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Stingless bee

Stingless bees (SB), sometimes called stingless honey bees or simply meliponines, are a large group of bees (from about 462 to 552 described species), comprising the tribe Meliponini (or subtribe Meliponina according to other authors). They belong in the family Apidae (subfamily Apinae), and are closely related to common honey bees (HB, tribe Apini), orchid bees (tribe Euglossini), and bumblebees (tribe Bombini). These four bee tribes belong to the corbiculate bees monophyletic group. Meliponines have stingers, but they are highly reduced and cannot be used for defense, though these bees exhibit other defensive behaviors and mechanisms. Meliponines are not the only type of bee incapable of stinging: all male bees and many female bees of several other families, such as Andrenidae and Megachilidae (tribe Dioxyini), also cannot sting.

Some stingless bees have powerful mandibles and can inflict painful bites. Some species can present large mandibular glands for the secretion of caustic defense substances, secrete unpleasant smells or use sticky materials to immobilise enemies.

The main honey-producing bees of this group generally belong to the genera Scaptotrigona, Tetragonisca, Melipona and Austroplebeia, although there are other genera containing species that produce some usable honey. They are farmed in meliponiculture in the same way that European honey bees (genus Apis) are cultivated in apiculture.

Throughout Mesoamerica, the Mayans have engaged in extensive meliponiculture on a large scale since before the arrival of Columbus. Meliponiculture played a significant role in Maya society, influencing their social, economic, and religious activities. The practice of maintaining stingless bees in man-made structures is prevalent across the Americas, with notable instances in countries such as Brazil, Peru, and Mexico.

Geographical distribution
Stingless bees can be found in most tropical or subtropical regions of the world, such as the African continent (Afrotropical region), Southeast Asia and Australia (Indo-Malayan and Australasian region), and tropical America (Neotropical region).

The majority of native eusocial bees of Central and South America are SB, although only a few of them produce honey on a scale such that they are farmed by humans. The Neotropics, with approximately 426 species, boast the highest abundance and species richness, ranging from Cuba and Mexico in the north to Argentina in the south.

They are also quite diverse in Africa, including Madagascar, and are farmed there also. Around 36 species exist on the continent. The equatorial regions harbor the greatest diversity, with the Sahara Desert acting as a natural barrier to the north. The range extends southward to South Africa and southern Madagascar, with most African species inhabiting tropical forests or both tropical forests and savannahs.

Meliponine honey is prized as a medicine in many African communities, as well as in South America. Some cultures use SB honey against digestive, respiratory, ocular and reproductive problems, although more research is needed to disclose evidence that supports these practices.

In Asia and Australia, approximately 90 species of stingless bees span from India in the west to the Solomon Islands in the east, and from Nepal, China (Yunnan, Hainan), and Taiwan in the north to Australia in the south.

Origin and dispersion
Phylogenetic analyses reveal three distinct groups in the evolutionary history of Meliponini: the Afrotropical, the Indo-Malay/Australasia, and the Neotropical lineages. The evolutionary origin of the Meliponini is Neotropical. Studies observing contemporary species richness show that it remains highest in the Neotropics.

The hypothesis proposes the potential dispersion of stingless bees from what is now North America. According to this scenario, these bees would have then traveled to Asia by crossing the Bering Strait (Beringia route) and reached Europe through Greenland (Thulean route).

Overview
Meliponines, considered highly eusocial insects, exhibit a remarkable caste division. The colonies typically consist of a queen, workers, and sometimes male drones. The queen is responsible for reproduction, while the workers perform various tasks such as foraging, nursing, and defending the colony. Individuals work together with a well-defined division of labor for the overall benefit.

Stingless bees are valuable pollinators and contribute to ecosystem health by producing essential products. These insects collect and store honey, pollen, resin, propolis, and cerumen. Honey serves as their primary carbohydrate source, while pollen provides essential proteins. Resin, propolis, and cerumen are used in nest construction and maintenance.

Nesting behavior varies among species and may involve hollow tree trunks, external hives, the soil, termite nest or even urban structures. This adaptability underscores their resilience and ability to coexist with human activities.

Workers
In a SB colony, workers constitute the predominant segment of the population, serving as the colony's primary workforce. They undertake a multitude of responsibilities crucial for the colony's well-being, including defense, cleaning, handling building materials, and the collection and processing of food. Recognizable by the corbicula - a distinctive structure on their hind legs resembling a small basket - workers efficiently carry pollen, resin, clay, and other materials gathered from the environment. Given their abundance and unique physical feature, workers play a central role in sustaining the colony.

Queens
The principal egg layer in SB colonies is the queen, distinguished from the workers by differences in both size and shape. Stingless bee queens - except in the case of the Melipona genus, where queens and workers receive similar amounts of food and thus exhibit similar sizes - are generally larger and weigh more than workers (approximately 2–6 times). Post-mating, meliponine queens undergo physogastry, developing a distended abdomen. This physical transformation sets them apart from honey bee queens, and even Melipona queens can be easily identified by their enlarged abdomen after mating.

Stingless bee colonies typically follow a monogynous structure, featuring a single egg-laying queen. An exception is noted in Melipona bicolor colonies, which are often polygynous (large populations may have as many as 5 physogastric queens simultaneously involved in oviposition). Depending on the species, queens can lay varying quantities of eggs daily, ranging from a dozen (e.g., Plebeia julianii) to several hundred (e.g., Trigona recursa). While information on queen lifespans is limited, available data suggest that queens generally outlive workers, with lifespans usually falling between 1 and 3 years, although some queens may live up to 7 years.

The laying queen assumes the crucial role of producing eggs that give rise to all castes within the colony. Additionally, she plays a pivotal role in organizing the colony, overseeing a complex communication system primarily reliant on the use of pheromones.

Males (drones)
The primary function of males, or drones, is to mate with queens, performing limited tasks within the nest and leaving at around 2–3 weeks old, never to return. The production of males can vary, occurring continuously, sparsely or in large spurts when numerous drones emerge from brood combs for brief periods. Identifying a male can be challenging due to its similar body size to workers, but distinctive features such as the absence of a corbicula, larger eyes, slightly smaller mandibles, slightly longer and v-shaped antennae, and often a lighter face color distinguish them. Clusters of males, numbering in the hundreds, can be observed outside colonies, awaiting the opportunity to mate with virgin queens.

Males in a stingless bee colony, either produced mainly by the laying queen or primarily by the workers, play an important role in reproduction. Workers can produce males by laying unfertilized eggs, enabled by the haplodiploidy system, where males are haploid, having only one set of chromosomes, while workers are diploid and incapable of producing female eggs due to their inability to mate. This sex determination system is common to all hymenopterans.

Soldiers
While the existence of a soldier caste is well known in ants and termites, the phenomenon was unknown among bees until 2012, when some stingless bees were found to have a similar caste of defensive specialists that help guard the nest entrance against intruders. To date, at least 10 species have been documented to possess such "soldiers", including Tetragonisca angustula, T. fiebrigi, and Frieseomelitta longipes, with the guards not only larger, but also sometimes a different color from ordinary workers.

Division of labour
When the young worker bees emerge from their cells, they tend to initially remain inside the hive, performing different jobs. As workers age, they become guards or foragers. Unlike the larvae of honey bees and many social wasps, meliponine larvae are not actively fed by adults (progressive provisioning). Pollen and nectar are placed in a cell, within which an egg is laid, and the cell is sealed until the adult bee emerges after pupation (mass provisioning).

At any one time, hives can contain from 300 to more than 100,000 workers (with some authors claiming to calculate more than 150,000 workers, but with no methodology explanation), depending on species.

Products and materials
The industrious nature of stingless bees extends to their building activities. Unlike honey bees, they do not use pure wax for construction but combine it with resin to create cerumen, a material employed in constructing nest structures such as brood cells, food pots, and the protective involucrum. Wax is secreted by young bees through glands located on the top of their abdomen and this mixture not only provides structural strength but also offers antimicrobial properties, inhibiting the growth of fungi and bacteria. The creation of batumen involves combining cerumen with additional resin, mud, plant material, and sometimes even animal feces. Batumen, a stronger material, forms protective layers covering the walls of the nesting space, ensuring the safety of the colony.

On the other hand, clay, sourced from the wild and exhibiting diverse colors based on its mineral origin, serves as another essential raw material for SB. While it can be used in its pure form, it is more common to combine clay with vegetable resins to produce geopropolis. The inclusion of clay in this mixture enhances the durability and structural integrity of the resulting substance.

Vegetable resin, gathered from a variety of plant species in the wild, is an essential raw material brought back to the hive. Stored in small, sticky clumps in peripheral areas of the colony, it is often mistakenly treated as a synonym for propolis. However, in beekeeping terminology, propolis refers to a mixture of resin, wax, enzymes, and possibly other substances. Stingless bees go beyond the classic propolis by producing various derivatives from resins and wax, sometimes using pure resins for sealing or defense, a behavior not observed in Apis bees. Understanding these distinctions is vital for effective production and value addition to the meliponiculture activity.

