text:
Point Breeze, Pittsburgh

Point Breeze, or South Point Breeze, is a largely residential neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. The community was named after a tavern once located there.

Like nearby Squirrel Hill, it contains a large Jewish population, but is still majority Catholic and contributes to a high percentage of students enrolled in Taylor Allderdice High School, Oakland Catholic High School, and Central Catholic High School.

The most prominent feature of Point Breeze is Henry Clay Frick's Clayton, which is a part of the 5.5 acre Frick Art & Historical Center. Nearby is St. Bede School, a Catholic school, and the Pittsburgh New Church School. It is also the home to two Pittsburgh Public Schools, Linden Academy elementary school and Sterrett Middle School, and the Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary. The neighborhood also hosts much open space, with Westinghouse Park, Mellon Park, the scenic Homewood Cemetery, as well as the northern edge of Frick Park within its borders.

Pulitzer Prize winner Annie Dillard's popular memoir, An American Childhood, is set in Point Breeze during the 1950s. As a child she attended Park Place Elementary. Both of John Edgar Wideman's memoirs, Brothers and Keepers and Hoop Roots, use North Point Breeze's Westinghouse Park as a setting, as well as in his fictional Homewood Trilogy.

Although officially distinct neighborhoods separated by Penn Avenue, "Point Breeze" is also frequently taken to include North Point Breeze.

Surrounding neighborhoods
Point Breeze has six borders, five with the Pittsburgh neighborhoods of North Point Breeze to the north, Regent Square to the southeast, Squirrel Hill South to the south and southwest, Squirrel Hill North to the west, and Shadyside to the northwest. The other border is with the borough of Wilkinsburg to the east. Point Breeze also runs catty-corner (without a direct border) with the Pittsburgh neighborhood of Larimer to the north at the intersection of Penn and Fifth Avenues (This intersection also serves as an east–west "diagonal" for the Pittsburgh neighborhoods of Shadyside and North Point Breeze).

Park Place
The eastern edge of the neighborhood, north of Regent Square and east of Frick Park, comprises the neighborhood of Park Place. The Shady Side Academy Junior School sits here, as does Environmental Charter School, a Pittsburgh Public School that operates as a charter school in the building originally known as Park Place School.

Notable residents
Malcolm James McCormick (January 19, 1992 – September 7, 2018), known professionally as Mac Miller.

David McCullough (July 7, 1933 – August 7, 2022), noted historian and author, two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize, was born and raised in Point Breeze.

title: Point Breeze, Pittsburgh


text:
Sembayashi Station

Sembayashi Station (千林駅) is a train station on the Keihan Electric Railway Keihan Main Line located in Asahi-ku, Osaka, Osaka Prefecture, Japan.

Opened in 1910, the station is famous for its long covered shopping street known as the Sembayashi Shōtengai. The shopping street even has a theme song that can be heard as you walk along the covered part of the street. Sembayashi-Ōmiya Station can be found at the other end of the shopping street.

The first Daiei store opened near this station. Some of the favorite stores have been the Kadoya Ice Cream Parlor, a popular hangout for students of the nearby high school.

Layout

 * The station has 2 side platforms serving a track each on the 2nd level, outside of the inner tracks.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sembayashi Station


text:
User:Totalchaos

한국의 인터넷 비지니스 사업자들이 해외의 유수 인터넷 기업이 가지고 있는 차이점 혹은 문제점은 무엇이 있을까?

title: User:Totalchaos


text:
Yazor

Yazor is a small village and civil parish in Herefordshire, England. The village is on the A480 road, approximately 8 mi north-west of the city of Hereford, and about 1 mi east of Offa's Dyke. Within the parish is the rural estate, former Price family country seat, and Second World War camp of Foxley,  and the hamlet of Yarsop about 1 mi to the north of the village. The population of the parish at the 2011 Census was 122.

History
Yazor's Church of St Mary the Virgin is a redundant Anglican church, designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building, and is under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust. The Victorian building was constructed in 1843 by George Moore, and the Price family monuments were transferred to it. The three bay arcade is of 15th century origin, and the west tower from a century before. There was a south transept of one bay's width on the west aisle. To the south lie the ruins of Old Yazor church.

Yazor was formerly served by Moorhampton railway station located in the parish.

title: Yazor


text:
Talk:Sheldon Levy

Untitled
This article has been kept following this AFD debate. Sjakkalle (Check!)  14:37, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Sheldon Levy. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130209043651/http://www.torontolife.com/daily/informer/from-print-edition-informer/2010/03/24/the-ryerson-revolution-how-the-once-dumpy-polytechnic-is-redrawing-downtown/ to http://www.torontolife.com/daily/informer/from-print-edition-informer/2010/03/24/the-ryerson-revolution-how-the-once-dumpy-polytechnic-is-redrawing-downtown/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 22:32, 7 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sheldon Levy


text:
Cam Woolley

Cam Woolley (born January 24, 1957) is a former traffic and safety reporter for CP24 and a former police officer (rank of Sergeant) with the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) in the Greater Toronto Area. A 30-year veteran of the service, he became the face of the OPP as media co-ordinator for the Toronto area highway safety division. He has been regularly seen in the media since 2000, mainly in regard to forewarning of an impending traffic blitz during a long weekend on Highway 400 or providing police perspective of a major accident. Woolley was named OPP Officer of the Year in 2005.

In January 2007, there were reports that he was being courted by the Progressive Conservative party to run as a candidate in the 2007 Ontario Provincial Election. Woolley said he was considering the offer. The Wasaga Beach resident owns a company with his friend, Bradley Patterson, an actor and firefighter, which provides emergency and military vehicles for movie shoots in Canada including 16 Blocks, Exit Wounds and Angel Eyes. Woolley has been the resident legal "Expert" (judge) on the Discovery Channel Canada reality series, Canada's Worst Driver since joining the show in 2006.

On August 23, 2008, CTVglobemedia (now Bell Media) announced that Woolley would be retiring from the OPP on September 1, 2008 and immediately begin a broadcasting career on CP24, reporting on traffic and safety issues. Woolley also appears on CP24 Breakfast as well as on CP24 segments such as Safety First with Cam Woolley and Know Your Rights.

On March 18, 2021, CP24 Breakfast and Woolley announced he would be retiring after 13 years on the morning show. During his time on CP24 Breakfast Woolley covered every major story in Toronto and was part of the show's original cast. He retired on April 15, 2021.

title: Cam Woolley


text:
Sefton Park, South Australia

Sefton Park is a suburb about 6 km north east of the Adelaide CBD, South Australia and lies in both the City of Port Adelaide Enfield and the City of Prospect. It borders the suburbs Enfield, Nailsworth, Prospect and Broadview. Sefton Park is a minor shopping district of Adelaide and is also one of Adelaide's smallest suburbs.

Housing
Sefton Park is one of the older Adelaide suburbs and as such contains many Californian bungalows and some Art Deco homes. There are also Australian colonial style houses.

In recent times, some of these older homes have been demolished to make way for new housing. New developments are typically higher density, fitting two or three homes on one block of land. The suburb's proximity to the CBD means that this is a more lucrative option for developers.

Shopping
Sefton Park has three main shopping centres located only metres from each other.

 * Regency Plaza – The smallest of the centres, with just a Lincraft and specialty shops.
 * Sefton Plaza – The oldest and largest of the three, containing Target, Foodland (previously Arrow), Best and Less in addition to specialty shops
 * Northpark Shopping Centre – technically in the neighbouring suburb of Prospect is located directly across Main North Road from Sefton Plaza. Northpark contains both Woolworths and Coles supermarkets and a number of smaller specialty stores. Northpark has recently been expanded and refurbished, after looking outdated for many years.

Transport
busline routes 222, 224, 225F, 228, 229 and N224 (after-midnight service) service Sefton Park along Main North Road, these routes travel between Adelaide's northern suburbs and the Adelaide CBD. This stretch of Main North Road is an Adelaide Metro Go Zone, this means that the maximum wait for a bus is fifteen minutes between 07:30am and 18:30pm on weekdays.

busline route 100 services Sefton Park along Regency Road. The 100 route circles the Adelaide CBD via the outer bypass. This service does not operate on Sundays or public holidays.

title: Sefton Park, South Australia


text:
Ulverstone and Lancaster Railway

The Ulverstone [sic] and Lancaster Railway Company was short-lived as a business but the line that it built is still in daily use. The line runs from Lindal-in-Furness to Carnforth where it joins what was then the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway. The intermediate stations are: Cark and Cartmel, Kents Bank, Grange-over-Sands, Arnside and Silverdale.

Background
In August 1837 George Stephenson, considering the route from Lancaster to Carlisle and thence to Scotland, proposed a curved embankment across Morecambe Bay between Poulton-le-Sands (Morecambe) and Humphrey Head,  then following the coast northwards. He was concerned that an inland route over the fells would involve dangerously steep slopes. He saw the viaduct as a national project and he intended that it would trap the silt in order to claim Morecambe Bay for agriculture. In 1843, after considerable debate, this plan was shelved in favour of the present Shap Fell route.

Consequently, Furness, instead of finding the main line on its doorstep, had to make its own arrangements to join its local rail network to the national one. Any short connection southwards would necessarily involve a locally financed crossing of Morecambe Bay and this was a daunting prospect — the quicksands and fierce tides of the bay are still notorious. The 2004 Morecambe Bay cockling disaster reminded many people of the dangers. Nevertheless the iron miners needed a good connection in order to make their product competitive. The directors of the Furness Railway were not in a hurry to take it on so it was promoted by John Brogden and Sons, a Manchester-based firm of railway contractors and promoters who had expanded into iron mining activity in the Furness area.

The Ulverstone and Lancaster Railway Act received the Royal Assent in 1851. The directors were: John Brogden (sen.), John Brogden (jun.), Alexander Brogden, Henry Brogden, James Garstang (Alexander’s father-in-law) and Joseph Paxton (later Sir Joseph). The line was planned by McClean and Stileman at 19 mi in length of which ten miles comprised embankments, and viaducts across the tidal estuaries of the rivers Kent and Leven. Much of this was sand running to a depth of 30 to 70 ft.

Construction
Work on the line was not in full progress until September 1853 owing to shortages of labour and accommodation. McClean and Stileman had resigned as engineers the previous February so construction was superintended by James Brunlees. Brunlees had already completed a similar project and went on to achieve great eminence. The viaducts were built by W & J Galloway & Sons of Manchester. Brunlees and Galloway later collaborated on the Southport Pier. The work was costly however and Brogdens had to ask the Furness Railway for financial assistance. As the Furness could not legally do this, two of their directors: the Earl of Burlington and the Duke of Buccleuch made a loan of £50,000 in their personal capacities. The line was opened on 26 August 1857. Gross expenditure was over £410,000.

