live prisoners as opposed to slaughtering the enemy on the battlefield, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of experienced Aztec warriors as well as a steady, healthy supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to the gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity collecting prisoners for sacrifice. Native historical accounts say that these wars were instigated by Tlacaelel as a means of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of Mexico from 1450 to 1454. The flower wars were mostly waged between the Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala.

Early years of expansion

After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and began to expand beyond its borders. The first targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos. These conquests provided the new empire with a large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods.

Itzcoatl died, and Moctezuma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major four-year drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided. Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east towards the Gulf of Mexico and south into Oaxaca. In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded by his son Axayacatl. Most of Axayacatl's thirteen-year reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled.

Also, as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in West Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their king Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl. In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the region and successfully defended it from Purépecha's attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers. Purépecha met them just across the border with 50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army. Axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in battle again.

In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died, and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of Texcoco. This was followed by the death of Axayacatl in 1481. Axayacatl was replaced by his brother Tizoc. Tizoc's reign was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Tizoc was likely assassinated by his own nobles five years into his rule, apparently due to his incompetence.

Later years of expansion

Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the first part of Ahuitzotl's reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule. Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Coast. Ahuitzotl conquered the border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost due to increased border skirmishes with the Purépecha. The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process. The Purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion. Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the Pacific Coast of Guerrero.

By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use the title "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan. The alliance still technically ran the empire. But the Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority.

Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma II in 1502. Moctezuma II spent most of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors. In 1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire once again. The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was mostly restricted to raiding. The Purépecha defeated them and the army withdrew.

Moctezuma II instituted more imperial reforms. The death of Nezahualcoyotl caused the Mexica Emperors to become the de facto rulers of the alliance. Moctezuma II used his reign to attempt to consolidate power more closely with the Mexica Emperor. He removed many of Ahuitzotl's advisors and had several of them executed. He also abolished the quauhpilli class, destroying the chance for commoners to advance to the nobility. His reform efforts were cut short by the Spanish conquest in 1519.

Spanish conquest

The Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the expedition's commander by the governor of Cuba Diego Velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission. At the island of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between Spanish and Mayan. The expedition then sailed west to Campeche, where, after a brief battle with the local army, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known also as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina]). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan, and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Malinche became Cortés' translator for both language and culture once she learned Spanish, and she was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers.

Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a tributary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor Moctezuma II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. The Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, and Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector. Cortés subsequently released the tribute collector after persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonac's idea and that he had no knowledge of it. The Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, having effectively declared war on the Aztecs. At this time, several of Cortés' soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba.

The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek the latter's alliance against the Aztecs. However, the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to be hostile and attacked. After fighting several close battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their general to stand down. Cortés then secured an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala and traveled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller company of 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs in addition to the Spanish soldiers. During his stay in the city of Cholula, Cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the Spanish. In a pre-emptive response, Cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the main square of the city.

Following the massacre at Cholula, Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were greeted as guests and given quarters in the palace of former emperor Axayacatl. After staying in the city for six weeks, two Spaniards from the group left behind in Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord named Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to take Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force. Motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Cortés for several months. A second, larger Spanish expedition then arrived in 1520 under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Before confronting Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and join Cortés.

Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, while his second-in-command Pedro de Alvarado massacred a group of Aztec nobility, in response to a ritual of human sacrifice honoring Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs retaliated by attacking the palace where the Spanish were quartered. Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. However, by this point, the ruling council of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor. One of the Aztec soldiers struck Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone, and he died several days later, though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear.

The Spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the "Sad Night" or La Noche Triste, realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following Moctezuma's death. Spaniards and their Indigenous allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their way out of the city with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded down with gold. They retreated to Tlacopan (now Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the second, successful assault on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hit Tenochtitlan. The outbreak alone killed more than 50% of the region's population, including the emperor Cuitláhuac, as the indigenous of the New World had no previous exposure to smallpox. The new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, while Cortés raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec rule. Cortés marched back to the Basin of Mexico with a combined army of up to 100,000 warriors. The overwhelming majority of warriors were indigenous rather than Spanish. Cortés captured various indigenous city-states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, including the other capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco. Texcoco, in fact, had already become firm allies of the Spaniards and the city-state and subsequently petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest similar to Tlaxcala.

Cortés used boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to Tenochtitlan for a period of several months. Eventually, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both by boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. The attackers took heavy casualties, although the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process. Cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee the city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years before finally executing him in 1525.

Government
The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. It was ethnically very diverse like most European empires but was more a system of tributes than a single unitary form of government unlike them. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J. Motyl, the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authority over its tributary provinces. It merely expected to pay tributes. The empire was also territorially discontinuous, i.e. land did not connect all of its dominated territories. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once they conquered their city-state, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made.

The form of government is often referred to as an empire, yet most areas within the empire were, in fact, organized as city-states (individually known as altepetl in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plurally tlatoque) from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme. After the Nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control.