Honey, a prized product of bee colonies, is crafted through the processing of nectars, honeydews, and fruit juices by worker bees. They store these collected substances in an extension of their gut called a crop. Back at the hive, the bees ripen or dehydrate the nectar droplets by spinning them inside their mouthparts until honey is formed. Ripening concentrates the nectar and increases the sugar content, though it is not nearly as concentrated as the honey from Apis mellifera. Stored in food pots, meliponines' honey is often referred to as pot-honey due to its distinctive storage method. Stingless bee honeys differ from A. mellifera honey in terms of color, texture, and flavor, being more liquid with a higher water content. Rich in minerals, amino acids, and flavonoid compounds, the composition of honey varies among colonies of the same species, influenced by factors such as season, habitat, and collected resources.

Special methods are being developed to harvest moderate amounts of honey from stingless bees in these areas without causing harm. For honey production, the bees need to be kept in a box specially designed to make the honey stores accessible without damaging the rest of the nest structure. Some recent box designs for honey production provide a separate compartment for the honey stores so the honey pots can be removed without spilling honey into other areas of the nest. Unlike a hive of commercial honeybees, which can produce 75 kg (165 lbs) of honey a year, a hive of Australian stingless bees produces less than 1 kg (2 lbs). Stingless bee honey has a distinctive "bush" taste—a mix of sweet and sour with a hint of fruit. The taste comes from plant resins—which the bees use to build their hives and honey pots—and varies at different times of year depending on the flowers and trees visited.

In 2020 researchers at the University of Queensland found that some species of stingless bee in Australia, Malaysia, and Brazil produce honey that has trehalulose—a sugar with an unusually low glycaemic index (GI) compared to that of glucose and fructose, the main sugars composing conventional honey. Such low glycaemic index honey is beneficial for humans because its consumption does not cause blood sugar to spike, forcing the body to make more insulin in response. Honey with trehalulose is also beneficial as it this sugar cannot nourish the lactic acid-producing bacteria that cause tooth decay. The university's findings supported the long-standing claims of Indigenous Australian people that native honey is beneficial to human health. This type of honey is scientifically supported as providing therapeutic value to humans as well.

Nest
Stingless bees, as a collective group, display remarkable adaptability to diverse nesting sites. They can be found in exposed nests in trees, from living in ant and termite nests above and below ground to cavities in trees, trunks, branches, rocks, or even human constructions.

Many beekeepers keep the bees in their original log hive or transfer them to a wooden box, as this makes controlling the hive easier. Some beekeepers put them in bamboos, flowerpots, coconut shells, and other recycling containers such as a water jug, a broken guitar, and other safe and closed containers.

Exposed nests
Notably, certain species, such as the African Dactylurina, construct hanging nests from the undersides of large branches for protection against adverse weather conditions. Additionally, some American Trigona species, including T. corvina, T. spinipes, and T. nigerrima, as well as Tetragonisca weyrauchi, build fully exposed nests.

Ground nests
A significant minority of meliponine species, belonging to genera like Camargoia, Geotrigona, Melipona, Mourella, Nogueirapis, Paratrigona, Partamona, Schwarziana, and others, opt for ground nests. These species take advantage of cavities in the ground, often utilizing abandoned nests of ants, termites, or rodents. Unlike some other cavity-nesting bees, stingless bees in this category do not excavate their own cavities but may enlarge existing ones.

Termite and ant shared nests
Numerous stingless bee species have evolved to coexist with termites. They inhabit parts of ant or termite nests, both above and below ground. These nests are often associated with various ant species, such as Azteca, Camponotus, or Crematogaster, and termite species like Nasutitermes, Constrictotermes, Macrotermes, Microcerotermes, Odontotermes, or Pseudocanthotermes. This strategy allows SB to utilize pre-existing cavities without the need for extensive excavation.

Cavity nests
The majority of stingless bees favor nesting in pre-existing cavities within tree trunks or branches. Nesting heights vary, with some colonies positioned close to the ground, typically below 5 meters, while others, like Trigona and Oxytrigona, may nest at higher elevations, ranging from 10 to 25 meters. Some species, such as Melipona nigra, exhibit unique nesting habits at the foot of a tree in root cavities or between roots. The choice of nesting height has implications for predation pressure and the microclimate experienced by the colony.

The majority of stingless bee species exhibit a non-specific preference when it comes to selecting tree species for nesting. Instead, they opportunistically exploit whatever nesting sites are available This adaptability underscores the versatility of SB in adapting to various arboreal environments. Furthermore, cavity-nesting species can opportunistically utilize human constructions, nesting under roofs, in hollow spaces in walls, electricity boxes, or even metal tubes. In few cases, specific tree species, like Caryocar brasiliense, may be preferred by certain stingless bee species (Melipona quadrifasciata), illustrating a degree of selectivity in nesting choices among different groups.

Entrances
Entrance tubes showcase a spectrum of characteristics, from being hard and brittle to soft and flexible. In many situations, the portion near the opening remains soft and flexible, aiding workers in sealing the entrance during the night. The tubes may also feature perforations and a coating of resin droplets, adding to the complexity of their design.

The entrances serve as essential visual landmarks for returning bees, and they are often the first structures constructed at a new nest site. The diversity in entrance size influences foraging traffic, with larger entrances facilitating smoother traffic but potentially necessitating more entrance guards to ensure adequate defense.

Some Partamona species exhibit a distinctive entrance architecture, where workers of P. helleri construct a large outer mud entrance leading to a smaller adjacent entrance. This unique design enables foragers to enter with high speed, bouncing off the ceiling of the outer entrance towards the smaller inner entrance. The peculiar appearance of this entrance has led to local names such as "toad mouth", highlighting the intriguing adaptations found in stingless bee nest entrances.

Brood cell arrangement
Stingless bee colonies exhibit a diversity of construction patterns of brood cells, primarily composed of soft cerumen, a mixture of wax and resin. Each crafted cell is designed to rear a single individual bee, emphasizing the precision and efficiency of their nest architecture.

The quantity of brood cells within a nest displays significant variation across different stingless bee species. Nest size can range from a few brood cells, as observed in the Asian Lisotrigona carpenteri, to remarkably expansive colonies with over 80,000 brood cells, particularly in some American Trigona species.

Meliponine colonies exhibit diverse brood cell arrangements, primarily categorized into three main types: horizontal combs, vertical combs, and clustered cells. Despite these primary types, variations and intermediate forms are prevalent, contributing to the flexibility of nest structures.

The first type involves horizontal combs, often characterized by a spiral pattern or layers of cells. The presence of spirals may not be consistent within a species, varying among colonies or even within the same colony. Some species, such as Melipona, Plebeia, Plebeina, Nannotrigona, Trigona, and Tetragona, may occasionally build spirals alongside other comb structures, as observed in Oxytrigona mellicolor. As space diminishes for upward construction, workers initiate the creation of a new comb at the bottom of the brood chamber. This innovative approach optimizes the available space when emerging bees vacate older, lower brood combs.

The second prevalent brood cell arrangement involves clusters of cells held together with thin cerumen connections. This clustered style is observed in various distantly related genera, such as the American Trigonisca, Frieseomelitta, Leurotrigona, the Australian Austroplebeia, and the African Hypotrigona. This arrangement is particularly useful for colonies in irregular cavities unsuitable for traditional comb building.

The construction of vertical combs is a distinctive trait found in only two stingless bee species: the African Dactylurina and the American Scaura longula. This vertical arrangement sets these species apart from the more commonly observed horizontal comb structures in other stingless bee genera.

Brood rearing
Stingless bee brood rearing is a sophisticated and intricately coordinated process involving various tasks performed by worker bees, closely synchronized with the queen's activities. The sequence begins with the completion of a new brood cell, marking the initiation of mass provisioning.

Upon finishing a brood cell, several workers engage in mass provisioning, regurgitating larval food into the cell. This collective effort is swiftly followed by the queen laying her egg on top of the provided larval food. The immediate sealing of the cell ensues shortly afterward, culminating this important phase of the brood rearing process.

The practice of mass provisioning, oviposition, and cell sealing is considered an ancestral trait, shared with solitary wasps and bees. However, in the context of stingless bees, these actions represent distinct stages of a highly integrated social process. Notably, the queen plays a central role in orchestrating these activities, acting as a pacemaker for the entire colony.

This process diverges significantly from brood rearing in Apis spp. In honeybee colonies, queens lay eggs into reusable empty cells, which are then progressively provisioned over several days before final sealing. The contrasting approaches in brood rearing highlight the unique social dynamics and adaptations within stingless bee colonies.

Swarming
Stingless bees and honey bees, despite encountering a common challenge in establishing daughter colonies, employ contrasting strategies. There are three key differences: reproductive status and age of the queen that leaves the nest, temporal aspects of colony foundation, and communication processes for nest site selection.

In HB (Apis mellifera), the mother queen, accompanied by a swarm of numerous workers, embarks on relocation to a new home once replacement queens have been reared. Conversely, in SB (meliponines), the departure is orchestrated by the unmated ("virgin") queen, leaving the mother queen in the original nest. Mated stingless bee cannot leave the hive due to damaged wings and increased abdominal size post-mating (physogastrism). The queen's weight in species like Scaptotrigona postica increases, for example, about 250%.