Sale
In 1858 the Brogdens approached the Furness Railway for a further loan as traffic on the U&L had not "come up to expectations". However the FR insisted that they would only offer a loan if the U&L was sold to them so Brogdens declined this offer. In 1859-1860 the line began to pay its way. It was rumoured that the line would be sold to the London and North Western Railway and in 1862 an agreement was made between the shareholders of the U&L and Furness. U&L shareholders received 5% preference stock in the Furness Railway in return for their U&L shares, not a very large return considering that they had risked losing the money altogether. This railway link was critical to the later industrial development of Barrow-in-Furness and its locality and mining interests. It also caused silt to build up in former tidal areas, creating new agricultural land.

title: Ulverstone and Lancaster Railway


text: User talk:68.95.68.32

title: User talk:68.95.68.32


text:
Waseda University Library

The collections of Waseda University Library (早稲田大学図書館; Waseda Daigaku Toshokan) form one of the largest libraries in Japan. Established in 1882, they currently hold some 5.6 million volumes and 46,000 serials.

History
The Waseda University Library (早稲田大学図書館; Waseda Daigaku Toshokan) was originally established at the time of the founding of the university in 1882 (at that time called 東京専門学校; Tokyo Senmon Gakkou). Its current Central Library building was opened in 1991, commemorating the university's centennial. All together the university has 29 libraries: the Central Library, four Campus Libraries, and school libraries or reading rooms for students, attached to each school and institute. These libraries are said to hold 5.6 million books.

The Waseda University Library also possesses a unique collection which survived the Bombing of Tokyo in World War II unlike many of its counterparts. It possesses some items which even the National Diet Library does not have. Because of this, its collection is an important resource in the study of pre-war Japanese history and literature.

Branches
The library consists of a central library and four main branch libraries, each located on a different campus. These branches include the S. Takata Memorial Research Library (with limited student access), the Library of Science and Engineering, the Toyama Library, and the Tokorozawa Library. Additionally, there are several departmental and special institute libraries that are integrated into the library system.

Collections
The Waseda University Library owns a large number of materials of eminent cultural value. Alongside the two items designated as National Treasures and five sets (187 items) as Important Cultural Assets, are manuscripts, rare books, calligraphy, handwritten strips of poems, archival materials related to Japanese history, and several special collections named after their donors, among others. Because of their rarity, access to such materials is usually limited, except for special exhibitions.

Among Waseda University Library's many unique collections are the following:
 * Literary works from the Qing dynasty of China, collected by a writer of Chinese verse, Noguchi Ichitaro (pen name: Neisai, 1867–1905);
 * History of the Ming dynasty, donated in 1910 by Shimomura Masataro (1883–1944), the owner of Daimaru Draper in Kyoto and alumnus of Waseda;
 * Statistical literature in early modern Japan;
 * Governmental materials and letters related to the university's founder;
 * Chinese military books of the Qing and Ming eras;
 * Japanese and Chinese classical mathematics, in particular numerous editions of "Jinkoki";
 * Japanese books of the late Edo period;
 * Original manuscripts of the renga masters (Sōgi, Shinkei etc.); and
 * History of the modern Japanese legal system.

Outside of the library system, Waseda University also has museums including the Waseda Theatre Museum, which contains its own collection. Waseda Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies (part of the Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies) also houses important special collections of materials like the Masuda Collection on politics and law in Indonesia in the 1950s–1960s and the Nishijima Collection on the Japanese occupation of Indonesia.

Access
The Waseda University Library system generally limits access to students, faculty, research fellows, alumni association members, and Waseda Supporters Club members (with a donation of ¥30,000). However, with a letter of introduction from another university library requesting access to specific materials, entry is possible. Additionally, student/faculty ID holders from Keio University, Doshisha University, Hitotsubashi University, and Kansai University can access the library without a letter of introduction. Students from some foreign universities may be able to apply for privileged access if Waseda University has signed an agreement with that university, but in May 2014 there was no reference to these agreements on the Waseda Library website. For example, on May 30, 2002, Professor Michitaro Urukawa, director of Waseda University Library, and Columbia University librarian James G. Neal signed such a memorandum that outlines an agreement between the two libraries to cooperate in the exchange of materials, information access, Interlibrary loan and staff exchanges. Waseda University has also signed a similar agreement with the University of Maryland, College Park.

title: Waseda University Library


text:
John Holmes (British diplomat)

Sir John Eaton Holmes (born 29 April 1951) is a British former diplomat who is the current Chairman of the Electoral Commission.

Early life
Holmes was born on 29 April 1951 in Preston, in the north of England. He was educated at Preston Grammar School and went on to study Greats at Balliol College, Oxford. He was brought up in Penwortham, a middle-class suburb of Preston, where he went to school at Crookings Lane Primary and was in the same class as Howard Mendel, a Natural History Museum entomologist. Holmes played cricket for Lancashire schoolboys and was also a tennis player. He was a member of Penwortham Congregational Tennis Club where he won the junior singles as a teenager. He entered the Welsh Open as a student and was defeated by Buster Mottram. Holmes also played football as a schoolboy, representing Penwortham Hill Rovers junior side. One of the coaches for Penwortham Hill Rovers was Tommy Lawrenson, father of the Liverpool footballer, Mark Lawrenson who grew up in Blundell Lane, Penwortham, a few hundred yards from Holmes's house at 23 Queensway. Holmes's father was an English teacher at Preston Grammar. His mother was also an educated woman but didn't work full-time. His elder brother David too was a pupil at Preston Grammar.

Career
He entered the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) in 1973. After spending three years as a desk officer in London, including a period of temporary duty at the British Mission to the UN in New York, he was appointed to the British Embassy in Moscow as a 3rd Secretary Chancery, and subsequently promoted 2nd Secretary.

On returning to the FCO in 1978, he first took up an appointment in the Near East and North Africa Department before becoming Assistant Private Secretary to the Foreign Secretary in 1982.

In 1984 Holmes was posted to the British Embassy in Paris as 1st Secretary (Economic). He returned to London in 1987 as Assistant Head of the Soviet Department and between 1989 and 1991 he was seconded to Thomas De La Rue & Co, before moving to India as Economic and Commercial Counsellor at the High Commission in New Delhi.

He returned to London in 1995, first as Head of the European Union Department in FCO and then as Private Secretary, and subsequently Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister, Tony Blair. Between 1999 and autumn 2001, John Holmes was Ambassador to Portugal. He was Ambassador to France from October 2001 until 2007. From January 2007 to August 2010 he was Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, appointed by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In February 2008 after eight months of the blocking of the crossings into Gaza by the Israelis, Holmes described the situation of the people of Gaza as "grim and miserable" and pointed out they were living on a tenth of what had been available a year earlier.

In 2012, at the request of the Ministry of Defence, he conducted an Independent Medal Review of post 1945 campaign medals, his findings being accepted by the Government.

Later life
He was director of the Ditchley Foundation from September 2010 to August 2016, succeeding Sir Jeremy Greenstock. He became Chair of the Electoral Commission in January 2017.

Personal life
In 1976 he married Penelope Morris, an author and trustee of Women for Women UK; the couple have three daughters: Sarah, Lucy and Emilie.

Honours
Holmes was awarded the CMG in 1997 in the Resignation Honours List of former Prime Minister John Major for his service as Principal Private Secretary. In 1998 he was appointed CVO and in the New Year Honours of 1999 knighted KBE on the recommendation of Tony Blair on leaving the senior job at No. 10 Downing Street, a higher honour than normally bestowed, because of his work on the Northern Ireland Peace Talks. In 2004 Queen Elizabeth II promoted him to GCVO at the conclusion of her state visit to France to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Entente Cordiale.

Publications

 * The Politics of Humanity: The Reality of Relief Aid, Head of Zeus, London, 2013. ISBN 1781850917

title: John Holmes (British diplomat)


text:
User:Geograaf~enwiki

This user has quit Wikipedia. This page will no longer be in use.

af:Gebruiker:Geograaf da:Bruger:Geograaf nl:Gebruiker:Geograaf

title: User:Geograaf~enwiki


text:
Category:Ontario Provincial Police

This category contains articles related to the Ontario Provincial Police.

title: Category:Ontario Provincial Police


text:
Bannawag

Bannawag (Iloko word meaning "dawn") is a Philippine weekly magazine published in the Philippines by Liwayway Publications Inc. It contains serialized novels/comics, short stories, poetry, essays, news features, entertainment news and articles, among others, that are written in Ilokano, a language common in the northern regions of the Philippines.

Bannawag has been acknowledged as one foundation of the existence of contemporary Iloko literature. It is through the Bannawag that every Ilokano writer has proved his mettle by publishing his first Iloko short story, poetry, or essay, and thereafter his succeeding works, in its pages. The magazine is also instrumental in the establishment of GUMIL Filipinas, the umbrella organization of Ilokano writers in the Philippines and in other countries.

History
Bannawag magazine was conceived in 1934 when Magdaleno A. Abaya of Candon, Ilocos Sur, who was then a member of the editorial staff of the Graphic magazine, an English weekly published by the Roces Publications, presented the concept of an Ilokano publication to the management of the Graphic magazine. Don Ramos Roces, the owner-publisher of Graphic magazine and other vernacular magazines which included Liwayway, Bisaya and Hiligaynon, scoffed at the idea when Abaya presented the proposal to put a magazine for Ilocanos.

But Abaya did not lose hope until Don Ramos gave his consent-with condition that the first issues were only for a try-out, that after one or two months without improvement in the sales, it would be stopped. Abaya was elated and hurried to find willing companions to help him run the magazine. In the end, he was able to persuade Mauro Peña to be the magazine's assistant and news editor, Francisco Fuentecilla of Zambales as assistant and news editor,; and Benjamin Gray, also of Candon, Ilocos Sur, as proofreader. Thus, Bannawag or "Dawn," or the Iloko equivalent of Liwayway, was born.

Bannawag's first issue on November 3, 1934, had a production run of 10,000 copies with a selling price of PHP 0.10 per copy. The magazine was an instant success beyond the belief of Don Ramon, and he allowed the continued publication of the magazine.