The term "Aztec empire" is actually modern and not one used by the Aztecs themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the densely populated Valley of Mexico. Asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states Tenochtitlan above the other two over time. The "Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic and cultural diversity. The Nahuas performed administration of the empire through largely traditional, indirect means. Something of a nascent bureaucracy, however, may have been beginning to form over time, insofar as the state organization became increasingly centralized.

Central administration
Before the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation along traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by tlatoani (lit., "speakers"), who supervised village headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey Tlatoani (lit., "great speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility.

Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with the external issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the Cihuacoatl to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title "Cihuacoatl", which means "female snake" (it is the name of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Minister, reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, yet both did have important ritual tasks. Those of the former were associated with the "female" wet season, those of the latter with the "male" dry season. While the position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position also existed the nearby altepetl of Azcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and Tenochtitlan's ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser status of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, as in the case of Tlacaelel.

Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a four-member military and advisory Council which assisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl; and the tlillancalqui. This design not only provided advice for the ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the council. Moreover, the actions of any one member of the council could easily be blocked by the other three, providing a simple system of checks on the ambition higher officials. These four Council members were also generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the members were not equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and the otontin ("Otomies"). The tetecuhtin, the relatives of the former Huey tlatoani, will choose the next Huey tlatoani from the four council members.

Provincial administration
Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials. The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular calpixqui, plural calpixque) were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the organization of the state into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary provinces fell under the supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque, whose authority extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of the provincial tribute system which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the huetlatoani, but rather by a separate position altogether: the petlacalcatl. On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, the Nahuas placed a military governor, or cuauhtlatoani, at the head of provincial supervision. During his reign, Moctezuma I elaborated the calpixque system, with two calpixque assigned per tributary province. The province itself stationed one, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Commoners drew the tribute, the macehualtin, and distributed to the nobility, be they 'kings' (tlatoque), lesser rulers (teteuctin), or provincial nobility (pipiltin).

The Nahuas supervised the tribute collection by the above officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec military, but also upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known as pochteca. These pochteca had various gradations of ranks which granted them certain trading rights and so were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played an important role in both the growth and administration of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The pochteca strongly tied their power, political and economic, to the political and military power of the Aztec nobility and state. In addition to serving as diplomats (teucnenenque, or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, higher-ranking pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to certain degree autonomous corporate groups, having administrative duties within their own estate.

Ideology and state
Nahua metaphysics centers around teotl, "a single, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-regenerating sacred power, energy or force." This is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism as manifest in the supreme god Ometeotl, as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire. Priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views, while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects.

The Aztec empire's state-sanctioned religion meanwhile had to fulfill the spiritual obligations of the upper classes while maintaining their control over the lower classes and conquered populations. This was executed in grand public religious ceremonies, sponsorship of the most popular cults, and a relative degree of religious freedom.

Rulers, if they are local teteuctin or tlatoani, or central Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right. Tlatocayotl, or the principle of rulership, established that descent inherited this divine right. Political order was, therefore, also a cosmic order, and to kill a tlatoani was to transgress that order. For this reason, whenever the Nahuas killed or otherwise removed a tlatoani from their station, their stead typically placed a relative and member of the same bloodline. The establishment of the office of Huetlatoani understood through the creation of another level of rulership, hueitlatocayotl, standing in superior contrast to the lesser tlatocayotl principle.

A militaristic interpretation of Nahua religion, specifically a devout veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli, guided expansion of the empire. Militaristic state rituals were performed throughout the year according to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock battles. The time period they lived in was understood as the Ollintonatiuh, or Sun of Movement, which was believed to have been the final age after which humanity would be destroyed. It was under Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli assumed his elevated role in the state pantheon and who argued that it was through blood sacrifice that the Sun would be maintained and thereby stave off the end of the world. It was under this new, militaristic interpretation of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged to fight wars and capture enemy soldiers for sacrifice. Though blood sacrifice was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human sacrifice under the Aztecs was likely unprecedented in the region.

Provincial structure
Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose alliance between three cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the most junior partner, Tlacopan. As such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very common in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were ever fluctuating. However, over time, Tenochtitlan assumed paramount authority in the alliance, and although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed by their own Huetlatoani, Tenochtitlan became the largest, most powerful, and most influential of the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged center of empire.

Though the Aztecs did not describe them this way, there were essentially two types of provinces: Tributary and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially subordinate client states which provided tribute or aid to the Aztec state under "mutual consent." Tributary provinces, on the other hand, provided regular tribute to the empire; obligations on the part of Tributary provinces were mandatory rather than consensual.

Mythological nature rulers
These are Aztec gods and goddesses, who were also part of the Thirteen Heavens, as well as the Aztec Empire.