Unlike honey bees, stingless bee colonies are unable to perform absconding - a term denoting the abandonment of the nest and migration to a new location - making them reliant on alternative strategies to cope with challenges. Meliponines progressive found new colonies without abandonning their nest abruptly.

These are the stages of stingless bees swarming:

 * 1) Reconnaissance and preparation: Scouts inspect potential new nest sites for suitability, considering factors such as cavity size, entrance characteristics, and potential threats. The criteria for determining suitability remain largely unexplored. Some colonies engage in simultaneous preparation of multiple cavities before making a final decision and some others make the initial reconnaissance but do not move into the cavity;
 * 2) Transport of building material and food: workers seal cracks in the chosen cavity using materials like resin, batumen, or mud. They construct an entrance tube, possibly serving as a visual beacon for nestmate workers. Early food pots are built and filled with honey, requiring a growing number of workers to transport cerumen and honey from the mother nest.
 * 3) Progressive establishment and social link: the mother and daughter colony maintain a social link through workers traveling between the two nests. The duration of this link varies among species, ranging from a few days to several months. Stingless bee colonies display a preference for cavities previously used by other colonies, containing remnants of building material and nest structures.
 * 4) Arrival of the queen: after initial preparations, an unmated queen, accompanied by additional workers, arrives at the new nest site.
 * 5) Drone arrival: males (drones) aggregate outside the newly established nest. They often arrive shortly after swarming initiation, even before the completion of nest structures. Males can be observed near the entrance, awaiting further events.
 * 6) Mating flight: males in aggregations do not enter the colony but await the queen's emergence for a mating flight. Although rarely observed, it is assumed that unmated stingless bee queens embark on a single mating flight, utilizing acquired sperm for the entirety of their reproductive life.

Natural enemies
In meliponiculture, beekeepers need to be aware of the presence of animals that can harm stingless bee colonies. There are several potential enemies, but the most damaging ones to meliponaries are listed below.

Invertebrates
Phorid flies in the genus Pseudohypocera pose a significant threat to stingless bee colonies, causing problems for beekeepers. These parasites lay eggs in open cells of pollen and honey, leading to potential extinction if not addressed. Early detection is crucial for manual removal or using vinegar traps. It's important never to leave an infested box unattended to prevent the cycle from restarting and avoid contaminating other colonies. Careful handling of food jars, especially during swarms transfers, is essential. Prompt removal of broken jars, sealing gaps with wax or tape, and maintaining vigilance during the rainy season for heightened phorid activity are recommended. Combatting these flies usually is a priority, particularly during increased reproductive periods.

Termites usually do not attack bees or their food pots. However, they can cause damage to the structure of hive boxes as there are many xylophagous species. While termites do not usually pose major problems for beekeepers, they should still be monitored closely. Ants are attracted to bee colonies by the smell of food. To prevent ant attacks, it's important to handle the hive boxes carefully and avoid exposing jars of pollen and honey. Although rare, when attacks do occur, there are intense conflicts between ants and bees. Stingless bees usually manage to defend themselves, but the damage to the bee population can be significant. To prevent ant infestations in meliponaries with individual supports, a useful strategy is to impregnate the box supports with burnt oil. Another group of enemy flies are the black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens). They lay their eggs in crevices of boxes and can extend the tip of their abdomen during laying, facilitating access to the inside of the hive. Larvae of this species feed on pollen, feces, and other materials found in colonies. In general, healthy bee colonies can coexist peacefully with soldier flies. However, in areas where these insects are prevalent, beekeepers must remain vigilant and protect the gaps in the colonies to prevent potential issues. Cleptobiosis, also known as cleptoparasitism, is a behaviour observed in various species of stingless bees, with over 30 identified species engaging in nest attacks, including honey bee nests. This behaviour serves the purpose of either resource theft or usurping the nest by swarming into an already occupied cavity and these bees are called robber bees. The Neotropical genus Lestrimelitta and the African genus Cleptotrigona represent bees with an obligate cleptobiotic lifestyle since they do not visit flowers for nectar or pollen.

Furthermore, other species such as Melipona fuliginosa, Oxytrigona tataira, Trigona hyalinata, T. spinipes, and Tetragona clavipes are reported to have comparable habits of pillaging and invading, which emphasises the variety of strategies employed by stingless bees in acquiring resources.

Other enemies include: jumping spiders (Salticidae), moths, assassin bugs (Reduviidae), beetles, parasitoid wasps, predatory mites (Amblyseius), mantises (Mantodea), robber flies (Asilidae), etc.

Vertebrates
Human activities pose the most significant threat to stingless bees, whether through honey and nest removal, habitat destruction, pesticide use or introduction of non-native competitors. Large-scale environmental alterations, particularly the conversion of natural habitats into urban or intensively farmed land, are the most dramatic threats leading to habitat loss, reduced nest densities, and species disappearance.

Primates, including chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, and various monkey species, are known to threaten stingless bee colonies. Elephants, honey badgers, sun bears, spectacled bears, anteaters, hog-nosed skunks, armadillos, tayras, eyra cats, kinkajous, grisons, and coyotes are among the mammals that consume or destroy stingless bee nests. Some, like the tayra and eyra cat, have specific preferences for stealing honey. Geckos, lizards, and toads also pose threats by hunting adult bees or consuming workers at nest entrances. Woodpeckers and various bird species, including bee-eaters, woodcreepers, drongos, jacamars, herons, kingbirds, flycatchers, swifts, and honeyeaters, occasionally prey on stingless bees. African honeyguides have developed a mutualism with human honey-hunters, actively guiding them to bee nests for honey extraction and then consuming leftover wax and larvae.

Defense
Being tropical, stingless bees are active all year round, although they are less active in cooler weather, with some species presenting diapause. Unlike other eusocial bees, they do not sting, but will defend by biting if their nest is disturbed. In addition, a few (in the genus Oxytrigona) have mandibular secretions, including formic acid, that cause painful blisters. Despite their lack of a sting, stingless bees, being eusocial, may have very large colonies made formidable by the number of defenders.

Stingless bees use other sophisticated defence tactics to protect their colonies and ensure their survival. One important strategy is to choose nesting habitats with fewer natural enemies to reduce the risk of attacks. In addition, they use camouflage and mimicry to blend into their surroundings or imitate other animals to avoid detection. An effective strategy is to nest near colonies that provide protection, using collective strength to defend against potential invaders.

Nest entrance guards play a vital role in colony defense by actively preventing unauthorized entry through attacking intruders and releasing alarm pheromones to recruit additional defenders. It is worth noting that nest guards often carry sticky substances, such as resins and wax, in their corbiculae or mandibles. Stingless bees apply substances to attackers to immobilise them, thus thwarting potential threats to the colony. Some species (Tetragonisca angustula and Nannotrigona testaceicornis, for example) also close their nest entrances with a soft and porous layer of cerumen at night, further enhancing colony security during vulnerable periods. These intricate defence mechanisms demonstrate the adaptability and resilience of stingless bees in safeguarding their nests and resources.

Role differentiation
In a simplified sense, the sex of each bee depends on the number of chromosomes it receives. Female bees have two sets of chromosomes (diploid)—one set from the queen and another from one of the male bees or drones. Drones have only one set of chromosomes (haploid), and are the result of unfertilized eggs, though inbreeding can result in diploid drones.

Unlike true honey bees, whose female bees may become workers or queens strictly depending on what kind of food they receive as larvae (queens are fed royal jelly and workers are fed pollen), the caste system in meliponines is variable, and commonly based simply on the amount of pollen consumed; larger amounts of pollen yield queens in the genus Melipona. Also, a genetic component occurs, however, and as much as 25% (typically 5–14%) of the female brood may be queens. Queen cells in the former case can be distinguished from others by their larger size, as they are stocked with more pollen, but in the latter case, the cells are identical to worker cells, and scattered among the worker brood. When the new queens emerge, they typically leave to mate, and most die. New nests are not established by swarms, but by a procession of workers that gradually construct a new nest at a secondary location. The nest is then joined by a newly mated queen, at which point many workers take up permanent residence and help the new queen raise her own workers. If a ruling queen is herself weak or dying, then a new queen can replace her. For Schwarziana quadripunctata, although fewer than 1% of female worker cells produce dwarf queens, they comprise six of seven queen bees, and one of five proceed to head colonies of their own. They are reproductively active, but less fecund than large queens.

Pollination
Bees play a critical role in the ecosystem, particularly in the pollination of natural vegetation. This activity is essential for the reproduction of various plant species, particularly in tropical forests where most tree species rely on insect pollination. Even in temperate climates, where wind pollination is prevalent among forest trees, many bushes and herbaceous plants, rely on bees for pollination. The significance of bees extends to arid regions, such as desertic and xeric shrublands, where bee-pollinated plants are essential for preventing erosion, supporting wildlife, and ensuring ecosystem stability.