When Roces Publications was sold to Hans M. Menzi in 1966, the name was changed to Liwayway Publishing, Inc. Thirty nine years later, in 2005, the publication of Bannawag was transferred to Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Clesencio B. Rambaud, Prudencio Gar. Padios and Juan Al. Asuncion were tasked to man Bannawag. However, Padios migrated to Canada in October 2006 and Ariel S. Tabag of Santa Teresita, Cagayan was recruited to fill in the vacancy,

New Bannawag
Bannawag underwent significant metamorphosis when its publication when taken over by the Manila Bulletin, from its content, color, quality of paper used, page layout, and other aspects to keep up with the needs of the times. These changes made the magazine more prestigious in its tasks in bringing entertainment, information, and inspiration to millions of readers in the language spoken by hardly Ilocanos and in depicting the different aspects of the Ilocano character.

Recently, it was picked up by the department of education as one of the important references of the educational system in Ilocano-speaking areas in the country.

Present
Bannawag has gone a long way from its 10-centavo cost for each edition in the 1930s and is moving vigorously to live up the past as an important part of today and tomorrow's dream of the Ilocanos.

Diamond jubilee
Bannawag celebrated its diamond jubilee on November 3, 2009. In celebration of this, Bannawag launched the planting of Bannawag Diamond Jubilee trees in municipal parks and lots, school sites, and other public spaces. Jim Domingo, a retired professor and university official of Cagayan State University, was instrumental in the planting.

title: Bannawag


text: User talk:68.163.54.156

title: User talk:68.163.54.156


text:
Flora (microbiology)

In microbiology, collective bacteria and other microorganisms in a host are historically known as flora. Although microflora is commonly used, the term microbiota is becoming more common as microflora is a misnomer. Flora pertains to the Kingdom Plantae. Microbiota includes Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi and Protists. Microbiota with animal-like characteristics can be classified as microfauna.

History
The terms "Flora" and "Fauna" were first used by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in the title of his 1745 work Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica. At that time, biology was focused on macroorganisms. Later, with the advent of microscopy, the new discovered ubiquitous microorganisms were fit in this system. Then, Fauna included moving organisms (animals and protist as "micro-fauna") and Flora the organisms with apparent no movement (plants/fungi; and bacteria as "microflora"). The terms "microfauna" and "microflora" are common in old books, but recently they have been replaced by the more adequate term "microbiota". Microbiota includes Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi and Protists.

Microflora classification
Microflora are grouped into two categories based on the origin of the microorganism.

 * Autochthonous flora. - Bacteria and microorganisms native to the host environment
 * Allochthonous flora. - Temporary microorganisms non-native to the host environment

Roles
Microflora is a term that refers to a community of bacteria that exist on or inside the body, and possess a unique ecological relationship with the host. This relationship encompasses a wide variety of microorganisms and the interactions between microbes. These interactions are often a mutualistic relationships between the host and autochthonous flora. Microflora responsible for harmful diseases are often allochthonous flora.

The modern term is "Microbiome" and include microorganisms that have different roles in ecosystems or hosts, including free-living organisms, or organisms associated to hosts, such animals (including humans) or plants.

Projects
In 2008, the National Institutes of Health started the Human Microbiome Project designed to help understand the health implications of human bacterial flora. Biologists believe that bacterial flora may play some role in disorders such as multiple sclerosis. Additionally, the study of flora can have industrial benefits such as dietary supplements like probiotics. The living microorganisms in probiotics are believed to have positive effects on health, and have been utilized in studies regarding gastrointestinal diseases and allergies.

In 2014, the Earth Microbiome project proposed a broad initiative to identify the diversity and importance of the microbiota in different ecosystems across the planet, including free-living microbiota (in water and terrestrial systems) and host associated-microbiota (associated with plants and animals).

title: Flora (microbiology)


text:
Talk:Fernhill, South Lanarkshire

Untitled
I feel this article should be re-titled Fernhill, Glasgow to distinguish it from various other Fernhills including the Dylan Thomas poem (Fern Hill but inspired by a farm called Fernhill) and the Welsh folk-rock band Fernhill (band). Flapdragon 14:45, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fernhill, South Lanarkshire


text: Template:Writingsystem-stub

title: Template:Writingsystem-stub


text:
Millennium Bridge (Podgorica)

The Millennium Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that spans the Morača river in Podgorica, Montenegro.

History
The bridge was designed by Marjan Pipenbaher from the Slovenian company Ponting Bridges and Mladen Ulićević, a professor at Faculty of Civil Engineering in Podgorica. It was built by the Slovenian company Primorje, and opened on 13 July 2005, Montenegro's National Day. It quickly became one of the city's most prominent landmarks.

The bridge is 173 metres long, and the pylon soars 57 m above the roadbed. Twelve cables support the roadway deck, while twenty-four more are attached to the counterweights, creating an imposing image.

The construction of the bridge began in 2005, and the building cost was approximately 7 million euros. The roadway carries two lanes of traffic and a pedestrian walkway in each direction. The bridge connects the Boulevard of Ivan Crnojević in the city centre and July 13 street in the new part of city, thus relieving the other congested bridges connecting the city center with the densely populated districts over the Morača river.

title: Millennium Bridge (Podgorica)


text: User talk:196.32.128.146

title: User talk:196.32.128.146


text:
Šalčininkai District Municipality

Šalčininkai District Municipality (Šalčininkų rajono savivaldybė) is one of 60 district municipalities in Lithuania. The municipality is part of the Vilnius County and is located in southeastern Lithuania, next to the Belarus–Lithuania border. The south-eastern border of the municipality with Belarus includes a distinctive salient of Lithuanian territory, known as the Dieveniškės appendix, almost completely surrounded by Belarus.

Šalčininkai is the largest town and the administrative center of the district with its newly built quarters, while the second largest town is Eišiškės, a more historical town, which was the center of the district and the largest town before 1972.

It has a Polish majority population, with three-quarters of the population claiming Polish ethnicity.

Soviet occupation
Šalčininkai district was formed in 1950, during the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, from 34 apylinkės of the abolished Vilnius county. The district's area was 957 km². In 1950–53, the Šalčininkai district was part of the Vilnius region. In 1962, Šalčininkai and Eišiškės districts were merged into one and named Eišiškės district, while five neighborhoods were transferred to the Varėna district. In 1972, Eišiškės district was renamed to Šalčininkai district. There were two towns (Eišiškės, Šalčininkai) in the district in 1974. The Šalčininkai district's official Communist newspaper was called Lenin's Precepts (Заветы Ленина; Przykazania Lenina; Lenino priesakai) and published in three languages: Russian, Polish and Lithuanian. Although officially, the absolute majority of the district's residents were Poles, as many as 8,000 of the inhabitants were subscribed to the Russian-language newspaper, while only one and a half thousand - to the Lithuanian and Polish language versions. The newspaper spread hostile misinformation towards the re-emerging independent Lithuanian state of Lithuania in all language versions of its issues.

1990s
On 11 March 1990, when the Supreme Council of Lithuania declared the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania, some non-Lithuanians in the Vilnius Region, mostly members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, began actively creating a separatist territorial entity under Moscow's inspiration and guidance. From 1988 to 21 August 1991, the autonomists of the Šalčininkai and Vilnius districts organized three congresses of the Poles of the Vilnius region. In order to disrupt the Lithuanian state at that time, both aforementioned district councils adopted dozens of anti-state resolutions. For example, by the decision of the Šalčininkai district council, as many as 384 of the district's young men were taken into the Soviet army during one and a half years and the work of the Lithuanian border guards was sabotaged in various ways. During this period, all Lithuanian government decisions were blocked in Vilnius and Šalčininkai districts. The autonomists acted brazenly, because of Moscow's direct support and because they were aided by the Soviet army, which was still stationed on Lithuanian soil. The attempts to create a Polish autonomy in the Vilnius Region collapsed when the Moscow-led Soviet leadership, which was the project's main supporter, collapsed in the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt.

In 1995, the Šalčininkai district municipality was established instead of the Šalčininkai district.

Geography
Geographically, the eastern part of the district is in the Ashmyany Highlands, the western part is in the Southeast Plain, while the southwestern part is in the Eišiškės Plateau. The highest place (265m) is near Katkuškės, the lowest (121m) is near Šalčia, near the boundary between the Šalčininkai and the Varėna district municipalities.

Through the district flows the river Merkys and its tributaries Šalčia and Verseka (Merkys), as well as the Nemunas tributary Gauja. In the Šalčininkai district, there are 3 Lakes in the Šalčininkai District and 13 ponds. The Poškonys Reservoir (Poškonių tvenkinys) with an area of 0.3 km2 on the Gauja River is located in the district.

Forest coverage is 48%, with pine forests prevailing. The biggest forest is the Rūdninkai forest. The most important mineral deposits are gravel (Jašiūnai, Pabarė, Navakonys, Mantviliškės, Mikališkės, Šalčininkai), sand (Pabarė).

Lithuanian Route 104 passes through the district.

Climate
The average temperature in January is -4.5 °C, while in July it is 17 °C. Annual rainfall is 650 mm.

title: Šalčininkai District Municipality


text:
Wayne Black

Wayne Hamilton Black (born 17 November 1973) is a former professional tennis player from Zimbabwe. The son of former player Don Black, Black turned professional in 1994 and reached his highest singles ranking of 69 on 30 March 1998. He is the younger brother of fellow ATP Tour player Byron Black, with the pair forming the mainstay of the Zimbabwe Davis Cup team for over a decade.

Black struggled for consistency in his singles game and by the new millennium had converted to a doubles specialist, in which he experienced greater success. He won two men's doubles Grand Slam titles at the 2001 U.S. Open and 2005 Australian Open with compatriot Kevin Ullyett, as well as two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles at the 2002 French Open and 2004 Wimbledon with sister Cara Black.

He reached his career-high doubles ranking of 4 on 31 January 2005, following his second Grand Slam title win, and retired from professional play in 2005.

Early life and education
Black and his siblings Byron and Cara were drilled in tennis from a young age by their father; they frequently played at least an hour of tennis before the school day began, another hour after school, followed by a third hour once homework had been completed.

He was educated at St. John's College in Harare and the University of Southern California, but left before completing his degree to go professional.

Personal life
Black married Kazakhstani tennis player Irina Selyutina and settled in the United Kingdom following retirement, where both of his children were born. He competed in club tennis for Sutton Tennis & Squash Club for a period of time alongside his former coach Miles Maclagan. Citing a failure to get used to the colder climate of London, he later moved back to his home country and ran a tourist lodge with his wife.

title: Wayne Black


text:
Talk:Tagma (military)

Untitled
1) WP policy says use singulars for article titles; shouldn't this be Tagma?

2) The military and the biological meanings are very different (though of course derived from the same Greek word); shouldn't they be two articles, Tagma (military) and Tagma (biology)?

If no one objects, I plan to make these changes at some point. --Macrakis 14:49, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

3) Why isnt the tagma as written in the Strategikon by Maurice placed here?