Gods

 * Centeotl, god of maize associated with the Tianquiztli (goddesses of the Pleiades). Centeotl's name is also spelt as Cinteotl and was goddess-like.
 * Chalchiuhtotolin, the god of cleansing and contamination, absolver of human guilt, and god of fate.
 * Xochipilli, god of flowers, pleasure, feasting, frivolity and artistic creativity.
 * Huehuecoyotl, god of old-age, origin, and deception. He is also the patron of wisdom, and is known for playing tricks. His name is similar to the god of happiness, Ueuecoyotl.
 * Huitzilopochtli, god of will and war, patron god of force, ruler of the South.
 * Itztlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli, god of frost, ice, cold, winter, sin, punishment and human misery. He is also the god of blindfolded justice.
 * Ometecuhtli, god of duality and substance.
 * Itztli, god of stone who is a variant of Tezcatlipoca.
 * Mictlantecuhtli, god of the Underworld (Mictlan). He is depicted as a skeleton with various gory features, such as his exposed liver which dangles from his chest cavity.
 * Patecatl, god of healing and patron god of doctors and peyote. He is the father of the Centzontotochtin.
 * Piltzintecuhtli, god of visions and the sun. In Aztec mythology Piltzintecuhtli is associated with Mercury and healing.
 * Quetzalcoatl, god of life, the light and wisdom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of the West.
 * Tecciztecatl, god of the moon. Tecciztecatl is Tlaloc and Chalchiuhtlicue's son.
 * Tepeyollotl, god of animals, darkened caves, echoes and earthquakes. Tepeyollotl is a variant of Tezcatlipoca and is associated with mountains.
 * Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, darkness and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the North. Tezcatlipoca had overthrew Quetzalcoatl, who overthrew him in return.
 * Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, god of dawn (Venus) and aspect of Quetzalcoatl.
 * Tlaloc, god of rain, lightning and thunder. He is associated with fertility and agriculture.
 * Tonacatecuhtli, god of sustenance associated with Ometecuhtli.
 * Tonatiuh, god of the sun.
 * Xipe Totec, god of rejuvenation, vegetation and spring, lord of the seasons, ruler of the East.
 * Xiuhtecuhtli, god of fire and time.
 * Ehecatl, god of wind.
 * Tzontemoc, god who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld.
 * Xolotl, god of death, associated with Venus as the Evening Star. He is the twin god, and a double of Quetzalcoatl.
 * Mixcoatl, Aztec god of fishing and hunting and old god of hurricanes and storms who was associated with the Milky Way.
 * Nanahuatzin, Sun god. Nanahuatzin sacrificed himself in a burning fire so that the sun would continue to shine all over the world, so the god Tonatiuh took his place.
 * Atlahua, god of water and protector of archers and fishermen. The Aztecs prayed to him when there were deaths in water.
 * Opochtli, god of fishing and birdcatchers. According to legend he is the inventor of the harpoon and net.
 * Painal, Huitzilopochtli's messenger.
 * Techlotl, god who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. This deity was associated with owls.
 * Ometochtli, god of pulque and leader of the Centzontotochtin.

Goddesses

 * Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of running water, lakes, rivers, oceans, streams, horizontal waters, storms and baptism.
 * Chantico, goddess of fire, homes and volcanoes.
 * Cihuacoatl, goddess of childbirth and picker of souls.
 * Citlalicue, goddess of female stars in the Milky Way.
 * Itzpapalotl, goddess of death. She was the leader of the Tzitzimitl. Stone knives pop out from her eyes.
 * Mayahuel, goddess of agave and maguey. She was the Centzontotochtin's mother.
 * Mictecacihuatl, goddess of the Underworld (Mictlan).
 * Tlaltecuhtli, old goddess of earth (changed in the Earth's landscape and atmosphere).
 * Tlazolteotl, goddess of lust, passions, carnality, and sexual misdeeds.
 * Xochiquetzal, goddess of flowers, love, pleasure and beauty. She protects young mothers, and is forever youthful and beautiful.
 * Atlatoman, patron goddess of those who are born with physical deformities or Mexica who suffer from open sores. Some codexes also mark this deity as the cause of these ailments.
 * Huixtocihuatl, goddess of salt and patron of cultivated foods (including people in the salt trade).
 * Chalmecacihuatl, goddess who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. She was Tzontemoc's wife.
 * Chicomecoatl, goddess of agriculture.
 * Coyolxauhqui, goddess or leader of the Centzonhuitznahua, associated with the moon.