The impact of bee pollination on agriculture is substantial. In the late 1980s, certain plants were estimated to contribute between $4.6 to $18.9 billion to the U.S. economy, primarily through insect-pollinated crops. Although some bee-pollinated plants can self-pollinate in the absence of bees, the resulting crops often suffer from inbreeding depression. The quality and quantity of seeds or fruits are significantly enhanced when bees participate in the pollination process. Although estimates of crop pollination attributed to honey bees are uncertain, it is undeniable that bee pollination is a vital and economically valuable activity.

Ramalho (2004) demonstrates that stingless bees amount to approximately 70% of all bees foraging on flowers in the Brazilian Tropical Atlantic Rainforest even though they represented only 7% of all bee species. In a habitat in Costa Rica, stingless bees accounted for 50% of the observed foraging bees, despite representing only 16% of the recorded bee species. Following this pattern, Cairns et al. (2005) found that 52% of all bees visiting flowers in Mexican habitats were meliponines.

Meliponine bees play a crucial role in tropical environments due to their high population rate, morphological diversity, diverse foraging strategies, generalist foraging habits (polylecty), and flower constancy during foraging trips. Nest densities and colony sizes can result in over a million individual stingless bees inhabiting a square kilometre of tropical habitat. Due to their diverse morphology and behaviour, bees are capable of collecting pollen and nectar from a wide range of flowering plants. Key plant families are reported as most visited by meliponines: Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae and Myrtaceae.

Grüter compiled some studies about twenty crops that substantially benefit from SB pollination: The same author compiled seventy-four crops that are at least occasionally or potentially pollinated by stingless bees:

Stingless bees of Australia
"Coot-tha", which derives from "ku-ta", is one of the Aboriginal names for "wild stingless bee honey". Of the 1,600 species of wild bees native to Australia, about 14 are meliponines. These species bear a variety of names, including Australian native honey bees, native bees, sugar-bag bees, and sweat bees (because they land on people's skin to collect sweat). All are small and usually black in colour, with hairy extended hind legs for carrying nectar and pollen; because of the latter, they are sometimes mistaken for bumblebees. The various stingless species look quite similar, with the two most common species, Tetragonula carbonaria and Austroplebeia australis, displaying the greatest variation, as the latter is smaller and less active. Both of these inhabit the area around Brisbane.

As stingless bees are harmless to humans, they have become an increasingly attractive addition to the suburban backyard. Most meliponine beekeepers do not keep the bees for honey, but rather for the pleasure of conserving native species whose original habitat is declining due to human development. In return, the bees pollinate crops, garden flowers, and bushland during their search for nectar and pollen. While a number of beekeepers fill a small niche market for bush honey, native meliponines only produce small amounts and the structure of their hives makes the honey difficult to extract. Only in warm areas of Australia such as Queensland and northern New South Wales are favorable for these bees to produce more honey than they need for their own survival. Most bees only come out of the hive when it is above about 18°C (64°F). Harvesting honey from a nest in a cooler area could weaken or even kill the nest.

Pollination
Australian farmers rely almost exclusively on the introduced western honey bee to pollinate their crops. However, native bees may be better pollinators for certain agricultural crops. Stingless bees have been shown to be valuable pollinators of tropical plants such as macadamias and mangos. Their foraging may also benefit strawberries, watermelons, citrus, avocados, lychees, and many others. Research into the use of stingless bees for crop pollination in Australia is still in its very early stages, but these bees show great potential. Studies at the University of Western Sydney have shown these bees are effective pollinators even in confined areas, such as glasshouses.

Stingless bees of Brazil

Brazil is home to several species bees belonging to Meliponini, with more than 300 species already identified and probably more yet to be discovered and described. They vary greatly in shape, size, and habits, and 20 to 30 of these species have good potential as honey producers. Although they are still quite unknown by most people, an increasing number of beekeepers (meliponicultores, in Portuguese) have been dedicated to these bees throughout the country. This activity has experienced significant growth since August 2004, when national laws were changed to allow native bee colonies to be freely marketed, which was previously forbidden in an unsuccessful attempt to protect these species. Nowadays the capture or destruction of existing colonies in nature is still forbidden, and only new colonies formed by the bees themselves in artificial traps can be collected from the wild. Most colonies marketed are artificially produced by authorized beekeepers, through division of already existing captive colonies. Besides honey production, Brazilian stingless bees such as the jataí (Tetragonisca angustula), managuari (Scaptotrigona postica), and mandaçaia (Melipona quadrifasciata) serve as major pollinators of tropical plants and are considered the ecological equivalent of the honey bee.

Also, much practical and academic work is being done about the best ways of keeping such bees, multiplying their colonies, and exploring the honey they produce. Among many others, species such as jandaíra (Melipona subnitida) and true uruçu (Melipona scutellaris) in the northeast of the country, mandaçaia (Melipona quadrifasciata) and yellow uruçu (Melipona rufiventris) in the south-southeast, tiúba or jupará (Melipona interrupta ) and straw-bee (Scaptotrigona polysticta) in the north and jataí (Tetragonisca angustula) throughout the country are increasingly kept by small, medium, and large producers. Many other species as the mandaguari (Scaptotrigona postica), the guaraipo (Melipona bicolor), marmelada (Frieseomelitta varia) and the iraí (Nannotrigona testaceicornis), to mention a few, are also reared. Through the cultivation of honey or selling of colonies, keeping stingless bees is an increasingly profitable activity. A single colony of species like mandaçaia and true "uruçu" can be divided up to four times a year, and each of the new colonies obtained this way can be sold for about US$100.

According to ICMBio and the Ministry of the Environment there are presently four species of Meliponini listed in the National Red List of Threatened Species in Brazil. Melipona capixaba, Melipona rufiventris, Melipona scutellaris, and Partamona littoralis all listed as Endangered (EN).

Honey production
Although the colony population of most of these bees is much smaller than that of European bees, the productivity per bee can be quite high. Probably the world champions in honey productivity, the manduri (Melipona marginata) and the guaraipo (M. bicolor), live in swarms of only around 300 individuals, but can still produce up to 5 liters (.79 US gallon) of honey a year under the right conditions. The manduri is one of the smallest bees in the Melipona genus, varying in length from 6 to 7 mm (15/64" to 9/32"). Species of the genus Scaptotrigona have very large colonies, with up to 20,000 individuals, and can produce from 3 to 8 liters (2 US gallons) of honey a year.

Some large breeders have more than 3,000 hives of the tamer but still highly productive species in the genus Melipona, such as the tiúba, the true uruçu, and the jandaíra, each with 3,000 or more bees per colony. They can produce over 1.5 tons (3,000 lbs) of honey every year. In large bee farms, only the availability of flowers limits the honey production per colony. Their honey is considered more palatable because it's not overly sweet, and it also is thought to have medicinal properties more pronounced than honey from bees of the genus Apis due to the higher level of antimicrobial substances. As a result, the honey from stingless bees returns very high profits, with prices greater than those for the more common honey produced by European bees. However, much larger numbers of beehives are required to produce amounts of honey comparable to that of European bees. Also, due to the fact of those bees storing honey in cerumen pots instead of standardized honeycombs as in the honeybee rearing makes extraction a lot more difficult and laborious.

The honey from stingless bees has a lighter color and a higher water content, from 25% to 35%, compared to the honey from the genus Apis. This contributes to its less cloying taste but also causes it to spoil more easily. Thus, for marketing, this honey needs to be processed through desiccation, fermentation or pasteurization. In its natural state, it should be kept under refrigeration.

Bees as pets
Due to the lack of a functional stinger and characteristic nonaggressive behavior of many Brazilian species of stingless bees, they can be reared without problems in densely populated environments such as cities, provided enough flowers are at their disposal nearby. Some breeders (meliponicultores) can produce honey even in apartments up to the 12th floor.

The mandaçaias (Melipona quadrifasciata) are extremely tame, rarely attacking humans (only when their hives are opened for honey extraction or colony division). They form small, manageable colonies of only 400–600 individuals. At the same time, a single rational beehive of mandaçaia can produce up to 4 liters (1 US gallon) of honey a year, making the species very attractive for home keepers. They are fairly large bees, up to 11 mm (7/16") in length, and as a result have better body heat control, allowing them to live in regions where temperatures can drop a little lower than 0 °C (32 °F). However, they are somewhat selective about which flowers they will visit, preferring the flora that occurs in their natural environment. They are thus difficult to keep outside their region of origin (the northeast coast of Brazil).

Other species, like the tiúba and the true uruçu, are also very tame and highly productive. Their colonies have from 3,000–5,000 individuals (for comparison, the population of honeybee swarms can peak at 80,000 individuals) and can produce up to 10 liters (2.6 US gallons) of honey a year. They can be easily kept at home but will survive only in regions with a warm climate, their larvae dying at temperatures lower than 12 °C (54 °F). The yellow uruçu, however, can survive at temperatures lower than 0 °C (32 °F), and their colonies, bearing about 3,500 individuals, can produce up to 6 liters (1.5 US gallons) of honey a year. But this species will react with powerful nipping if its nests are disturbed, and usually they are only kept by professional meliponicultors.