Incomplete or missing ref
There isn't any Treadgold (1997) in the list of sources. Apart from that, the article is quite good. --pt:Stegop talk 15:12, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Tagma (military). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090826233714/http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/haldon2.htm to http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/haldon2.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 21:37, 22 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tagma (military)


text:
Until December

Until December was a San Francisco-based rock band active in the early to late 1980s. The band released four 12" singles in 1985 on 415 Records / CBS. A self-titled album Until December was released in 1986 by 415 Records / CBS, which contained their biggest hit "Heaven".

Other notable songs performed by Until December include their song "Until December", "Live Alone In Shame" (B-Side to the 12" of "Until December - The Berlin Mix") and a cover of the song "Bela Lugosi's Dead" by Bauhaus. In 1986, they released 12" singles of "Call Me" B/W "Free Again" and "Secrets (I Won't Tell)" B/W "We Are The Boys". A full list of their discography can be found at Discogs.com.

They toured the U.S. as a headliner and with seminal 80's bands such as New Order, Gene Loves Jezebel, and Specimen. The band was especially popular in the leather subculture. Before the band split up they expanded their line up to a five-piece with the addition of Mark Pistel on bass and Tim Huthert, from Specimen, as a second drummer.

Member Adam Sherburne later formed the band Consolidated in the 1990s. Bryan Weisberg later formed Maximillion's Motorcycle Club with Tim Huthert. Greg(Auggie)Senzer former drummer owns and operates a motorcycle customizing shop and plays with several Bay Area bands.

Track listing for "Until December"
The original 1986 release.
 * 1) No Gift Refused - 4:19
 * 2) Heaven - 4:19
 * 3) Sequence Line - 3:46
 * 4) Mirrors - 3:49
 * 5) Call Me - 3:33
 * 6) Forgive and Still Forget - 4:24
 * 7) Free Again - 4:46
 * 8) Zodiac Drum Solo - 1:18
 * 9) Slave - 4:51
 * 10) Geisha - 6:26

This Side

 * 1) No Gift Refused - 4:19
 * 2) Heaven - 4:19
 * 3) Sequence Line - 3:46
 * 4) Mirrors - 3:49
 * 5) Call Me - 3:33
 * 6) Forgive and Still Forget - 4:24
 * 7) Free Again - 4:46
 * 8) Zodiac Drum Solo - 1:18
 * 9) Slave - 4:51
 * 10) Geisha - 6:26
 * 11) Secrets (I Won't Tell) (Single Version) - 3:26
 * 12) We Are The Boys (Single Version) - 2:39
 * 13) Until December (Single Version) - 3:36
 * 14) Live Alone In Shame (Single Version) - 3:35
 * 15) Bela Lugosi's Dead (Single Version) - 4:46

Daddy Side
This is the August 2010 re-issue of the album on Wounded Bird Records which includes the 12" Singles released before the original 1986 album. The track "Forgive and Still Forget" was originally titled "Secrets (I Won't Tell) is included as well as are the remixed versions of "Heaven", "Call Me", and "Free Again". The naming of each individual disc as "This Side" (CD1) and "Daddy Side" (CD2) references the standard naming convention for the A and B-sides that Until December used on 12" singles and albums starting with "Secrets (I Won't Tell)" / "We Are The Boys".
 * 1) Secrets (I Won't Tell) (Extended Version) - 6:36
 * 2) We Are The Boys (Extended Version) -
 * 3) Heaven (Extended Version) -
 * 4) Heaven (Dub Version) -
 * 5) Call Me (12" Version) -
 * 6) Call Me (13" Version) -
 * 7) Free Again (My Sin - Sylvester Mix) featuring Sylvester - 4:56
 * 8) Free Again (Touch Me - Live Hooker Mix) - 4:16
 * 9) Live Alone In Shame (Berlin Mix) - 8:13
 * 10) Until December (12" Version) - 6:05
 * 11) Live Alone In Shame (Cotati Mix) - 4:54
 * 12) Bela Lugosi's Dead (12" Version) - 6:32

Track listing for promo "Until December – Heaven / Bela Lugosi's Dead"
This side Daddy Side
 * A1 Heaven (Extended Version) Remix – Andy Wallace; Written-By – A. Sherburne*, B. Weisberg* 7:01
 * B1 Heaven (Dub Version) Remix – Andy Wallace; Written-By – A. Sherburne*, B. Weisberg* 6:46
 * B2 Bela Lugosi's Dead Written-By – Bauhaus* 6:38

title: Until December


text:
RAF Hospital Wegberg

The former Royal Air Force Hospital Wegberg, commonly abbreviated to RAF(H) Wegberg, was a Royal Air Force (RAF) military hospital located in Wegberg, near the city of Mönchengladbach, in the then West Germany. It was opened in 1953 to serve the British Armed Forces personnel already in the area, and in anticipation of the construction and opening of the large RAF Rheindahlen base, nearby.

Construction and opening
Construction of the hospital commenced in February 1953 by No 5357 Airfield Construction Wing of the Royal Air Force, and it was completed in only 111 days on May 31, 1953. The hospital opened to patients on November 1, 1953. The official opening ceremony was held on 16 November 1953, when Lady Foster, wife of the Commander in Chief of 2nd Tactical Air Force, unveiled a tablet in the main entrance hall.

The hospital was built in a unique manner. There was an outer wide U-shaped ring of single-storey buildings, and an inner U-shaped ring of two-storey buildings. They could be described as one horseshoe within another. The outer ring mostly consisted of wards, outpatients and clinical areas, while the inner mostly contained the administrative and support services and a central kitchen area. They were connected by radial and spoke corridors that, with other areas, could be converted into wards in the event of major emergencies or conflict. The psychiatric ward, boiler house, stores, messes, single personnel accommodation, and married quarters were separate from the main hospital building. A one-way ring road encircled the main building, with a north entrance from RAF Rheindahlen, and a south entrance from Wegberg town.

Patients
The hospital functioned as a general hospital for the British military personnel, associated British civilian support staff, and their families, from all services of British Forces Germany (BFG), over a wide area of North Rhine Westphalia, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In one year, the hospital maternity ward could deliver up to 1,000 babies, while other wards had an in-patient number of 6,000 per year, and out-patient of 32,000 during the peak years of activity. Intensive care facilities and a special care baby unit were added. During the 1990 Gulf War, forces members of the hospital were detached to serve in the Middle East, which strained hospital numbers so much so that they had to recruit civilian nurses and staff to fill the void. All detached members returned safely.

In March 1972, the celebrated Rugby Union player Cliff Morgan had a severe stroke in Cologne after commentating on a match for BFBS. He spent three weeks in RAF Hospital Wegberg, and spoke very highly of his treatment there.

History and reduction of facilities
Hospital facilities were temporarily disrupted in June 1980, by extensive damage caused by the explosion of a propane cylinder in the dental laboratory. In January 1987, the hospital was forced to close to all except emergency admissions when severe winter temperatures led to burst water pipes. In September 1987, the roof of the postnatal ward was severely damaged by a blaze accidentally caused by workmen.

The School of Nursing closed in 1984, having provided a large part of the training of both Enrolled (SEN) and State Registered Nurses (SRN) who studied there. Student nurses from RAF Hospitals in the UK were detached to Wegberg, especially for training in obstetrics.

From 1992, British Government economies dictated the number of beds being reduced from 171 to 90, with the closure of the paediatric and special care baby units in December 1992, and in 1993, the combination of the medical and surgical wards and the closure of the maternity unit.

Closure
RAF Hospital Wegberg closed after 43 years as a general hospital, and on 1 April 1996, it was formally handed over to United Kingdom Support Command (UKSC) at JHQ Rheindahlen. From 1996, a small in-patient psychiatric unit, and some community services remained on the site, while all other secondary care was transferred to local German hospitals.

Post hospital years
From 1996, a small in-patient psychiatric unit and some community services remained on the site, and it also became the home of the Headquarters of the British Forces Germany Health Services (HQ BFGHS) from 1999 to September 2010. The whole hospital site was then formally handed back to the German authorities.

A group of former personnel visited the hospital in October 2010, and reported that it was in as perfect condition as when it was fully functioning before closure. That is a testament to the original builders and the careful maintenance over 57 years. A video news report was made of this nostalgic visit.

The BFGHS was a partnership arrangement between the Ministry of Defence (MoD); the Soldiers, Sailors, Airman and Families Association (SSAFA); and Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, to provide primary care services, community and outpatient services to the British Forces community throughout Germany.

The hospital's motto was Inter Fera Salus (In midst of ferocity, healing), and its badge is a wild boar passant overlaid with a Staff of Asclepius.

In November 2015, the hospital site appeared abandoned and derelict, and had suffered much damage from vandalism, fires and theft.

On 15 April 2017, further damage was caused by a large fire. The firefighting was difficult.

title: RAF Hospital Wegberg


text:
User:Toro05

Hi I am Ivan and i come from Malta. I am a great Toro supporter.

title: User:Toro05


text:
User talk:Mt7

archiv see archiv

Categories
For footballers playing for national team there is a "XY international footballers" category. "XY footballers" is for all players of that ethnicity, nationality or citizenship. Therefore Marcel Desailly, although went to France as a child, is categorized under "Ghanaian footballers".

Should I remind you that we both do not have sources? and that you are not a creative editor? It is enough to see your WP statistics and compare 'em with mine. Regards. --Darwinek 10:27, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

 * But there is a big difference, borbely has nothing to do with hungary. --Mt7 11:11, 20 April 2007 (UTC)
 * OK. Then compromise, I have removed him from "Hungarian footballers" category but still left him in a "Hungarians in Slovakia" category. Deal. -- Darwinek 16:29, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

 * ok, what is with priskin, if desailly is born in ghana, priskin is born in slovakia. --Mt7 16:54, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

I am trying to do so, yes. There is no doubt he was a CZECHOSLOVAKIAN player. After Cz. breakup he played for Austria so we cannot really use modern Czech vs. Slovakia divisions for that period. As for Hungarian origin, this needs references or can be removed. Polish wiki states he has Hungarian citizenship...--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 20:55, 20 April 2007 (UTC)
 * In that case, there is a ref he was Czech, not Slovakian .--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 21:24, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

Regarding reversions made on April 20 2007 to Koloman Gögh
You have been temporarily blocked for violation of the three-revert rule. Please feel free to return after the block expires, but also please make an effort to discuss your changes further in the future. The duration of the block is 31 hours.  Nish kid 64  21:23, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

Slovak Wikipedians' notice board
Hi. You might be interested in checking out the brand new Slovak Wikipedians' notice board. All Wikipedians interested in Slovakia or subjects somehow related to Slovakia are invited to use this noticeboard as a tool for better organizing their activities, making announcements to others with similar interests, and discussing any actual issues related to their work on Wikipedia. You are welcome to add this notice board to your watchlist, so that you could see when it is updated and thus take part in any projects, initiatives, and improvements relating to articles about Slovakia. Also, you are welcome to report your own articles here so they could be peer-reviewed and expanded by other contributors. Tankred 16:07, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Joint winners of the Czechoslovak Chess Championship
Were there any joint winners of the Czechoslovak Chess Championship? Some references suggest that the 1921, 1950, and 1984 championships were shared. See Talk:Czechoslovak Chess Championship if you can help. Quale (talk) 05:07, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mt7. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mt7~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:00, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:56, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mt7


text:
Category:Writing system stubs

All articles in this category should also be assessed as stub-class, adding its respective talk page to Category:Stub-Class Writing system articles.

title: Category:Writing system stubs


text:
Queen Alexandra Bridge

The Queen Alexandra Bridge is a road traffic, pedestrian and former railway bridge spanning the River Wear in North East England, linking the Deptford and Southwick areas of Sunderland. The steel truss bridge was designed by Charles A. Harrison (a nephew of Robert Stephenson's assistant). It was built by Sir William Arrol between 1907 and 1909 and officially opened by The Earl of Durham, on behalf of Queen Alexandra on 10 June 1909.