Mythological nature groups of rulers

 * Cihuateteo, (Cihuacoatl) the malevolent spirits of women who died in childbirth. Their name comes from the goddess Cihuacoatl. Their name is also spelt as "Ciuateteo". (Goddesses)
 * Ahuiateteo, gods of excess and pleasure, the gods who are known as Macuilcozcacuauhtli, Macuilcuetzpalin, Macuilmalinalli, Macuiltochtli, and Macuilxochitl. (Gods)
 * Ixcuiname, goddesses of carnality. (Goddesses)
 * Cinteteo, gods of the maizes. (Gods)
 * Centzontotochtin, (Ometochtli) gods of pulque. (Gods)
 * Xiuhtotontli, the gods of fire (alternative manifestations or states of Xiuhtecuhtli). (Gods)
 * Ehecatotontli, (Ehecatl) breath-holding gods of the breezes – who are just like Ehecatl. (Gods)
 * Civateteo, (Cihuacoatl) goddesses who are vampires. Civateteo are similar to Cihuateteo, who are not as bad as Civateteo are. Civateteo mostly live in regular Mexico, and Civateteo come from somewhere vampire-esque. (Goddesses)
 * Tzitzimitl, (Itzpapalotl) goddesses of the stars. Tzitzimitl mostly live in regular Mexico, and Tzitzimitl come from Tamoanchan. (Goddesses)
 * Centzonmimixcoa, (Cuahuitlicac) 400 gods of the northern stars and "The 400 Northerners." (gods)
 * Centzonhuitznahua, (Coyolxauhqui) 400 gods of the southern stars. (Gods)
 * Tlaloque, gods of rain, weather and mountains. Tlaloc had also been considered the ruler of this group. (Gods)
 * Tianquizli, (Citlalicue) these are goddesses of the Pleiades. (Goddesses)
 * Ometeotl, gods of the duality. (Gods)
 * Tezcatlipocas, creator god's. (Gods)
 * Tonalleque, embodied spirits who died during the Battle (Gods)

Mythological sacred places

 * Tamoanchan, a place where Itzpapalotl usually rules over. The gods created the first of the present human race out of sacrificed blood and ground human bones. Tamoanchan may mean "We go down to our home."
 * Mictlan, the place where Mictlantecuhtli and Mictecacihuatl rule over in Aztec mythology. This is literally the underworld.

Law
Ruler Nezahualcoyotl developed the most developed code of law in the city-state of Texcoco under him. It was a formal written code, not merely a collection of customary practices. The sources for knowing about the legal code are colonial-era writings by Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada, and Texcocan historians Juan Bautista Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. The law code in Texcoco under Nezahualcoyotl was legalistic, as many tried cases by particular types of evidence and many disregarded the social status of the litigants, and consisted of 80 written laws. These laws called for severe, publicly administered punishments, creating a legal framework of social control.

Much less is known about the legal system in Tenochtitlan, which might be less legalistic or sophisticated as those of Texcoco for this period. Those under the reign of Moctezuma I established it. These laws served to establish and govern relations between the state, classes, and individuals. State authorities meted out punishments solely. The Nahuas enshrined Nahua mores in these laws, criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness, and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions against theft, murder, and property damage. As stated before, pochteca could serve as judges, often exercising judicial oversight of their own members. Likewise, military courts dealt with both cases within the military and without during wartime. There was an appeal process, with appellate courts standing between local, typically market-place courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court and two special higher appellate courts at Tenochtitlan. One of those two special courts dealt with cases arising within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from outside the capital. The ultimate judicial authority laid in hands of the Huey tlatoani, who had the right to appoint lesser judges.

title: Aztec Empire


text:
The Tex Avery Show

The Tex Avery Show is an American animated showcase series of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Warner Bros. cartoon shorts prominently by animator Tex Avery (a.k.a. Fred Avery). In between the shorts, Don Kennedy gives short facts about the cartoons. The showcase premiered on the Cartoon Network in 1996 (not long after the Time Warner-Turner merger allowed for common ownership of all but four of Avery's cartoons), and was taken off the air in 2002, while reruns continued to be shown on Cartoon Network until April 11, 2004. It was soon re-broadcast on Boomerang. Some cartoons, like 1947's Uncle Tom's Cabaña, were omitted from the package as they are deemed politically incorrect.

List of featured Tex Avery cartoons

 * Dangerous Dan McFoo
 * Aviation Vacation
 * The Early Bird Dood It!
 * Dumb-Hounded
 * Red Hot Riding Hood
 * Who Killed Who?
 * One Ham's Family
 * What's Buzzin' Buzzard
 * Screwball Squirrel
 * Batty Baseball
 * Happy-Go-Nutty
 * Big Heel-Watha
 * The Screwy Truant
 * The Shooting of Dan McGoo
 * Jerky Turkey
 * Swing Shift Cinderella
 * Wild and Woolfy
 * Of Fox and Hounds
 * Lonesome Lenny
 * The Hick Chick
 * Northwest Hounded Police
 * Henpecked Hoboes
 * Hound Hunters
 * Red Hot Rangers
 * Slap Happy Lion
 * King-Size Canary
 * What Price Fleadom
 * Little 'Tinker
 * Lucky Ducky
 * The Cat That Hated People
 * Bad Luck Blackie
 * Sénor Droopy
 * The House of Tomorrow
 * Doggone Tired
 * Wags To Riches
 * Little Rural Riding Hood
 * Out-Foxed
 * The Counterfeit Cat
 * Ventriloquist Cat
 * The Cuckoo Clock
 * Garden Gopher
 * The Chump Champ
 * The Peachy Cobbler
 * Cock-a-Doodle Dog
 * Daredevil Droopy
 * Droopy's Good Deed
 * Symphony in Slang
 * Car of Tomorrow
 * Droopy's Double Trouble
 * Magical Maestro
 * One Cab's Family
 * Rock-a-Bye Bear
 * Little Johnny Jet
 * The T.V. of Tomorrow
 * The Three Little Pups
 * Drag-a-Long Droopy
 * Billy Boy
 * Homesteader Droopy
 * The Farm of Tomorrow
 * The Flea Circus
 * Dixieland Droopy
 * Field and Scream
 * The First Bad Man
 * Deputy Droopy
 * Cellbound
 * Millionaire Droopy