Another suitable species for keeping at home is the guaraipo (Melipona bicolor). It is also quite tame, never attacking the beekeeper, and their colonies have fewer than 600 individuals. They can withstand temperatures as low as −10 °C (14 °F), and each colony can produce over 3 liters ($3/4$ US gallons) of honey a year. Their colonies usually have more than one single queen at a time (usually two or three, but sometimes up to five), a phenomenon called polygyne, and thus are less sensitive to the death of one queen, which can cause the loss of a whole colony in other species. But the guaraipo is very sensitive to low levels of humidity, and their hives must be equipped with means to keep a high moisture content. Once very common, the guaraipo is now rather rare in nature, mainly due to the destruction of their native forests in the south-southeast of Brazil.

Other groups of Brazilian stingless bees, genera Plebeia and Leurotrigona, are also very tame and much smaller, with one of them (Plebeia minima) reaching no more than 2.5 mm (3/32") in length, and the lambe-olhos ("lick-eyes" bee, Leurotrigona muelleri) being even smaller, at no more than 1.5 mm (3/32"). Many of these species are known as mirim (meaning 'small' in the Tupi-Guarani languages). As a result, they can be kept in very small artificial hives, thus being of interest for keepers who want them as pollinators in small glasshouses or just for the pleasure of having a 'toy' bee colony at home. Being so tiny, these species produce only a very small amount of honey, typically less than 500 ml (1/2 US pint) a year, so are not interesting for commercial honey production.

Belonging to the same group, the jataí (Tetragonisca angustula), the marmelada (Frieseomelitta varia), and the moça-branca (Frieseomelitta doederleini) are intermediate in size between those very small species and the European bee. They are very adaptable species; the jataí, and can be reared in many different regions and environments, being quite common in most Brazilian cities. The jataí can bite when disturbed, but its jaws are weak, and in practice they are harmless, while the marmelada and moça-branca usually deposit propolis on their aggressors. Producing up to 1.5 liters (0.4 US gallons) of honey a year, their honey is considered among the best from stingless bees. In fact, the jataí was one of the first species to be kept by home beekeepers. Their nests can be easily identified in trees or wall cavities by the yellow wax pipe they build at the entrance, usually guarded by some soldier bees, which are stronger than regular worker bees. The marmelada and moça-branca make a little less honey, but it is denser and sweeter than most from other stingless bees and is considered very tasty.

Maya stingless bees of Central America
The stingless bees Melipona beecheii and M. yucatanica are the primary native bees cultured in Central America, though a few other species are reported as being occasionally managed (e.g., Trigona fulviventris and Scaptotrigona mexicana). They were extensively cultured by the Maya civilization for honey, and regarded as sacred. They continue to be cultivated by the modern Maya peoples, although these bees are endangered due to massive deforestation, altered agricultural practices (especially overuse of insecticides), and changing beekeeping practices with the arrival of the Africanized honey bee, which produces much greater honey crops.

History
Native meliponines (M. beecheii being the favorite) have been kept by the lowland Maya for thousands of years. The Yucatec Maya language name for this bee is xunan kab, meaning "(royal, noble) lady bee". The bees were once the subject of religious ceremonies and were a symbol of the bee-god Ah-Muzen-Cab, known from the Madrid Codex.

The bees were, and still are, treated as pets. Families would have one or many log-hives hanging in and around their houses. Although they are stingless, the bees do bite and can leave welts similar to a mosquito bite. The traditional way to gather bees, still favored among the locals, is find a wild hive, then the branch is cut around the hive to create a portable log, enclosing the colony. This log is then capped on both ends with another piece of wood or pottery and sealed with mud. This clever method keeps the melipine bees from mixing their brood, pollen, and honey in the same comb as do the European bees. The brood is kept in the middle of the hive, and the honey is stored in vertical "pots" on the outer edges of the hive. A temporary, replaceable cap at the end of the log allows for easy access to the honey while doing minimal damage to the hive. However, inexperienced handlers can still do irreversible damage to a hive, causing the hive to swarm and abscond from the log. With proper maintenance, though, hives have been recorded as lasting over 80 years, being passed down through generations. In the archaeological record of Mesoamerica, stone discs have been found that are generally considered to be the caps of long-disintegrated logs that once housed the beehives.

Tulum
Tulum, the site of a pre-Columbian Maya city on the Caribbean coast 130 km (81 mi) south of Cancun, has a god depicted repeatedly all over the site. Upside down, he appears as a small figure over many doorways and entrances. One of the temples, the "Templo del Dios Descendente" or the Temple of the Descending God, stands just left of the central plaza. Speculation is that he may be the "Bee God", Ah Muzen Cab, as seen in the Madrid Codex. It is possible that this was a religious/trade center with emphasis on xunan kab, the "royal lady".

Economic uses
Balché, a traditional Mesoamerican alcoholic beverage similar to mead, was made from fermented honey and the bark of the leguminous balché tree (Lonchocarpus violaceus), hence its name. It was traditionally brewed in a canoe. The drink was known to have entheogenic properties, that is, to produce mystical experiences, and was consumed in medicinal and ritual practices. Beekeepers would place the nests near the psychoactive plant Turbina corymbosa and possibly near balché trees, forcing the bees to use nectar from these plants to make their honey. Additionally, brewers would add extracts of the bark of the balché tree to the honey mixture before fermentation. The resulting beverage is responsible for psychotropic effects when consumed, due to the ergoline compounds in the pollen of the T. corymbosa, the Melipona nectar gathered from the balché flowers, or the hallucinogenic compounds of the balché tree bark.

Lost-wax casting, a common metalworking method typically found where the inhabitants keep bees, was also used by the Maya. The wax from Melipona is soft and easy to work, especially in the humid Maya lowland. This allowed the Maya to create smaller works of art, jewelry, and other metalsmithing that would be difficult to forge. It also makes use of the leftovers from honey extraction. If the hive was damaged beyond repair, the whole of the comb could be used, thus using all of the hive. With experienced keepers, though, only the honey pot could be removed, the honey extracted, and the wax used for casting or other purposes.

Future
The outlook for meliponines in Mesoamerica is uncertain. The number of active Meliponini beekeepers is shy in comparison with the Africanized Apis mellifera breeders. The high honey yield, 100 kg (220 lbs) or more annually, along with the ease of hive care and ability to create new hives from existing stock, commonly outweighs the negative consequences of "killer bee" hive maintenance.

Further complicating the issue, Africanized honey bees do not visit some flora, such as those in the tomato family, and several forest trees and shrubs, which rely on the native stingless bees for pollination. A decline in populations of native flora has already occurred in areas where stingless bees have been displaced by Africanized honey bees.

An additional blow to the art of meliponine beekeeping is that many of the meliponine beekeepers are now elderly, and their hives may not be cared for once they die. The hives are considered similar to an old family collection, to be parted out once the collector dies or to be buried in whole or part along with the beekeeper upon death. In fact, a survey of a once-popular area of the Maya lowlands shows the rapid decline of beekeepers, down to around 70 in 2004 from thousands in the late 1980s. It is traditional in the Maya lowlands that the hive itself or parts of the hive be buried along with the beekeeper to volar al cielo, "to fly to heaven". Conservation efforts are underway in several parts of Mesoamerica.

Books

 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.
 * Villas-Bôas, Jerônimo (2018). Manual Tecnológico de Aproveitamento Integral dos Produtos das Abelhas Nativas sem Ferrão. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza (ISPN), v. 2.

title: Stingless bee


text: User talk:68.84.185.85

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:68.84.185.85


text:
Nicholas Corozzo

Nicholas "Little Nick" Corozzo (born March 17, 1940) is an American mobster who is a captain in the Gambino crime family of New York City.

Criminal career
Nicholas Corozzo was born at 1825 Pitkin Avenue in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn. Corozzo's first headquarters was located in a small candy store on the corner of Eastern Parkway & Atlantic Avenue in the Ocean Hill section of Brooklyn, known as "The Hill" to his crew members. He later opened a social club next to the candy store which became his new headquarters. Corozzo later moved his headquarters to the Canarsie section of Brooklyn. Nicholas is the older brother of alleged reputed Gambino consigliere Joseph "Jo Jo" Corozzo as well as twin brothers Blaise Corozzo, a Gambino soldier, and Anthony Corozzo, who is an associate of the Gambino crime family. Anthony Corozzo is a longtime parishioner of Our Lady of Loreto Church located at the corner of Pacific Street & Sackman Street in Brownsville where he regularly attended Sunday mass. Anthony Corozzo along with his lifelong friend and Gambino crime family associate Dominick Mondelli aka Donny Mondelli, were well known for organizing neighborhood reunions and charitable events for the church for decades. Anthony died on April 17, 2020. Nicholas Corozzo is the uncle of Joseph Corozzo Jr, a high-profile New York defense attorney. Nicholas' daughter, Bernadette, is married to Gambino associate Vincent Dragonetti. Prior to Corozzo's incarceration, he lived in Bellmore, Long Island. He stands at 5′5" tall and weighs approximately 170 pounds.