In 1899 the North Eastern Railway and the Sunderland Corporation agreed to build the bridge to improve communications across the river and to connect the coalfields of Annfield Plain and Washington with Sunderland's south docks. Before the completion of the bridge, road traffic crossing the river had to use one of two ferries which crossed below near to where the bridge is today. As the bridge was due to be built near to the successful shipyards of the Wear, a clause in the North Eastern Railway Act 1900 (63 & 64 Vict. c. clxii) required that only one arch span be built over the river to give a clearance of 85 ft above high water level.

The approaches to the bridge were completed in 1907 by the Mitchell Brothers of Glasgow. The steel bridge comprises three 200 ft spans (weighing 1,000 tonnes each), plus a 300 ft main span across the river (weighing 2,600 tonnes), and was the heaviest bridge in the United Kingdom at the time. The bridge was built from each side of the river and the two halves came together at noon on 15 October 1908. In all, a total of 8,500 tonnes of steel, 4,500 tonnes of granite, 60,000 tonnes of red sandstone from Dumfries, and 350,000 bricks were used. The total cost was £450,000 (equivalent to £ in 2016). The bridge also housed gas and water mains and in later years, high voltage electricity cables and a pumped rising-main for sewage. About six million tonnes of coal passed over the upper-deck annually for export, but the trade rapidly declined at the end of the 1910s. For the last few years only one train per day passed over the bridge. The last goods train ran over in 1921, but the lower-deck continues as a valuable road link. In the Second World War, the upper-deck was used as a searchlight and anti-aircraft platform. The railway and decking at each end of the bridge were finally removed near to the end of the 20th century. A large free standing brick and stone viaduct fragment remains on the north side of the Bridge.

From 21 March 2005, the bridge was temporarily restricted to southbound traffic whilst repainting and repair work was carried out on the 96-year-old structure, which was due to take almost a year to complete. It reopened for both lanes of traffic on 12 October 2006, having been partly closed for 18 months and costing £6.3m in repairs.

Previously classified as part of the A1231, the road across the bridge was reclassified as the B1539 when the Northern Spire Bridge was opened to traffic on 29 August 2018.

title: Queen Alexandra Bridge


text: User talk:80.46.39.225

title: User talk:80.46.39.225


text: User talk:212.85.21.132

title: User talk:212.85.21.132


text:
Polish grammar

The grammar of the Polish language is complex and characterized by a high degree of inflection, and has relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There commonly are no articles (although this has been a subject of academic debate), and there is frequent dropping of subject pronouns. Distinctive features include the different treatment of masculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of numerals and quantifiers.

Regular morphological alternation
Certain regular or common alternations apply across the Polish inflectional system, affecting the morphology of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech. Some of these result from the restricted distribution of the vowels i and y, and from the voicing rules for consonants in clusters and at the end of words. Otherwise, the main changes are the following:
 * vowel alternations, arising from the historical development of certain vowels, which cause vowel changes in some words depending on whether the syllable is closed or open, or whether the following consonant is soft or hard;
 * consonant changes caused by certain endings (such as the -ie of the locative case, and the -i of the masculine personal plural), which historically entailed palatalization of the preceding consonant, and now produce a number of different changes depending on which consonant is involved.

Nouns
Polish retains the Old Slavic system of cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. There are seven cases: nominative (mianownik), genitive (dopełniacz), dative (celownik), accusative (biernik), instrumental (narzędnik), locative (miejscownik), and vocative (wołacz).

Number
Polish has two number classes: singular and plural.

It used to also have the dual number, but it vanished around the 15th century. It survived only in a few relicts:

 * body parts that naturally come in pairs have synchronically irregular plural and other forms
 * oko ("eye") – pl. oczy, genitive plural oczu, instrumental plural regular oczami or irregular oczyma; but not in the sense of "drop of fat on a liquid", which is declined regularly
 * ręka ("hand, arm") – pl. ręce, locative singular regular ręce or irregular ręku, instrumental plural regular rękami or irregular rękoma
 * ucho ("ear") – pl. uszy, genitive plural uszu, instrumental plural regular uszami or irregular uszyma; but not in the sense of "a handle (of a jug or a kettle, etc.)", which is declined regularly
 * certain proverbs, e.g. Mądrej głowie dość dwie słowie (lit. "two words are enough for a wise head"), with dual dwie słowie (modern dwa słowa)

Gender
Note that for true nouns (not for adjectives), there are three cases that always have the same ending in the plural, regardless of gender or declension class: dative plural in -om, instrumental plural in -ami or -mi, and locative plural in -ach; the only apparent exception being nouns that are in fact inflected as previously dual nouns, ex. rękoma instrumental plural of ręka "hand".

Inflection
There are three main genders (rodzaje): masculine (męski), feminine (żeński) and neuter (nijaki). Masculine nouns are further divided into personal (męskoosobowy), animate (męskożywotny), and inanimate (męskorzeczowy) categories. Personal and animate nouns are distinguished from inanimate nouns in the accusative singular; for the latter the accusative is identical to the nominative. In the plural, the masculine personal nouns are distinguished from all others, which collapse into one non-masculine personal gender (niemęskoosobowy).

The following tables show this distinction using as examples the nouns mężczyzna 'man' (masc. personal), pies 'dog' (masc. animate), stół 'table' (masc. inanimate), kobieta 'woman' (feminine), okno 'window' (neuter). The following table presents examples of how a determiner ten/ta/to ("this") agrees with nouns of different genders in the nominative and the accusative, both singular and plural. Adjectives inflect similarly to this determiner. For verbs, the distinction is only important for past forms in the plural, as in the table below: The numeral dwa ("two"), on the other hand, behaves differently, merging masculine non-personal with neuter, but not with feminine:

Morphological endings
Gender can usually be inferred from the ending of a noun.

Masculine: Feminine: Neuter:
 * masculine nouns typically end in a consonant
 * some nouns, describing people, end in -a, specifically:
 * all nouns ending in -sta, equivalent to English "-ist", e.g. artysta ("artist"), kapitalista ("capitalist"), konserwatysta ("conservative"), socjalista ("socialist")
 * all nouns ending in -nauta, equivalent to English "-naut", e.g. argonauta ("argonaut"), astronauta ("astronaut"), kosmonauta ("cosmonaut")
 * last names
 * first names Barnaba, Bonawentura, also Kuba (diminutive of Jakub)
 * emotionally charged nicknames, e.g. beksa ("crybaby"), łamaga, niezdara, oferma (all three of which mean "a clumsy person")
 * some other nouns, e.g. satelita ("satellite"), wojewoda ("voivode"); hrabia ("count") and sędzia ("judge") – both partially declined like adjectives
 * some personal names end in -o, e.g. Horeszko, Kościuszko; those decline in singular like feminine nouns ending in -a
 * some nouns, which were originally adjectives, end in -i and -y; those decline in singular like adjectives
 * feminine nouns typically end in -a
 * some nouns end in a soft or hardened consonant:
 * all abstract nouns ending in -ść, e.g. miłość ("love"), nieśmiałość ("shyness"), zawiść ("envy"), etc.
 * some concrete nouns ending in -ść: kiść ("bunch"), kość ("bone"), maść ("ointment"), ość ("fishbone"), przepaść ("chasm"), wieść ("news")
 * -b: głąb ("depth")
 * -c: moc ("power"), noc ("night"), pomoc ("help"), przemoc ("violence"), równonoc ("equinox"), Wielkanoc ("Easter"), wszechmoc ("omnipotence")
 * -cz: Bydgoszcz, ciecz ("liquid"), dzicz ("wilderness"), klacz ("mare"), kokorycz ("corydalis"), rzecz ("thing"), smycz ("leash")
 * -ć: brać ("company"), chuć ("lust"), jać ("yat"), mać (archaic for "mother"), płeć ("sex, gender"), sieć ("net")
 * -dź: czeladź (a collective term for servants of one master during the Middle Ages(pl)"), gołoledź ("black ice"), krawędź ("edge"), łódź ("boat"), miedź ("copper"), odpowiedź ("answer"), powódź ("flood"), spowiedź ("confession"), wypowiedź ("utterance"), zapowiedź ("announcement")
 * -j: kolej ("railway")
 * -l: kąpiel ("bath"), myśl ("thought"), sól ("salt")
 * -ń: baśń ("fable"), czerń ("the colour black, blackness"), czerwień ("the colour red, redness"), dłoń ("palm"), goleń ("shin"), jaźń ("self, ego"), jesień ("autumn"), kieszeń ("pocket"), krtań ("larynx"), otchłań ("abyss"), pieczeń ("roasted meat"), pieśń ("song"), pleśń ("mould"), przestrzeń ("space"), przyjaźń ("friendship"), przystań ("haven"), skroń ("temple"), waśń ("feud"), woń ("odour"), zieleń ("the colour green, greenness")
 * -p: Gołdap
 * -rz: macierz ("matrix"), twarz ("face")
 * -sz: mysz ("mouse"), wesz ("louse")
 * -ś: Białoruś ("Belarus"), gęś ("goose"), oś ("axis"), pierś ("breast"), Ruś ("Ruthenia"), wieś ("village")
 * -ź: gałąź ("branch"), rzeź ("slaughter")
 * -ż: grabież ("pillage"), młodzież ("youth"), odzież ("clothing"), podaż ("supply"), sprzedaż ("sale"), straż ("guard"), uprząż ("harness")
 * -w: brew ("eyebrow"), brukiew ("rutabaga"), marchew ("carrot"), konew ("jug"), krew ("blood"), rukiew ("watercress"), rzodkiew ("radish"), żagiew ("torch")
 * words ending in -ini are feminine, e.g. bogini ("goddess"); also pani ("Mrs")
 * feminine last names ending in a consonant are invariable
 * neuter nouns typically end in -o
 * verbal nouns, which are always neuter, end in -e, e.g. jedzenie, śpiewanie, etc.
 * diminutives ending in -ę are always neuter, e.g. źrebię ("foal"), dziecię ("child")
 * Latin loanwords ending in -um : invariable in the singular, declinable in the plural by removing the -um ending and replacing it by neuter plural endings ; the genitive plural is in -ów contrary to other neuters that have no ending → muzeum, muzea (N. pl.), muzeów (G. pl.)
 * loanwords ending in -i are neuter and invariable, e.g. kiwi, Brunei, Burundi
 * acronyms ending in a vowel (in pronunciation), e.g. BMW ; if an acronym is native, its gender may also be equal to the gender of the noun in the full version of the acronym

Semantic membership
The distinction between personal, animate and inanimate nouns within masculine nouns is largely semantic, although not always.