title: The Tex Avery Show


text:
Yellowknife (administrative district)

The Yellowknife Administration district, was a political management jurisdiction representing Yellowknife, Northwest Territories in Canada.

The district was created by Federal legislation in 1939 to encompass lands within a 3.5-mile radius of the town centre. Its primary functions were to create a Trustee Council that would represent civic issues in Yellowknife. The issues included liquor control, sanitation, land surveys, schools, and taxation. The Trustee Council was partly appointed and partly elected from a pool of local businessmen. This system continued until 1953 when the first fully elected Municipal Town Council was organized and Yellowknife civic affairs were no longer managed by the Federal government.

title: Yellowknife (administrative district)


text:
User:Fedkad/My Test Area

This is my personal "sandbox". I'm using the page for testing Wikipedia features. Back to my user page.

 * [[Media:Wexample.ogg]]

 * link title

 * Link Title

Italic text

Bold text

title: User:Fedkad/My Test Area


text:
Great Duke

In traditional demonological discourse, Great Duke (also Grand Duke or simply Duke) is a rank, denoting a position of prominence amongst the hierarchy of demons. The title of Great Duke reflects the inclination of Christian demonologists to categorize the denizens of Hell into hierarchical systems akin to those of the Monarchies of Europe, and mirroring the angelic hierarchy.

title: Great Duke


text:
Talk:Scandinavian prehistory

Stone Age stuff
This stuff about flint economy, which was edited out with the new (and no doubt better and more detailed) account of the Stone Age needs to be fitted in again somewhere:

 * During the Stone Age, Sweden was very sparsely inhabited by hunter-gatherers except for the southernmost parts, where a large population was established, probably much due to the abundance of flint stone. Öresund, Great Belt, Little Belt and Kattegatt are the only places in the nordic countries with large amounts of flint suited for tools and weapons. For this reason that region is believed to have been the economic and political center of the first Stone Age cultures in Sweden and Denmark: good finds of flint embedded in limestone was mined in rectangular shafts of 1/2 - 3 meters depth (which have been found for example east of Malmö), processed into tools and weapons, and exported.

 * The dominance of this flint-based culture does not end until large amounts of metal is imported, and stone tools are used even during the Nordic Bronze Age, the use of flint as a raw material does not end until locally mined iron can be used with the advent of the Pre-Roman Iron Age.

This part is older (not written by me) but should be incorporated into some Stone Age religion section, possibly at the main article on the Nordic Stone Age rather than here:

 * Sweden, as well as the adjacent country Norway, has a high concentration of petroglyphs (ristningar or hällristningar in Swedish) throughout the country, with the highest concentration in the province of Bohuslän. The earliest images can however be found in the northern province of Jämtland, dated from 9000 BC they depict wild animals such as moose, reindeer, bears and seals. The most common interpretation is that these early petroglyphs depict religious elements of a hunter-gatherer culture. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Nixdorf (talk • contribs) 18:43, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

Battle Axe a macho symbol?
Is calling the Battle Axe "macho" really good writing... is it not more of a status symbol? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Nixdorf (talk • contribs) 18:43, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

Iron Age stuff
That´s silly - it just about legendary figures of the Old Norse literature and nothing about archaeology.--84.251.16.234 17:45, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

Sami - Requested info
I came here wondering how the Sami people play into all this, but don't see a single explicit mention of the people in this article, although they are cursorily mentioned in a section of Sweden that links to this with Template:main. Would someone in the know please introduce mention of the Sami here? MrZaius talk  23:18, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Yeah, the articles completely ignore Sami, although Sweden has offically recognised them as indigenious peoples per UN recommendation. --Pudeo⺮ 10:02, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