Ruling panel
During the early 1980s, Nicholas Corozzo was a bitter rival of Gambino captain John Gotti. When Gotti became boss of the family in 1985, he declined to promote Corozzo to captain. However, since Corozzo was such a good earner for the family, Gotti did not want to get rid of him. In turn, Corozzo professed loyalty to Gotti. It was only after Gotti went to prison in 1992 that Corozzo was finally promoted to captain, along with Gambino soldier Leonard "Lenny" DiMaria. With Gotti in prison, Corozzo, DiMaria, and Nicholas' brother, Joseph, now the alleged consigliere, formed a ruling panel that unofficially ran the Gambino family. In the mid 1990s, Corozzo was elevated to serve on the ruling panel.

In 1996, Corozzo allegedly ordered the murder of Lucchese crime family associate Robert Arena. Arena had allegedly murdered Anthony Placido, a member of Corozzo's crew, and had failed to return some stolen marijuana to a drug dealer. On June 26, 1996, the Gambino gunmen found Arena driving with Thomas Maranga, an Arena childhood acquaintance with no criminal connections, in the Mill Basin section of Brooklyn. After forcing Arena to stop the car, the gunmen shot and killed both men. However, until this day there is no concrete evidence that Corozzo ordered the murder of Robert Arena.

Florida arrest
In December, 1996, Corozzo was indicted in Miami, Florida on 20 racketeering charges that included attempted murder, arson, and loansharking. Corozzo was accused of running a loansharking business in Deerfield Beach, Florida that charged 260% yearly interest on loans. Federal agents arrested Corozzo as he emerged from the surf at a beach in Key Biscayne, Florida. In August 1997, Corozzo pleaded guilty to racketeering charges in Florida and was sentenced to five to ten years in prison. Later that year, Corrozo again pleaded guilty in Brooklyn to racketeering and bribing a jail guard.

While in federal prison, Corozzo shared a cell with Gambino associate Joseph Vollaro, who was serving a drug conviction. After his release, Vollaro started paying tribute to Corozzo's crew on a trucking company he started. However, facing another drug conviction in 2004, Vollaro agreed to become a government informant and record his conversations with Corozzo.

After Corozzo's release from prison on June 10, 2004, it was expected he would again take over the Gambino crime family. However, due to increased law enforcement attention, he initially kept a low profile. The Gambinos were reportedly led by Jackie D'Amico until 2005. Corozzo kept his position as a Caporegime, despite health concerns and tight parole restrictions. In 2006, a new report stated that Nicholas Corozzo and D'Amico were the new bosses of the Gambino family, with Arnold "Zeke" Squitieri as underboss and Joseph Corozzo as consigliere.

Indictment and imprisonment
In February 2008, Corozzo was indicted twice, one for the federal Operation Old Bridge and the other for the state Operation Touchback. The federal indictment was for the 1996 Arena and Maranga murders and other racketeering charges, with Vollaro as their main witness. The state indictment, prosecuted by Queens County District Attorney Richard A. Brown, Organized Crime and Rackets Bureau Chief Gerard A. Assistant District Attorney Benjamin J. Mantell, included the top count of enterprise corruption surrounding a Queens-based gambling ring that grossed almost $10 million over two years from sports betting.

Amid a roundup of 62 mobsters named in an indictment, Corozzo had fled his Long Island home. The FBI searched intensively for Corozzo and the television program America's Most Wanted did a feature on him. On May 29, 2008, after four months as a fugitive, Corozzo walked into the FBI's New York City office and surrendered.

In July 2008, Corozzo pleaded guilty to the state enterprise corruption charges. On April 17, 2009, Corozzo was sentenced to 13 and a half years in federal prison for the 1996 Arena and Maranga murders.

Corozzo was originally incarcerated at the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, a medium security facility in Leavenworth, Kansas, but was later moved to the Federal Correctional Complex, Florence, a high security facility in Florence, Colorado. As of March 2015, he was incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution, Loretto, a low security facility in Loretto, Pennsylvania. As of March 2018, Corozzo was imprisoned at the low security Federal Correctional Institution, Allenwood Low in Allenwood, Pennsylvania. His projected release date was March 2, 2020, but he was released early on November 29, 2019.

title: Nicholas Corozzo


text:
John Garland

John Garland may refer to:

 * Johannes de Garlandia (philologist) (fl. c. 1205–1255), also called Jean de Garlande, John of Garlande
 * Johannes de Garlandia (music theorist) (fl. c. 1270–1320), also called Jean de Garlande, John of Garlande
 * John Garland (cricketer) (1875–1938), Australian cricketer
 * John Garland (general) (1792–1861), United States career soldier with a notable service during the Mexican-American War
 * John Garland (Australian politician) (1862–1921), New South Wales Attorney-General
 * John J. Garland (1873–1925), Canadian politician
 * John W. Garland, United States university president and lawyer
 * Juan Garland (died 1775), an Irish military engineer in the service of Spain

title: John Garland


text:
File:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg

vi:Hình:Hoa Tinh.jpg

title: File:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg


text: User talk:200.175.139.133

title: User talk:200.175.139.133


text:
Egica

Egica, Ergica, or Egicca (c. 640 – 701/703), was the Visigoth King of Hispania and Septimania from 687 until his death. He was the son of Ariberga and the nephew of Wamba.

Accession
He was married (c. 680) to Cixilo (also known as Cixilona, Cioxillo, or Cixila), the daughter of his royal predecessor Erwig and wife Liuvigoto. On his deathbed on 14 November 687, Erwig confirmed Egica as his heir and sent him with the royal court to Toledo to be crowned. He was anointed on 24 November. Upon Egica's marriage to Cixilo, Erwig had made him swear an oath to protect Erwig's children. Before his death Erwig required a second oath, swearing not to deny justice to the people. Shortly after taking the throne, Egica called the Fifteenth Council of Toledo on 11 May 688, at which he claimed the two oaths were contradictory (because to do justice to the people required "harming" Erwig's children) and asked the council of bishops to release him from one or the other. Egica, however, met the opposition of Julian of Toledo. The council allowed Egica to abandon his wife but only partially rescinded the oath to protect Erwig's children. Egica waited until Julian's death in 690 to call a second provincial council of Tarraconensis, which resulted in Erwig's widow, Liuvigoto, being sent to a convent.

Notable events
In 691, Egica oversaw the beginning of the building of the Church of San Pedro de la Nave in Zamora.

In 693, the metropolitan of Toledo, Sisebert, led a rebellion against Egica in favor of raising a man named Suniefred to the throne. The rebels controlled Toledo for a time, because they were able to mint coins in the potential usurper's name. The plan to assassinate Egica, the dowager queen Liuvigoto, and several main counsellors failed, and Sisebert was defrocked, excommunicated and his descendants were barred from holding office. The other rebels and their descendants were sold into slavery.

Legislation
In 693, Egica enacted severe anti-Jewish laws described as the most significant such laws by a Visigothic king yet. This was in response, so he claimed, to the Seventeenth Council of Toledo, to a conspiracy of domestic and foreign Jews to overthrow Christian leaders. Egica declared all Jewish-held land forfeit, all Jews to be enslaved to Christians, and all Jewish children over the age of seven to be taken from their homes and raised as Christians. Jewish-owned Christian slaves were to be invested with the Jews' property and to be responsible for paying the taxes on the Jews. This law was not applied in towns where Jews were deemed indispensable to the economy. Indeed, as a result of disintegrating Visigothic power, it was hardly enforced beyond the capital city of Toledo itself.

Shortly before he died, Egica amended a law that stated that anyone accused of theft of goods worth 300 solidi was to undergo a trial by boiling water. Under Egica's changes, anyone accused of theft for whatever amount would have to undergo this ordeal. At the same time, Egica published several laws that dealt harshly with the issue of fugitive slaves, while simultaneously rescinding laws that permitted slaveholders to mutilate their slaves as punishment. Egica also remitted taxes, but this does not seem to have raised his popularity. He got the bishops to order prayers to be said in his name and that of his family in every cathedral in Hispania.

Death and succession
As early as 694 he co-ruled with Wittiza, his son by Cixilo, even though Wittiza was a minor. In one of his very last acts he had Wittiza anointed in 700. Egica died in his bed, with his succession secured, sometime between 701 and 703.

His other two sons were Don Oppas, and Sisebuto. Don Oppas, who was possibly a bastard son, was Archbishop or Bishop of Seville and joined Musa bin Nusair and Tariq ibn Ziyad against Roderic during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Sisebuto became the Comes of the Christians of Coimbra, as did his son Ataulfo, his grandson Atanarico and his great-grandson Teudo in 770, 801/802 and 805.

title: Egica


text: User talk:DemonKyoto

title: User talk:DemonKyoto


text:
File:Leedscomstock.jpg

1887 letter from Anthony Comstock to Josiah Leeds. Taken from http://www.haverford.edu/library/special/aids/leeds/leedscomstock.jpg

Probably because of age of original letter, at least if photographic reproduction is more recent

Typed text of the letter
(dictated) The New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, 150 Nassau Street, Room 9.
 * New York, Nov. 21st, 1887

Mr. Josiah W. Leeds,
 * 528 Walnut Street,
 * Philadelphia, Pa.