Personal nouns are comprised by human nouns such as mężczyzna 'man' or sędzia 'male judge', personal names of men, as well as the noun bóg 'male god' and proper names of male gods (e.g. Rod "Rod", Jowisz "Jupiter").

Animate nouns are largely comprised by animals such as pies ("dog") or pawian ("baboon"), many members from other life domains, as well as a number of objects associated with human activity. On the morphological level however, such nouns are only partially similar to animate nouns, having their accusative identical to their genitive only in the singular. Some examples :

 * names of fruit, e.g. ananas ("pineapple"), banan ("banana")
 * names of fungi, bacteria, viruses, e.g. borowik ("cep"), grzyb ("mushroom"), wirus ("virus"), gronkowiec ("staphylococcus")
 * names of consumer goods and brands, e.g. mercedes ("Mercedes car"), Nikon (as in Mam Nikona – "I have a Nikon"), papieros ("cigarette")
 * names of currency, e.g. dolar ("dollar"), funt ("pound")
 * names of dances, e.g. polonez ("polonaise")
 * some loanwords related to information technology, e.g. blog, komputer ("computer")
 * nouns related to human or human-like referents, e.g. nieboszczyk, trup (both of which mean "corpse"), robot ("robot"), wisielec ("the body of a hanged person"), duch ("ghost")

Contrary to fungi and bacteria, most plant names of masculine gender are inanimate, e.g. żonkil ("daffodil"), hiacynt ("hyacinth"), dąb ("oak"), cis ("yew tree"), which are all inanimate. The noun goździk ("carnation") is an exception as a masculine animate. Not all technological loanwords are animate either, e.g. inanimate modem, telefon ("telephone, cellphone"), and tranzystor ("transistor"). Robot can be treated as animate or inanimate.

It is common for personal masculine nouns to change gender to inanimate to create semantic neologisms, for example edytor ("editor", pl. ci edytorzy) and edytor (tekstu) ("word processor software", pl. te edytory).

For non-living objects that represent humans (e.g. in games), personal masculine nouns usually change gender to animate; for example, the word król ("king"), which is masculine-personal when referring to a monarch (pl. ci królowie), becomes masculine-animate when referring to the playing card or the chess piece (pl. te króle).

There are also a few pairs of homographs that completely change their meaning depending on their gender. Examples are: • biel:

• * masculine: "sapwood"

• * feminine: "whiteness, the colour white"

• głąb:

• * masculine: "moron"

• * feminine: "depth"

• Niemcy:

• * plural masculine-personal: "Germans"

• * non-personal plurale tantum: "Germany"

• twardziel:

• * masculine: "tough guy"

• * feminine: "heartwood"

• włóczęga:

• * masculine: "wanderer"

• * feminine: "(the act of) roaming"

• żołądź:

• * masculine: "acorn"

• * feminine: "glans penis"

Homographs that differ only by their gender can also occur in some Polish place names; for example, the town of Ostrów (Wielkopolski) is masculine, while the town of Ostrów (Mazowiecka) is feminine.

Declension
Typical declension patterns are as follows:

 * klub ("club"; an inanimate masculine noun) – N/A klub, G klubu, D klubowi, I klubem, L/V klubie. Plural: N/A/V kluby, G klubów, D klubom, I klubami, L klubach.
 * mapa ("map"; a feminine noun) – N mapa, G mapy, D/L mapie, A mapę, I mapą, V mapo. Plural: N/A/V mapy, G map, D mapom, I mapami, L mapach.
 * mięso ("meat"; a neuter noun) – N/A/V mięso, G mięsa, D mięsu, I mięsem, L mięsie. Plural: N/A/V mięsa, G mięs, D mięsom, I mięsami, L mięsach.

A common deviation from the above patterns is that many masculine nouns have genitive singular in -a rather than -u. This includes all personal and animate masculines (ending in a consonant). Also masculine animate nouns have accusative singular equal to the genitive singular (in -a). Masculine personal nouns also have accusative plural equal to genitive plural, and often have nominative plural in -i.

Adjectives
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender, number and case. They are declined according to the following pattern (dumny means "proud"):
 * masculine singular: N/V dumny, G dumnego, D dumnemu, A dumny (for inanimate nouns)/dumnego (animate), I/L dumnym
 * feminine singular: N/V dumna, G/D/L dumnej, A/I dumną
 * neuter singular: N/V/A dumne, G/D/I/L as masculine
 * plural: N/V/A dumne (but for masculine personal nouns N/V dumni A dumnych), G/L dumnych, D dumnym, I dumnymi

For a table showing the declension of Polish adjectival surnames, ending in -ski/-ska or -cki/-cka, see Declension of adjectival surnames.

Most short adjectives have a comparative form in -szy or -iejszy, and a superlative obtained by prefixing naj- to the comparative. For adjectives that do not have these forms, the words bardziej ("more") and najbardziej ("most") are used before the adjective to make comparative and superlative phrases.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending ie, or in some cases -o. Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending -iej. Superlatives have the prefix naj- as for adjectives.

Pronouns
The personal pronouns of Polish (nominative forms) are ja ("I"), ty ("you", singular, familiar), on ("he", or "it" corresponding to masculine nouns), ona ("she", or "it" corresponding to feminine nouns), ono ("it" corresponding to neuter nouns), my ("we"), wy ("you", plural, familiar), oni ("they", corresponding to a masculine personal group – see Noun syntax below), one ("they" in other cases; group where there are only girls/women).

The polite second-person pronouns are the same as the nouns pan ("gentleman, Mr"), pani ("lady, Mrs") and their plurals panowie, panie. The mixed-sex plural is państwo. All second-person pronouns are often capitalized for politeness, in letters etc.

Subject pronouns can be dropped if the meaning is clear and they are not emphasized. Sometimes there are alternative forms available for a given personal pronoun in a given case:
 * there may be a form beginning with n-, used after prepositions (for example, the accusative of ona is nią after a preposition rather than ją);
 * there may be a clitic form, used when unstressed, but not after prepositions (such as mi as the dative of ja, an alternative to mnie).

The reflexive pronoun for all persons and numbers is się.

The possessive adjectives (also used as possessive pronouns) derived from the personal pronouns are mój, twój, jego (m., n.)/jej (f.); nasz, wasz, ich. There is also a reflexive possessive swój. The polite second-person pronouns have possessives identical to the genitives of the corresponding nouns, although there is a possessive adjective pański corresponding to pan.

The demonstrative pronoun, also used as a demonstrative adjective, is ten (feminine ta, neuter to, masculine personal plural ci, other plural te). The prefix tam- can be added to emphasize a more distant referent ("that" as opposed to "this").

Interrogative pronouns are kto ("who") and co ("what"); these also provide the pronouns ktoś/coś ("someone/something"), ktokolwiek/cokolwiek ("anyone/anything"), nikt/nic ("no one/nothing").

The usual relative pronoun is który (declined like an adjective). However, when the antecedent is also a pronoun, the relative pronoun used is kto or co (as in ten kto "he who" and to co "that which"). The word który also means "which" as an interrogative pronoun and adjective.

The pronoun and adjective wszystek means "all". It is used most commonly in the plural (wszyscy means "everyone"), and in the neuter singular (wszystko) to mean "everything". The pronoun and adjective każdy means "each, every", while żaden means "no, none".

For full information on the declension of the above pronouns, see Pronouns in the article on Polish morphology.

When the referent of a pronoun is a person of unspecified sex, the masculine form of the pronoun is generally used. When the referent is a thing or idea that does not correspond to any specific noun, it is treated as neuter.

Numbers and quantifiers
Polish has a complex system of numerals and related quantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb agreement with the resulting noun phrase.

The basic numerals are 0 zero, 1 jeden, 2 dwa, 3 trzy, 4 cztery, 5 pięć, 6 sześć, 7 siedem, 8 osiem, 9 dziewięć, 10 dziesięć, 11 jedenaście, 12 dwanaście, 13 trzynaście, 14 czternaście, 15 piętnaście, 16 szesnaście, 17 siedemnaście, 18 osiemnaście, 19 dziewiętnaście, 20 dwadzieścia, 30 trzydzieści, 40 czterdzieści, 50 pięćdziesiąt, 60 sześćdziesiąt, 70 siedemdziesiąt, 80 osiemdziesiąt, 90 dziewięćdziesiąt, 100 sto, 200 dwieście, 300 trzysta, 400 czterysta, 500 pięćset, 600 sześćset, 700 siedemset, 800 osiemset, 900 dziewięćset.

These numerals are inflected for case, and also to some extent for gender. For details of their inflection, see Numbers and quantifiers in the article on Polish morphology.

Thousand is tysiąc, treated as a noun (so 2000 is dwa tysiące, etc.). Million is milion, billion (meaning a thousand million) is miliard, a million million is bilion, a thousand million million is biliard, and so on (i.e., the long scale is used).

Compound numbers are constructed similarly as in English (for example, 91,234 is dziewięćdziesiąt jeden tysięcy dwieście trzydzieści cztery).