Move to Nordic Prehistory

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

move to Scandinavian prehistory, per the discussion below. New redirects and some content alterations may be required, but I'll leave that up to the individual editors here. Dekimasu よ! 15:27, 21 October 2007 (UTC) I propose moving this page to Nordic Prehistory, since: (i) there are already other "Nordic" articles such as Nordic Stone Age and Nordic Bronze Age, (ii) it does not make sense to create articles for Prehistoric Norway, Prehistoric Denmark, Prehistoric Sapmi, etc.Labongo 12:29, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * No problem. I read through the article, and little of it is specifically about Sweden. / Fred-J 16:04, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Weak oppose Actually, most of it is about Sweden specifically, from the first sentence onward; it may well be that Norway and Denmark are sufficiently like Sweden to be included (in which case Scandinavian prehistory would be better.) Septentrionalis PMAnderson 19:34, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Well at least in my view, the sections "Stone age" and "Bronze Age" could be about either Scandinavian country.
 * Anyway, I agree that "Scandinavian prehistory" is better than "Nordic prehistory". This article doesn't mention Iceland and Finland but makes frequent references to Norway, Denmark and southern Sweden (then Danish). / Fred-J 11:23, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Move to Nordic Prehistory - part 2
This comment was moved from the above archived discussion. Labongo (talk) 12:27, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose. I'm a Swedish PhD and research archaeologist, and I'm thinking about putting some work into this article. It has recently been re-named "Scandinavian prehistory", but is actually a heavily error-ridden article about Swedish matters that someone has made slight attempts to expand into a pan-Scandy version. I'd prefer to re-name it back to Prehistoric Sweden and then go to work on it. In my opinion, the archaeology of all the Scandy/Nordic countries is very different, and thus merits one article each. Whatcha say? Martin Rundkvist (talk) 09:06, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

 * As a non-expert reader it would be nice to have regional articles that summarize the prehistory of for example Scandinavia. It seems to me, still not an expert, that using country borders to organize these early cultures is not the best way to do it. Were there not many cultures that were distributed among for example Norway and Sweden? However, it would be nice to have an expert improving this article, and I don't think anyone can oppose if you want to create a detailed article about Sweden. But I hope you can also write a few words about the pre-history of the other Scandinavian countries. Labongo (talk) 12:37, 5 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I am also unsure, as Labongo. What fror example about Skåne, Halland and Blekinge? It was in those days more naturally linked to Denmark than to Sweden. Should it be described in an article about early Swedish history or in an article about Danish history? And the same issue probably arrises for Norrland, Gotland and Jämtland. / Fred-J 17:15, 5 January 2008 (UTC)
 * The current borders of the Scandy countries are not expected to change anytime soon, and when discussing the Neolithic, neither today's borders nor the Medieval ones are particularly relevant. Anyway, I could do Sweden and Denmark to a decent standard, but not Norway or Finland. Martin Rundkvist (talk) 21:55, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

A skewed picture
I hope more information on the whole of Scandinavia will be put up in the future. as it is now there is only information about Sweden. I can see that there has been a solid discussion about a potential merging above, but however this turns out, we need info covering the areas of Denmark and Norway as well. And remember: the nations of Denmark, Sweden and Norway first came into existence at the end of the Viking Age, much later than pre-history. When these names are used, it is only to describe geographical locations.

RhinoMind (talk) 18:13, 29 August 2014 (UTC)

Missing information tag
Hello. I have now inserted a missing information tag to the article. Let me document the reason for installing it.

It can sometimes be confusing what is actually meant when the word "Scandinavia" is mentioned. Scandinavia is a broader geographical area than the Scandinavian peninsula alone. It is important that this article include the pre-history of Scandinavia in the broadest sense possible. Mostly because pre-history is a cultural concept, not a purely geographical one. Also because it makes sense to gather all the information on the pre-history of the Scandinavian region in one place, or the meaning of the content would appear unnecessarily fragmented, as it is inter-related. RhinoMind (talk) 00:58, 24 March 2016 (UTC)

 * The term "Nordic" in "Nordic Bronze Age", "Nordic Stone Age", etc. is supposed to capture that. Articles on prehistoric cultures should be be divided along modern national borders but along cultural boundaries as they existed at the time. "Scandinavia" isn't a convenient division in this sense. "Nordic" means "Northern Europe" as in southern Scandinavia and the North European Plain, because that's roughly the extent of the archaeological cultures under discussion. --dab (𒁳) 08:41, 18 July 2016 (UTC)

 * Hi. This section was not made with the intention to start a discussion about anything. It was simply made to document and explain the tag I inserted, and nothing more than that. If we need to discuss anything, we should preferably do it in a new section. Anyway, for now, I need to point out, that there are several problems with your post.
 * Do you mean "Articles on prehistoric cultures should NOT be be divided along modern national borders but along cultural boundaries as they existed at the time." ? Otherwise I can not make sense of your post.
 * I can not grasp your point really. Could you perhaps explain what you mean in more detail and in more clear terms? Are you just trying to "correct" my understanding of what Nordic and Scandinavian means or do you have a point you want to get across?
 * Nordic is a very vague term. Strictly speaking Northern Europe also comprise the British Isles, which is clearly not part of the Nordic Brone Age, Nordic Stone Age or Nordic Iron Age for that matter. Anyway, there is no point in talking about "Nordic" in relation to this article, as long as the name of the article is Scandinavian prehistory. We could of course make up or move this article to a new Nordic prehistory article, but as long as that hasn't happened we must talk about what comprise Scandinavia.
 * Scandinavia is sometimes also a rather vague term, occasionally including Finland. But it always includes modern day Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
 * Scandinavia is a rather good choice, when describing the prehistory of modern day Scandinavia. Because the prehistoric cultures of modern day Norway, Sweden and Denmark are very similar and highly related. The prehistoric cultures of Finland is a bit different.
 * RhinoMind (talk) 21:06, 18 July 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scandinavian prehistory