 * My dear Sir:

Your highly esteemed favor of the 19th inst., most thankfully received.

I congratulate you on what has been done in Philadelphia as it has very much stimulated matters in this City, and helped to turn the tide of public sentiment. I sincerely hope that you will be successful in regard to the cigarette pictures, and also in reference to other matter.

The issue now is sharply drawn. It is whether the lewd and indecent of the Salon of Paris may break from their bonds, cross the water and debauch the children of this country, or whether the law shall be enforced and the morals of our youth protected.

I have been through a week of the grossest misrepresentation and attacks from the Press, evidently with the design on their part to divert public attention from the question in issue; but I beg to say, that I am not dismayed, and I can assure you that we have the Law and Right on our side.

 * Thanking you for your kind letter, believe me,

 * Very truly yours, Anthony Comstock (sec'y)

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ

title: File:Leedscomstock.jpg


text:
Thor Kunkel

Thor Kunkel, a German author, was born in Frankfurt am Main on 2 September 1963. Kunkel claims to have spent his youth associating with drug friends and American soldiers stationed in the then West Germany. In 1981, on a scholarship to the United States, he enrolled in the creative writing programme of the San Francisco Art Institute.

Following his return to West Germany, Kunkel joined the staff of advertising agency Young & Rubicam, then in 1988 joined the Swiss GGK in London, England. After marrying Dutch artist Gerda Bakker, he moved to Amsterdam in 1992 and re-joined Young & Rubicam as creative director, quitting in 1996 to take up directing and writing. He now lives in Switzerland and the Netherlands. His first novel, The Blacklight-Terrarium (1999), won him a major German literary prize. His 2011 novel Subs has been adapted for film with the title Herrliche Zeiten by the director Oskar Roehler.

Biography
Thor Kunkel's debut novel Das Schwarzlicht-Terrarium (lit. 'The Black Light Terrarium') - awarded with the Ernst Willner Prize in 1999 - layers a variety of tragic-comical stories around synthetic drugs, disco and the American dream imported by G.I.s on the historical reality of the 1970s. In his dialogues, Kunkel mixes the jargon of "Hessian" hicks with G.I. slang to create a highly literary gutter language. Referring to Kunkels first novel, Martin Walser wrote appreciatively: "The author seems to be a naming obsessive, a virtuoso of disgust, a master show-off, a sexual fundamentalist."

Kunkel's second novel, A Letter to Hanny Porter (original title: Ein Brief an Hanny Porter), set on Hawaii, is a dialogue-driven show down between four characters on the down side of the "American dream." The German TV station NDR compared the novel to a "Brechtian didactic play." After a play version by the Leipzig Schauspielhaus in 2002, the novel, set in Hawaii, was produced by MDR as a radio play starring Andrea Sawatzki in a lead role.

Kunkel's third novel Final Stage (original title: Endstufe), funded by a grant from the Stiftung Preußische Seehandlung, was controversially discussed in the international press even before its official publication date. In preparing the novel, Kunkel researched deep into a secret collection of Nazi erotic films known as Sachsenwald films. Its publication led to a fierce scandal and a lasting rift between the author and the German feuilleton. On April 15, 2004, in Die Zeit, Iris Radisch called the novel "the avant-garde of the biotechnical age. (...)The Berlin Banana Republic in NS Design." The FAZ journalist Dirk Schümer, on the other hand, found on May 12, 2004, in SWR'S program Büchertalk: "Kunkel's provocation consists in the fact that the Third Reich is portrayed from an internal perspective. That means that the people who describe it to us are Nazis. [...] I read this book with great pleasure in a very quick time and found it a monstrous, horror-movie-like inside perspective of a system that is otherwise only ever portrayed from the perspective of the victims." Nevertheless, Kunkel never found Final Stage's reception justified. The Guardian journalist Luke Harding noted that Final Stage's portrayal of pornography viewing among senior Nazi officials was accurate, in spite of the fact that Nazi Germany officially banned pornography.

Kunkel's fourth novel Kuhl's cosm (original title: Kuhls Kosmos), was published in 2007. The well-known critic Volker Weidermann called the novel "sensationally funny" in the FAS. The Ärzte singer Bela B. also publicly commented on Kunkel's novel: "Rarely felt so good bad." Kuhl's Cosm as sequel of his first novel describes the dark side of disco culture and locates its beginnings in the criminal red-light milieu. Frankfurt DJ Sven Väth – father of German techno – also commented on these beginnings in the Süddeutsche, April 14, 2002: "You have to imagine it something like in Thor Kunkel's Frankfurt novel 'The Black Light Terrarium,' very semi-sexy and proletarian."

In 2010, Kunkel followed up with the utopian grotesque Schaumschwester, in which Kunkel describes the conspiracy of cybernetic organisms. The taz praised the novel, calling it "compressed and restrained."

From a 2009 radio play Subs written for WDR, Kunkel developed the novel of the same name, which was published in 2011. In his novel, Kunkel depicts the return of slavery in a private setting. A progressive-minded couple decides to settle "Balkan people" (meaning refugees) on their property in Berlin. The Austrian Standard wrote on June 3, 2011: "Thor Kunkel is and remains the German grand master of trash." The philosopher Peter Sloterdijk also commented on this novel: "Resist the beginnings!", Ovid once said. Thor Kunkel sets against it: Investigate the beginnings!" Spiegel magazine of December 12, 2011, considered this statement both a "knighthood and a declaration of honor."

In his memoir Wanderful - My New Life in the Mountains, published in 2014, Kunkel describes his two-year-lasting sabathical in the Valais Alps. The text is a mixture of autobiographical vignettes and essays on natural philosophy, that unfold within the framework of a high-alpine hiking guide. Cicero magazine, No. 4 of April 2014 subsequently called Kunkel "the last outlaw of German literature."

In addition to his literary work, Thor Kunkel is increasingly active as a director. Kunkel spent the spring of 2015 as writer in residence at Monte Verità in Ticino, where his philosophical treatise Mir blüht ein stiller Garten was written. The book was published in 2016.

Controversy
Shortly before going to press in spring of 2004, the publishing house Rowohlt discontinued its collaboration with Kunkel. The publisher Alexander Fest succinctly justified this by citing differences over content and aesthetic issues. As a result, Final Stage was published a few months later in an abridged version by Eichborn Berlin. The central thread of the fictional plot is built around the production and trade of blue flicks (pornographic films) conducted by employees of the "SS-Hygiene Institute Berlin" in North Africa. Although the so-called Sachsenwald movies are part of the collection of the renowned media expert Werner Nekes (*1944 - †2017), the authenticity of these films has been questioned, but later clearly confirmed.

Rowohlt's rejection resulted in a discussion in many German newspapers and magazines. While opinions differed widely on whether Rowohlt's move was justified, the novel itself was criticized in most media for different reasons. Opinions differed widely on the quality of the text. The Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, on the other hand, called the novel a "brilliantly written, tremendously interesting manuscript by one of the best German authors of the younger generation." A "profoundly cynical attempt" to exorcise the horrors of German history "with a wild round of disgust and at the same time to whitewash them by painting a broad picture of Allied crimes," was of another critic's verdict of the same the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. In August 2020, Kunkel published an unabridged version of his scandalized novel Final Stage, which contains the so-called discarded passages cited by Der Spiegel in their entirety. The difference from the 2004 first edition is exactly 132 pages. The media diary Open for Shooting (original title:Zum Abschuss freigegeben) was published at the same time. Kunkel describes here how his work was censored by his former publisher and how he was disavowed by the German media over a considerable period of time.

Thor Kunkel emigrated to Switzerland in 2009. Since then he regards himself as an exiled author. His website bears the title: Displaced person like.