When a numeral modifies a noun, the numeral takes the expected case, but the noun may not; also the gender and number of the resulting noun phrase may not correspond to that of the noun. The following rules apply:
 * The numeral jeden (1) behaves as an ordinary adjective, and no special rules apply. It can even be used in the plural, for example to mean "some" (and not others), or to mean "one" with pluralia tantum, e.g. jedne drzwi "one door" (drzwi has no singular).
 * After the numerals dwa, trzy, cztery (2, 3, 4), and compound numbers ending with them (22, 23, 24, etc. but not 12, 13, or 14, which take -naście as a suffix and are thus not compound numbers in the first place), the noun is plural and takes the same case as the numeral, and the resulting noun phrase is plural (e.g. 4 koty stały, "4 cats stood").
 * With other numbers (5, 6, etc., 20, 21, 25, etc.), if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun takes the genitive plural form, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular (e.g. 5 kotów stało, "5 cats stood").
 * With the masculine personal plural forms of numbers (as given in the morphology article section), the rule given above – that if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun is genitive plural and the resulting phrase is neuter singular – applies to all numbers other than 1 (as in trzech mężczyzn przyszło, "three men came"), unless the alternative nominative forms dwaj, trzej, czterej (for 2, 3, 4) are used (these take nominative nouns and form a masculine plural phrase).
 * If the numeral is in the genitive, dative, instrumental or locative, the noun takes the same case as the numeral (except sometimes in the case of numbers that end with the nouns for 1000 and higher quantities, which often take a genitive noun regardless since they are treated as normal nouns).

Polish also has a series of numerals called collective numerals (liczebniki zbiorowe), namely dwoje (for 2), troje (for 3), czworo (for 4), pięcioro (for 5), and so on. These are used with the following types of nouns: For the declension of collective numerals by case, see the morphology article section. They all follow the rule that when the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun becomes genitive plural, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular. In this case the genitive noun is also used after the instrumental of the numeral.
 * Personal and animate neuter nouns (e.g. dziecko ("child"), kocię ("kitten"))
 * Non-masculine personal pluralia tantum, i.e. nouns that do not exist in the grammatical singular (such as drzwi ("door(s)"), urodziny ("birthday(s)"))
 * Plural nouns referring to a group containing both sexes (for example, czworo studentów refers to a group of four students of mixed sex)

Certain quantifiers behave similarly to numerals. These include kilka ("several"), parę ("a few") and wiele ("much, many"), which behave like numbers above 5 in terms of the noun cases and verb forms taken. There are also indefinite numerals kilkanaście, kilkadziesiąt, kilkaset (and similar forms with parę-), meaning "several-teen", several tens and several hundred.

Quantifiers that always take the genitive of nouns include dużo ("much, many"), mało ("few, little"), więcej ("more"), mniej ("less") (also najwięcej/najmniej "most/least"), trochę ("a bit"), pełno ("plenty, a lot").

The words oba and obydwa (meaning "both"), and their derived forms behave like dwa. However the collective forms oboje, obydwoje (in the nominative/vocative), when referring to a married couple or similar, take the nominative form of the noun rather than the genitive, and form a masculine plural noun phrase (oboje rodzice byli, "both parents were", cf. dwoje rodziców było).

For the declension of all the above quantifiers, see the morphology article section.

Verbs
Polish verbs have the grammatical category of aspect. Each verb is either imperfective, meaning that it denotes continuous or habitual events, or perfective, meaning that it denotes single completed events (in particular, perfective verbs have no present tense). Verbs often occur in imperfective and perfective pairs – for example, jeść and zjeść both mean "to eat", but the first has imperfective aspect, the second perfective.

Imperfective verbs have three tenses: present, past and future, the last being a compound tense (except in the case of być "to be"). Perfective verbs have a past tense and a simple future tense, the latter formed on the same pattern as the present tense of imperfective verbs. Both types also have imperative and conditional forms. The dictionary form of a verb is the infinitive, which usually ends with -ć (occasionally with -c). The present-day past tense derives from the old Slavic "perfect" tense; several other old tenses (the aorist, imperfect) have been dropped.

The present tense of imperfective verbs (and future tense of perfective verbs) has six forms, for the three persons and two numbers. For example, the present tense of jeść is jem, jesz, je; jemy, jecie, jedzą (meaning "(I) eat" etc. – subject pronouns may be dropped), while the future tense of the corresponding perfective verb zjeść is zjem, zjesz etc. (meaning "(I) shall eat" etc.)

The verb być has the irregular present tense jestem, jesteś, jest, jesteśmy, jesteście, są. It also has a simple future tense (see below).

The past tense agrees with the subject in gender as well as person and number. The basic past stem is in -ł; to this are added endings for gender and number, and then personal endings are further added for the first and second person forms. Thus, on the example of być, the past tense forms are byłem/byłam ("I was", masc/fem.), byłeś/byłaś, był/była/było; byliśmy/byłyśmy ("we were" all gender mixes (except:)/a group of all fem.), byliście/byłyście, byli/były.

The conditional is formed from the past tense, by, and the personal ending (if any). For example: byłbym/byłabym ("I would be", masc/fem.), byłbyś/byłabyś, byłby/byłaby/byłoby; bylibyśmy/byłybyśmy, bylibyście/byłybyście, byliby/byłyby.

The personal past tense suffixes, which are reduced forms of the present tense of być, are clitics and can be detached from the verb to attach to another accented word earlier in the sentence, such as a question word (as in kogoście zobaczyli as an alternative to kogo zobaczyliście "whom did you see"), or (mostly in informal speech) an emphatic particle że (co żeście zrobili? "what did you do"). The same applies to the conditional endings (kiedy byście przyszli as an alternative to kiedy przyszlibyście "when would you come").

If by introduces the clause, either alone or forming one of the conjunctions żeby, iżby, ażeby, aby, coby, it forms the subjunctive mood and is not to be confused with the conditional clitic by. For example, "He wants me to sing" might be chce, aby(m) śpiewał, chce, żeby(m) śpiewał or chce, by(m) śpiewał. Such clauses may express "in order that", or be used with verbs meaning "want", "expect", etc.

The future tense of być ("be") follows the pattern of a typical present tense: będę, będziesz, będzie, będziemy, będziecie, będą. The future tense of other imperfective verbs is formed using the future of być together with the infinitive, or the past form (inflected for gender and number, but without any personal suffixes), of the verb in question. For example, the future of robić ("do, make") has such forms as będę robić/robił/robiła, będziecie robić/robili/robiły. The choice between infinitive and past form is usually a free one, but with modals governing another infinitive, the past form is used: będzie musiał odejść (not będzie musieć...) "he will have to leave".

The second personal singular imperative is formed from the present tense by dropping the ending (e.g. brać: 2/3S present bierze(sz), imperative bierz), sometimes adding -ij or -aj. Add -my and -cie for the 1P and 2P forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronouns pan etc.) the particle niech is used at the start of the sentence (or at least before the verb), with the verb in the future tense (if być or perfective) or present tense (otherwise). There is a tendency to prefer imperfective verbs in imperative sentences for politeness; negative imperatives quite rarely use perfectives.

Other forms of the verb are:
 * present adverbial participle (imperfective verbs only), as śpiewając (meaning "(when) singing", "by singing", etc.)
 * present adjectival participle (imperfective verbs only), formed from the present adverbial participle by adding adjectival endings, as śpiewający etc., meaning "singing" (as an attributive adjective), although such participles can be used to form extended adjectival phrases, which (usually unlike in English) can precede the noun.
 * passive participle (all transitive verbs), in -ny or -ty (conjugated as an adjective). This often corresponds to the English past participle, both in fully adjectival use and in passive voice.
 * subjectless past tense, formed as the past participle but with the ending -o (e.g. śpiewano "there was sung").
 * past active participle (perfective verbs only), like zabiwszy "having killed" (from zabić "kill"); this form is invariant.
 * verbal noun, also called gerund, formed from the past participle with the ending -ie, e.g. śpiewanie. This is a neuter noun.

Prepositions
Polish uses prepositions, which form phrases by preceding a noun or noun phrase. Different prepositions take different cases (all cases are possible except nominative and vocative); some prepositions can take different cases depending on meaning.

The prepositions z and w are pronounced together with the following word, obeying the usual rules for consonant cluster voicing (so z tobą "with you" is pronounced stobą). Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case of z) or with f/w (in the case of w), the prepositions take the form ze and we (e.g. we Wrocławiu "in Wrocław"). These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns in mn-; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns (przeze mnie, pode mną etc.), and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the -e).

Common prepositions include:
 * na, with the locative with basic meaning "on", and with the accusative with basic meaning "onto" (also metaphorical meanings)
 * w, with the locative with basic meaning "in", and with the accusative with basic meaning "into" (also metaphorical meanings)
 * z, with the instrumental comitative meaning "with" (in accompaniment of); with the genitive meaning "from, out of"
 * do/od, with genitive, meaning "to, into/from"
 * dla, with genitive, meaning "for"
 * o, with locative meaning "about", also with the accusative in some constructions
 * przed/za/nad/pod with instrumental meaning "before, in front of/behind/over/under", also with the accusative in some meanings (and genitive in the case of za); there are also compound prepositions sprzed/zza/znad/spod ("from in front of" etc.) taking the genitive
 * przez with the accusative, meaning "through" etc.
 * przeciw(ko) with dative, meaning "against" (but naprzeciw(ko) "opposite" takes genitive)
 * po, with locative meaning "after", also with the accusative in some meanings
 * przy, with locative, meaning "next to" etc.
 * bez, with genitive, meaning "without"

Conjunctions
Common Polish conjunctions include i (and less commonly oraz) meaning "and", lub and albo meaning "or", ale meaning "but", lecz meaning "but" chiefly in phrases of the type "not x but y", że (or more formally sometimes iż) meaning "that", jeśli meaning "if" (also gdyby, where by is the conditional particle), czy meaning "whether" (also an interrogative particle), kiedy or gdy meaning "when", więc, dlatego and zatem meaning "so, therefore", ponieważ meaning "because", choć/chociaż meaning "although", and aby/żeby meaning "in order to/that" (can be followed by an infinitive phrase, or by a sentence in the past tense; in the latter case the by of the conjunction is in fact the conditional particle and takes personal endings as appropriate).

In written Polish, subordinate clauses are normally set off with commas. Commas are not normally used before conjunctions meaning "and" or "or".

Word order
Basic word order in Polish is SVO; however, as it is a synthetic language, it is possible to move words around in the sentence. For example, Alicja ma kota ("Alice has a cat") is the standard order, but it is also possible to use other orders to give a different emphasis (for example, Alicja kota ma, with emphasis on ma ("has"), used as a response to an assertion of the opposite); general word order controls theme and rheme information structure with theme coming first.