text:
Talk:Hazara University

what is university's web site

Copyright problem removed
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title: Talk:Hazara University


text:
Compendium of postage stamp issuers (E)

Each "article" in this category is a collection of entries about several stamp issuers, presented in alphabetical order. The entries are formulated on the micro model and so provide summary information about all known issuers.

See the Category:Compendium of postage stamp issuers page for details of the project.

EAF

 * Refer :	East Africa Forces

East Africa

 * Refer :	British East Africa

East Africa & Uganda Protectorates

 * Dates :	1903–1922
 * Capital :	Nairobi
 * Currency : 	(1903) 12 pies = 1 anna; 16 annas = 1 rupee
 * (1907) 100 cents = 1 rupee

 * Refer :	British East Africa

East Africa Forces

 * Dates :	1943–1948
 * Currency : 	12 pence = 1 shilling; 20 shillings = 1 pound

 * Refer :	British Occupation Issues

East China (People's Post)

 * Dates :	1949–1950
 * Currency :	100 cents = 1 dollar

 * Refer :	CPR Regional Issues

East Germany (DDR)

 * Dates :	1949–1990
 * Capital :	East Berlin
 * Currency :	100 pfennige = 1 Ostmark

 * Main Article :

 * See also :	Germany

East India

 * Dates :	1855–1882
 * Currency :	12 pies = 1 anna; 16 annas = 1 rupee

 * Main Article :

 * See also :	India

East India Company

 * Refer :	East India

East Silesia

 * Dates :	1920 only
 * Currency :	Czech and Polish concurrently

 * Refer :	Plebiscite Issues

Eastern Arabia

 * Refer :	British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia

Eastern Command Area

 * Dates :	1916–1918
 * Currency :	100 pfennige = 1 Reichsmark

 * Refer :	German Occupation Issues (WWI)

Eastern Karelia (Finnish Occupation)

 * Dates :	1941–1944
 * Currency :	100 penni = 1 markka

 * Refer :	Finnish Occupation Issues

Eastern Rumelia

 * Dates :	1880–1885
 * Capital :	Plovdiv (Philippopolis)
 * Currency :	40 paras = 1 piastre

 * Refer :	Bulgarian Territories

Eastern Siberia

 * Refer :	USSR Issues for the Far East

Eastern Thrace

 * Dates :	1920–1922
 * Currency : 	100 lepta = 1 drachma

 * Refer :	Thrace

 * See also :	Adrianople;
 * Greek Occupation Issues;
 * Western Thrace

Ecuador

 * Dates :	1865 –
 * Capital :	Quito
 * Currency :	(1865) 8 reales = 1 peso
 * (1881) 100 centavos = 1 sucre

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of Ecuador

 * See also :	Galapagos Islands

Edirne

 * Refer :	Adrianople

EEF

 * Refer :	Palestine (Egyptian Occupation)

Eesti

 * Refer :	Estonia

Egeo

 * Refer :	Aegean Islands (Dodecanese)

Egypt

 * Dates :	1866 –
 * Capital :	Cairo
 * Currency : 	(1866) 40 paras = 1 piastre
 * (1888) 1000 milliemes = 100 piastres = 1 pound

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt

 * Includes :	Egyptian Post Offices in the Turkish Empire;
 * United Arab Republic (UAR)

Egypt (British Forces)

 * Dates :	1932–1943
 * Currency : 	100 piastres = 1 pound

 * Main Article :

 * See also :	BA/BMA Issues;
 * British Occupation Issues;
 * Middle East Forces (MEF)

Egypt (French Post Offices)

 * Dates
 * 1899–1931

 * Currency
 * (1899) 100 centimes = 1 franc
 * (1921) 1000 milliemes = 100 piastres = 1 pound

 * Main Article
 * French post offices in Egypt

 * Includes
 * Alexandria (French Post Office);
 * Port Said (French Post Office)

Egyptian Occupation Issues

 * Main Article :

 * Includes :	Gaza;
 * Palestine

Egyptian Post Offices in the Turkish Empire

 * Refer :	Egypt

Éire

 * Refer :	Republic of Ireland

Ellas (ELLAS)