Personal creed
"I am the drop of cold air in the global warming of German literature." Thor Kunkel, 2021

Secondary literature

 * Julia Garraio: Porn, rape and the fall of the Third Reich: Thor Kunkel's Endstufe. In: Isabella Capeloa Gil, Adriana Martins (Hrsg.): Plots of war: Modern Narratives of Conflict (= Culture & Conflict. 2). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/ Boston 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028304-4.
 * Ingo Irsigler: "In Porno veritas. Amen". Zu Formen und Funktionen des Pornographischen bei Charlotte Roche und Thor Kunkel. In: Hans-Edwin Friedrich, Sven Hanuschek, Christoph Rauen (Hrsg.): Pornographie in der deutschen Literatur: Texte, Themen, Institutionen. Belleville, München 2016, ISBN 978-3-946875-01-7, S. 167–183.
 * Peter McIssac: Dystopian Visions in Thor Kunkel's Endstufe. In: Visions of Tomorrow: Science and Utopia in German Culture. ISSEI, Helsinki 2008, ISBN 978-3-89487-613-5, S. 34–43.
 * Ingo Irsigler: "In Porno veritas. Amen". Zu Formen und Funktionen des Pornographischen bei Charlotte Roche und Thor Kunkel. In: Hans-Edwin Friedrich, Sven Hanuschek, Christoph Rauen (Hrsg.): Pornographie in der deutschen Literatur: Texte, Themen, Institutionen. Belleville, München 2016, ISBN 978-3-946875-01-7, S. 167–183.
 * Dagmar Herzog: Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century-Germany. Princeton University, Princeton/ Oxford 2005, ISBN 0-691-11702-0.
 * Stuart Taebner (Hrsg.): Contemporary German Fiction: Writing in the German Republic. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/ New York u. a. 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-86078-9.
 * Katrien Jacobs: Netporn: DIY web culture and sexual politics. Kapitel 4: "Eros in Times of war". Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2007, ISBN 978-0-7425-5431-3, bzw. ISBN 978-0-7425-5432-0.
 * Franz Trautmann: Nazikiffer: Eine mitteleuropäische Vergangenheitsbewältigung. Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2008, ISBN 978-3-8370-7325-6.
 * Frank Bösch, Constantin Goschler (Hrsg.): Public History: Öffentliche Darstellungen des Nationalsozialismus jenseits der Geschichtswissenschaft. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-593-38863-2.
 * Christian Schertz, Thomas Schuler (Hrsg.): Rufmord und Medienopfer: Die Verletzung der persönlichen Ehre. Ch. Links Verlag, Belin 2007, ISBN 978-3-86153-424-2.

Awards (selection)
as a writer
 * Ernst-Willner-Preis / Ingeborg-Bachmann-Wettlesen 2. Platz(1999)
 * Nomination Bestes Hörspiel, Kategorie: Beste Unterhaltung (2002)
 * Stipendium Preußische Seehandlung (2003)
 * Aufenthaltsstipendium der Sylt-Quelle (2004)
 * Autorenstipendium der Senatsverwaltung Berlin(2005)
 * Nominationen Kurt-Lasswitz-Preis + Deutscher Science-Fiction-Preis(2006)

as creative director

During his "industry work" as a "TV art director" and advertising film director, Kunkel received the following awards, among others:
 * N.Y. Film Festival
 * ADCN-Award (Silver Lamp)
 * Cannes Lion (Poster Award) 1994
 * Clio
 * Creative Circle
 * Creston
 * Cyber Lion
 * D&AD, DMSA
 * Art Directors Club New York
 * Graphis Poster
 * Epica
 * Eurobest (viermal)
 * London International Advertising Festival

title: Thor Kunkel


text:
Agua Blanca

 Agua Blanca (Spanish: "White Water") may refer to several geographical locations:

In Mexico

 * Agua Blanca, Coahuila
 * Agua Blanca de Iturbide, Hidalgo
 * Agua Blanca, Jalisco
 * Agua Blanca, Oaxaca
 * Agua Blanca, Sonora

Other places

 * Agua Blanca (La Rioja), Argentina
 * Agua Blanca, Ecuador
 * Agua Blanca, Jutiapa, Guatemala
 * Agua Blanca District, El Dorado Province, San Martín Region, Peru
 * Agua Blanca (Ibiza), Spain
 * Agua Blanca, Portuguesa, municipality in Venezuela

title: Agua Blanca


text:
Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is a large wildlife preserve and conservation area in southern Africa.

The park straddles the border between South Africa and Botswana and comprises two adjoining national parks: The park's total area is 38000 km2. Approximately three-quarters of the park lies in Botswana and one-quarter in South Africa. Kgalagadi means "place of thirst." In December 2015, media reports claimed that rights for gas-fracking in more than half of the Botswana portion of the park had been sold. The Botswana government later refuted these reports.
 * Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa
 * Gemsbok National Park in Botswana

Location and terrain
The park is located largely within the southern Kalahari Desert. The terrain consists of red dunes, sparse vegetation, occasional trees, and the dry riverbeds of the Nossob and Auob Rivers. The rivers are said to flow only about once per century. However, water flows underground, providing life for grass and Vachellia erioloba trees growing in river beds. The rivers may flow briefly after large thunderstorms.

Wildlife
With over 470 documented species, the park has abundant wildlife, including lion, cheetah, African leopard, spotted hyena and brown hyena. Smaller mammals include African wildcat, bat-eared fox and Cape fox, black-backed jackal, caracal, genets and honey badger, as well as meerkats and mongooses. Migratory herds of large ungulates, such as blue wildebeest, gemsbok, springbok, steenbok, southern giraffe, common eland, greater kudu, warthog, klipspringer and red hartebeest also live and move seasonally in the park, providing sustenance for the predators. More than 200 bird species inhabit the park, including ostriches, bustards, waterfowl, storks and passerines and around 30 raptors. There are over 30 reptile and amphibian species of in the park, including venomous snakes such as the Cape cobra, horned adder, puff adder and black mamba; Cape terrapins, leopard tortoise and serrated tortoise, various agama, gecko, and skink species; amphibians include sand frog and African bullfrog.

Since 2005, the protected area has been considered a Lion Conservation Unit and a lion stronghold in Southern Africa.

Weather
The weather in the Kalahari can reach extremes. January is midsummer in southern Africa, and the daytime temperatures often exceed 40 C. Winter nights can be quite cold, with temperatures below freezing. Extreme temperatures of -11 C and up to 45 C have been recorded. Precipitation is sparse in this desert area.

Facilities
The park has three traditional tourist lodges called "rest camps". These are fully serviced lodges and include amenities such as air conditioning, shops, and swimming pools. There are also six wilderness camps in the park. The wilderness camps provide little more than shelter and wash water; visitors must supply their food, drinking water, and firewood.

Visitors
From 1 April 2017 to 31 March 2018, the park received 52,463 visitors, up from 48,221 in the previous year.

History
The Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa was established on 31 July 1931 mainly to protect the migrating game, especially the gemsbok, from poaching. In 1948 an informal verbal agreement was made between the then Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Union of South Africa to set up a conservation area in the contiguous areas of the two lands. In June 1992, representatives from the South African National Parks Board (now SANParks) and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Botswana set up a joint management committee to manage the area as a single ecological unit. A management plan was drafted, reviewed, and approved in 1997. The parties agreed to cooperate in tourism and share equally in park entrance fees. On 7 April 1999, Botswana and South Africa signed a historic bilateral agreement whereby both countries undertook to manage their adjacent national parks, the Gemsbok National Park in Botswana and the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa as a single ecological unit. The boundary between the two parks had no physical barriers, although it is also the international border between the two countries. This allowed for the free movement of animals. On 12 May 2000, President Festus Mogae of Botswana and President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa formally launched Southern Africa's first peace park, the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.

Cultural preservation and establishment of !Xaus Lodge
In October 2002, the governments set aside 580 km2 (224 mi2) for the use of the native peoples, the Khomani San and Mier communities. This was divided between 277.69 km2 of San Heritage Land and 301.34 km2 of Mier Heritage Land. The South African National Parks (SANParks) manages the land under contract. This land was named the !Ae!Hai Heritage Park. The settlement agreement also provided for the communities to receive funds for the specific purpose of constructing a tourism facility. The lodge was named !Xaus Lodge (meaning 'heart' in the local language) and is managed commercially on behalf of the ‡Khomani San and Mier communities by Transfrontier Parks Destinations.

!Xaus Lodge's existence allows the cultural practices of the ‡Khomani San to continue in a few ways. The cultural village near the Lodge allows the local people to create and sell their crafts. This is both a way for them to emulate and remember the culture of historical ‡Khomani San, and a way for them to express the changes in that culture. The !Ae!Hai Heritage Park has also been named the first International Dark Sky Sanctuary in Africa by the International Dark Sky Association.

Fracking
In December 2015, it was reported in the media that the government of Botswana quietly sold the rights to frack for shale gas in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Reports said it granted prospecting licences for 29,291 km2, 34,435 km2 and 23,980 km2 – more than half of the Botswanan part of the park – to a United Kingdom-listed company called "Nodding Donkey". The sale was not reported at the time. In November 2015, the company changed its name to "Karoo Energy". In February 2016, Botswana's Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism refuted these reports saying, "There are also no licenses for fracking in the KTP" and "no intention to issue any approvals for fracking in the KTP or any other national park or national game reserve anywhere in Botswana".

title: Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park


text: Category:Health in Africa

title: Category:Health in Africa


text:
File:Columbia Aircraft logo.png

Summary
This image is the logo of the Columbia Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation. It was taken from the corporation's official site Flycolumbia.com.

Fair use rationale

 * 1) The image will be used for identification and critical commentary in the Columbia Aircraft article and other related articles.
 * 2) The use is purely for non-profit reasons, and to educate users on the corporation in question.
 * 3) It is a low resolution version of the corporation's logo.
 * 4) Its use does not limit the copyright owner's rights to sell or market related products or the corporation itself in any way.
 * 5) As an official logo of a corporation, there is no known free alternative available. If a free alternative is found, this image should be nominated for deletion as obsolete.

title: File:Columbia Aircraft logo.png