Certain words, however, behave as clitics: they rarely or never begin a clause, but are used after another stressed word, and tend to appear early in the clause. Examples of these are the weak pronouns mi, go etc., the reflexive pronoun się, and the personal past tense endings and conditional endings described under Verbs above. Polish is a pro-drop language; subject pronouns are frequently dropped. For example: ma kota (literally "has a cat") may mean "he/she/it has a cat". It is also possible to drop the object or even sometimes verb, if they are obvious from context. For example, ma ("has") or nie ma ("has not") may be used as an affirmative or negative answer to a question "does... have...?".

Note the interrogative particle czy, which is used to start a yes–no question, much like the French "est-ce que". The particle is not obligatory, and sometimes rising intonation is the only signal of the interrogative character of the sentence.

Negation is achieved by placing nie directly before the verb, or other word or phrase being negated (in some cases nie- is prefixed to the negated word, equivalent to English un- or non-). If a sentence contains a negative element such as nigdy ("never"), nikt ("no-one"), etc., the verb is negated with nie as well (and several such negative elements can be combined, as in nikt nigdy nie robi nic, "no-one ever does anything", literally "no-one never doesn't do nothing"). The equivalent of the English "there is" etc. is the appropriate part of the verb być ("to be"), e.g. jest... ("there is..."), są... ("there are..."), był(a/o)... ("there was..."), etc., with a noun phrase in the nominative. The negative form is always singular (and neuter where applicable), takes the noun phrase in the genitive, and uses ma rather than jest in the present tense: nie ma kota ("there isn't a cat", also "the cat isn't there"), nie było kota etc. (as usual, the word order is not fixed).

Where two concepts are equated, the particle to is often used instead of a part of być, with the nouns expressing the concepts in the nominative case (although verb infinitives can also be used here: istnieć to cierpieć "to exist is to suffer"). There are also sentences where to appears to be the subject of być, but the complement is in the nominative and the verb agrees with the complement: to jest... ("this/it is..."), to są..., to był(a/o)..., etc.

Subjectless sentences
There are various types of sentence in Polish that do not have subjects:
 * Sentences where the subject pronoun is dropped (see above), but is still understood.
 * Sentences formed from certain verbs that can appear (in third-person singular neuter form) without a subject, corresponding to an English impersonal "it", as in padało ("it was raining/snowing").
 * Sentences with verbs in second-person singular (or sometimes third-person personal plural) form, but no subject, corresponding to English "you" with general meaning, as in robisz to ("you do this", i.e., "one does this").
 * Sentences with the reflexive particle się but no subject, the verb being third-person singular, as in tutaj pije się wódkę ("here one drinks vodka/vodka is drunk") – note that the logical direct object is in the accusative, not the nominative as in analogous constructions in other languages such as Russian.
 * Sentences with the subjectless past tense form of the verb (see Verbs above).
 * Sentences with impersonal particles such as można ("it is possible"), wolno ("it is permitted").

Noun syntax
The use of the cases of nouns is as follows:
 * 1) The nominative (the dictionary form of a noun) is used for sentence subject and for certain complements (as in sentences of the form X to Y "X is Y", to jest Y "this is Y").
 * 2) The accusative is used for the direct object of verbs that are not negated, as the object of some prepositions, and in some time expressions.
 * 3) The genitive is used for possessor and similar (equivalent to English "of X" or "X's"), for the direct object of negated verbs, as the object of some verbs and prepositions, as an object with partitive meaning and in some fixed expressions, and for nouns governed by certain numbers and expressions of quantity (see Numbers and quantifiers above).
 * 4) The locative is used only as the object of certain prepositions (particularly w "in" and na "on", when they have static meaning).
 * 5) The dative is used for indirect objects, to denote the party for whom something is done or the "party concerned" in certain expressions (such as wolno mu, "he is allowed", lit. "it is allowed to him"), and as the object of some verbs and prepositions.
 * 6) The instrumental is used for the means (instrument) by which something is done, for example pociągiem (instrumental of pociąg "train") means "by train". It is also used for a noun complement of być ("to be"), and for the complements and objects of some other verbs and some prepositions.
 * 7) The vocative is used to indicate who or what is being addressed. However, with personal names, in colloquial speech, the nominative is usually used instead.

Like most Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, Polish classically uses no definite or indefinite articles, though certain words or grammatical features may substitute this, with a shift currently taking place in the language. A noun such as kot may mean either "the cat" or "a cat", while saying ten kot (lit. "that cat") can function similarly to a definite article in other languages. Recent academic research has shown a grammatical shift (not unlike the one which took place in other Indo-European languages, Bulgarian and Macedonian included), where the numeral jeden ("one") or pronoun jakiś ("of sorts"; different forms depending on the grammatical context) have begun to take characteristics of an indefinite article - an example here could be saying jeden kot ("one cat"), which by an increasing number of speakers can be interpreted in a way similar to saying "a cat" in English.

Polish does not regularly place nouns together to form compound noun expressions. Equivalents to such expressions are formed using noun-derived adjectives (as in sok pomarańczowy, "orange juice", where pomarańczowy is an adjective derived from pomarańcza "orange"), or using prepositional phrases or (equivalently) a noun in the genitive or other case.

A group of nouns connected by a word for "and" is treated as plural. It is masculine personal plural if it contains any male person (in fact, if it contains any person and any masculine noun).

Adjective syntax
Adjectives generally precede the noun they modify, although in some fixed expressions and official names and phrases they can follow the noun (as in język polski "Polish language"; also dzień dobry "good day, hello").

Attributive adjectives agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify. Predicate adjectives agree with the relevant noun in gender and number, and are in the nominative case, unless the subject is unspecified (as in some infinitive phrases), in which case the adjective takes the (masculine/neuter) instrumental form (for example, być mądrym, "to be wise", although the nominative is used if the logical subject is specified). The instrumental is also used for adjectival complements of some other verbs, as in czynić go mądrym ("make him wise").

With pronouns such as coś ("something") (but not ktoś "someone"), if the pronoun is nominative or accusative, the adjective takes the genitive form (coś dobrego "something good").

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns; for example, zielony ("green") may mean "the/a green one" etc.

Compound adjectives can be formed by replacing the ending of the first adjective with -o, as in formalno-prawny ("formal (and) legal").

title: Polish grammar


text:
Cleitus the White

Cleitus (Clitus) the White (Κλεῖτος ὁ λευκός; died c. 317 BC) was an officer of Alexander the Great surnamed "White" to distinguish him from Cleitus the Black. He is noted by Athenaeus and Aelian for his pomp and luxury, and is probably the same who is mentioned by Justin among the veterans sent home to Macedonia under Craterus in 324 BC.

Life
After Alexander's death he reappears as commander of the Macedonian fleet for Antipater in the Lamian War in 323 BC, and defeated the Athenian admiral, Euetion, in the Battle of Amorgos. He then went on to defeat the Athenian fleet a second time in the Battle of the Echinades. These defeats signalled the end of Athenian thalassocracy, and were decisive in the Macedonian victory in the war. In the distribution of provinces at Triparadisus in 321 BC, he obtained from Antipater (the new regent of the Empire) the satrapy of Lydia.

Wars of the Diadochi
In 318 BC, at the start of the Second War of the Diadochi, Antigonus advanced against him from Phrygia; Cleitus garrisoned the principal cities, and sailed away to Macedonia to report the state of affairs to Polyperchon (who had become regent after Antipater's death). After Polyperchon had been baffled at Megalopolis, he sent Cleitus with a fleet to the Hellespont to prevent any forces of Antigonus from passing into Europe, and also to effect a junction with Arrhidaeus, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, who had shut himself up in the town of Cius. In 317 BC, Nicanor was sent against him by Antigonus and Cassander, a battle ensued near Byzantium, in which Cleitus gained a decisive victory. But his success rendered him overconfident, and, having allowed his troops to disembark and encamp on land, he was surprised by Antigonus and Nicanor, and lost all his ships except the one in which he sailed himself. Having reached the shore in safety, he proceeded towards Macedonia, but was slain by some soldiers of Lysimachus, with whom he fell in on the way.

title: Cleitus the White


text:
User:Stilfehler

My home base is de:Benutzer:Stilfehler.

Tools
 * Template:Cite book
 * Template:Cite web

de:Benutzer:Stilfehler fr:Utilisateur:Stilfehler

title: User:Stilfehler


text:
Asahi-ku, Osaka

Asahi (旭区) is one of 24 wards of Osaka, Japan. It is located in the northeast of the city, near the satellite town of Moriguchi. It was split off from Higashinari in 1932. Asahi-ku itself is further divided into the following areas (towns); Shimizu, Morishoji, Omiya, Nakamiya, Takadono, Akagawa, Ikue, Shinmori, Senbayashi, Taishibashi, and Imaichi.

Asahi-ku borders the Osaka wards of: and the city of Moriguchi
 * Higashiyodogawa
 * Miyakojima
 * Joto
 * Tsurumi

Transport
Asahi-ku is served by the Tanimachi Line, and the Imazatosuji Line of the Osaka Metro and by the Keihan Main Line.

Stations:
 * Tanimachi subway line: Sekime-Takadono Station, Sembayashi-Omiya Station, Taishibashi-Imaichi Station
 * Imazato Suji subway line: Shimmori-Furuichi Station, Shimizu Station, Taishibashi-Imaichi Station
 * Keihan Main Line: Morishoji Station, Sembayashi Station

Schools
There are 10 elementary schools (years one to six), four junior high schools (three years), two public and one private high school (three years), and one private university.

Elementary Schools: Furichi, Takadono, Takadono Minami, Shirokita, Shin Morishoji, Shimizu, Taishibashi, Omiya, Omiya Nishi.

Junior High Schools: Kyokuyo, Kyokuto, Imaichi, Omiya.

High Schools: Asahi, Yodogawa Kogyo, Osaka Kogyo University High School (private).

College:
 * Osaka Institute of Technology Junior College

University:
 * Osaka Institute of Technology

North Korean school:
 * Johoku Korean Elementary School (城北朝鮮初級学校)

Places of interest
Places of interest include the Shirokita Park with its Iris Garden, the Yodogawa Wando (pools formed by the Yodogawa River, the Osaka Municipal Space of Art, and Senbayashi Shotengai (shopping arcade).

Senbayashi Shotengai is famous for its long covered shopping street. The shopping street even has a theme song that can be heard as you walk along the covered part of the street. Sembayashi-Omiya subway station can be found at the other end of the shopping street. The first Daiei store opened near this station. Some of the favorite stores have been the Kadoya Ice Cream Parlor, a popular hangout for students of the nearby highschool, and Enomoto Confectionary Gift Shop. There is also a fish market that specializes in whale meat.

title: Asahi-ku, Osaka