 * Refer :	Greece

Ellice Islands

 * Refer :	Gilbert & Ellice Islands;
 * Tuvalu

Elobey, Annobón, and Corisco

 * Dates :	1903–1908
 * Capital :
 * Currency :	100 centimos = 1 peseta

 * Refer :	Spanish Guinea

El Salvador

 * Dates :	1867 –
 * Capital :	San Salvador
 * Currency :	(1867) 8 reales = 100 centavos = 1 peso
 * (1912) 100 centavos = 1 colon

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of El Salvador

Elsass

 * Refer :	Alsace (German Occupation)

England

 * Refer :	Great Britain

Epirus

 * Dates :	1914–1916
 * Capital :	Ioannina
 * Currency : 	100 lepta = 1 drachma

 * Includes :	Northern Epirus

 * See also :	Greek Occupation Issues

Equatorial Guinea

 * Dates :	1968 –
 * Capital :	Malabo (formerly Santa Isabel)
 * Currency :	(1968) 100 centimos = 1 pesete
 * (1973) 100 centimos = 1 ekuele
 * (1981) biptwele

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of Equatorial Guinea

Eritrea

 * Dates :	1893–1942; 1993 –
 * Capital :	Asmara
 * Currency : 	100 centesimi = 1 lira

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of Eritrea

 * See also :	Ethiopia;
 * Italian East Africa

Eritrea (British Administration)

 * Dates :	1950–1952
 * Currency : 	100 cents = 1 shilling

 * Refer :	BA/BMA Issues

Eritrea (British Military Administration)

 * Dates :	1948–1950
 * Currency : 	100 cents = 1 shilling

 * Refer :	BA/BMA Issues

Eritrea (British Occupation)

 * Refer :	Eritrea (British Administration);
 * Eritrea (British Military Administration)

Est Africain Allemand Occupation Belge

 * Refer :	German East Africa (Belgian Occupation)

Estado da India

 * Refer :	Portuguese India

Estero

 * Refer :	Italian Post Offices Abroad

Estonia

 * Dates :	1918 - 1940, 1991 –
 * Capital :	Tallinn
 * Currency :	(1991) 100 kopecks = 1 Russian ruble
 * (1992) 100 senti = 1 kroon

 * Main Article : Postage stamps and postal history of Estonia

 * Includes :	Estonia (pre–Soviet)

 * See also :	Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

Estonia (German Occupation)

 * Dates :	1941 only
 * Currency :	100 senti = 1 kroon

 * Refer :	German Occupation Issues (WWII)

Estonia (pre-Soviet)

 * Dates :	1918–1940
 * Capital :	Tallinn
 * Currency :	(1918) 100 kopecks = 1 Russian ruble
 * (1919) 100 penni = 1 mark
 * (1928) 100 senti = 1 kroon

 * Refer :	Estonia

Ethiopia (Abyssinia)

 * Dates :	1894 –
 * Capital :	Addis Ababa
 * Currency : 	(1894) 16 guerche = 1 thaler
 * (1905) 100 centimes = 1 franc
 * (1907) 16 guerche = 1 thaler
 * (1908) 16 piastres = 1 thaler
 * (1928) 16 mehaleks = 1 thaler
 * (1936) 100 centimes = 1 thaler
 * (1936) 100 centesimi = 1 lira
 * (1946) 100 cents = 1 dollar
 * (1976) 100 cents = 1 birr

 * Main Article
 * Postage stamps and postal history of Ethiopia

 * See also :	Eritrea;
 * Ethiopia (Italian Occupation);
 * Italian East Africa

Ethiopia (French Post Offices)

 * Dates :	1906–1908
 * Currency : 	100 centimes = 1 franc

 * Refer :	French Post Offices Abroad

Ethiopia (Italian Occupation)

 * Dates :	1936 only
 * Currency : 	100 centesimi = 1 lira

 * Refer :	Italian Occupation Issues

 * See also :	Ethiopia;
 * Italian East Africa

Eupen & Malmedy (Belgian Occupation)

 * Dates :	1920 only
 * Currency :	(1920: initial issue) 100 pfennige = 1 Reichsmark
 * (1920: later issues) 100 centimes = 1 franc

 * Refer :	Belgian Occupation Issues

title: Compendium of postage stamp issuers (E)


text:
Multifocal technique

Multifocal techniques are used in electroretinogram and visual evoked potential recordings to separate the responses originating from the stimulation of different locations in the visual field (and thus different retinal locations).

The concept is as follows: Each visual field location is stimulated with a stimulus sequence that is uncorrelated to the sequences used for the other locations. All visual field locations are stimulated in parallel with their individual stimulus sequence. The retinal or cortical activity, which is a mixture of the responses from all visual field locations, is recorded with usual electroretinographic or visual evoked potential methods, respectively. Due to the independence of the stimulus sequences, the responses for each visual field location can be extracted using mathematical algorithms.

Mutifocal techniques, in particular the multifocal ERG, are used in the diagnosis of ophthalmological diseases. The multifocal technique was developed in the early 1990s in the laboratory of Erich Sutter at the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute

title: Multifocal technique