text:
Ningi, Nigeria

Ningi is a town, a local government area, and an emirate in Bauchi State, Nigeria. The Ningi emirate comprises two local government areas, Ningi and Warji, with a combined area of 5,250 km2 and a population of 501,912 according to the 2006 Census. The Ningi local government area covers an area of 4,625 km2 with a population of 387,192 at the 2006 Census. The area is inhabited mostly by hausa people, Duwa, Ningawa.Yunusa Muhammadu Danyaya is the current Emir of Ningi.

Climate
In Ningi, the dry season is partially cloudy and hot all year round, while the wet season is oppressive and generally cloudy. The average annual temperature ranges from 56 to 102 degrees Fahrenheit; it is infrequently below 50 or beyond 106 degrees.

Local Government
Ningi Local Government Area is in the town of Ningi and the area council comprises 3 districts;
 * 1) Ningi
 * Ari
 * 1) Burra

Geography/Climate
The average temperature of Ningi LGA is 32 °C, with a total area of 4,625 square kilometres. The dry season and the rainy season are two separate seasons that are experienced in the LGA. An estimate of 10 km/h for the LGA's average wind speed.

In Ningi, the dry season is partially cloudy and hot all year round, while the wet season is oppressive and generally cloudy. The average annual temperature ranges from 56 to 102 degrees Fahrenheit; it is infrequently below 50 or beyond 106 degrees.

From March 9 to May 18, the hot season, which has an average daily high temperature above 98°F, lasts for 2.3 months. With an average high of 101°F and low of 74°F, April is the hottest month of the year in Ningi.

Economy
Majority agrarian, the Ningi LGA is recognized for raising a wide range of animals and growing a number of different crops. Sugarcane, millet, and soybeans are among the crops farmed in the Ningi LGA, and camels, cows, and goats are among the livestock raised and sold there. The Ningi LGA is home to a number of marketplaces that serve as trading hubs for a range of commodities and services, demonstrating the thriving trade that occurs there.

List of rulers

 * Hamza – 1847–1849
 * Ahmadu – 1850–1855
 * Abubakar Danmaje – 1855–1870
 * Haruna Karami – 1870–1886
 * Abubakar Gajigi – 1886–1890
 * Usman Danyaya – 1890-1902
 * Mamuda Lolo – 1902–1905
 * Musa Dangwido – 1905–1906
 * (Restoration of) Mamuda Lolo – 1906–1908
 * Abdu mai Fatima – 1908–1915
 * Zakari Dankaka – 1915–1922
 * Adamu Danyaya – 1922–1955
 * Haruna II – 1955–1957
 * Abdullahi Adamu Danyaya – 1957–1961
 * Ibrahim Gurama – 1963–1977
 * Yunusa Muhammadu Danyaya – 1978–current

Notable people

 * Idi Othman Guda, Senator, Bauchi Central Constituency
 * Abdul Ahmed Ningi, Senator, representing Bauchi Central

title: Ningi, Nigeria


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User talk:Casper in japan

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been removed or reverted. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. --Fire Star 01:45, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Welcome
Hi Casper, and welcome to Wikipedia! Unfortunately, Wikipedia is designed to be an encyclopedia, not a weblog, so you're likely to see any articles you create on that topic deleted very quickly. (see Wikipedia is not a webspace provider). Can I recommend starting a blog at somewhere like blogger, which is an appropriate forum for a travel diary? Z iggurat 01:49, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Casper in japan


text:
User talk:Pingos~enwiki

You were listed on the Wikipedia:Wikipedians/Canada page as living in or being associated with Canada. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, please visit Category:Wikipedians somewhere undetermined in Canada for instructions.--Rmky87 01:46, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pingos. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pingos~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:25, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 17:37, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 16:46, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pingos~enwiki


text: User talk:142.176.22.47

title: User talk:142.176.22.47


text:
User talk:Piquan

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --User:AYArktos | Talk 01:47, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Puppeting
If you look at history of an article, you can compare articles and look at what was said. This is the edit where you were accused of being a puppet (of being me!).

I would like it also if you could contribute to the lintilla (chat site) and planes of existence (chat site) listing, if you can, especially as they are currently on Vfds. I have added a lot of links on the PoE page that you can follow that might help you with your editing.

I have also written pages for sleepy's multiple worlds, fantasia's multiple worlds and Crystal Palace (chat site), which I expect will similarly be nominated for deletion if the lintilla and PoE deletions fail.

Also, according to Wikipedia policy, if an article is deleted, it cannot be re-established, not in any form. Henceforth, I think that it is important to make the edits now before the pages get wiped.

Whilst I suppose they could feasibly be included in some form of history of talkers page, or history of the evolution of the internet, I think that it would be better if they had their own pages.

Thanks. Zordrac 03:12, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

 * By the way, I was referring to the anon, not Piquan with the edit summary. Not puppet accusation involved.  --Jeffrey O. Gustafson - Shazaam! - <*> 22:55, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

Pairs of single quotation marks
These are used for italics in Wiki-markup. I hope that you haven't been going around changing them all to quotation marks... --Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 11:14, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the correction, and for reverting my mistake. No, I had just noticed that as part of a revert, a single quote was changed into two single quotes.  It hadn't occurred to me that those might be markup, but I had only done that to that one article.  --Piquan 00:44, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

Howdy
Hello there Piquan. User:dbenbenn 22:14, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Piquan


text: User talk:12.159.148.121

title: User talk:12.159.148.121


text:
Southern Park Mall

Southern Park is a shopping mall in Boardman, Ohio, United States, serving the Youngstown–Warren metropolitan area. It was developed by the Edward J. DeBartolo Corporation in 1970, and is now owned by Washington Prime Group. The mall, which is the largest shopping destination in Mahoning County, has approximately 1018400 sqft of space. Its anchor stores are JCPenney and Macy's, with junior anchors H&M, Shoe Dept. Encore, and Planet Fitness.

Development
The Southern Park Mall was named after the Southern Park Race Track; a historic horse racing facility that was about 1+1/2 mi miles south of the mall's present position. The horse track was bounded by Washington Boulevard, Southern Boulevard, and McClurg Road. One of the only remaining structures, the Southern Park Stable, was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 10, 1986.

Originally planned as a joint venture with fellow Youngstown-based developer William M. Cafaro, the DeBartolo Corporation bought out the Cafaro Company's interest in the project in 1968. The mall originally had three anchor stores and totaled 905600 ft2. Sears opened in October 1969 along with the Sears wing that included junior anchor Woolworth. JCPenney and the Youngstown-based Strouss both opened in April 1970. JCPenney and Strouss' relocated from DeBartolo's Greater Boardman Plaza, located approximately one mile west of Southern Park Mall. Other initial stores included Gray Drugs, Kroger, and Southern Park Theater. The Pittsburgh-based Joseph Horne Company began construction on a fourth anchor unit in July 1972 and opened in July 1973.

Late 20th century
The Strouss' store was changed into Kaufmann's in 1986 when The May Department Stores Company merged its divisions.

Dillard's acquired Joseph Horne Company with Horne's closing in July 1992 and Dillard's opening the following month. Dillard's bought their store and adjoining land in October 1993. In 1997, the mall went under an extensive renovation, shortly after the DeBartolo Corporation merged with Simon Property Group. Simon spent $19 million making improvements to the interiors, adding a food court and a Cinemark Tinseltown USA 7 movie theater at the southeastern edge of the mall's property. It opened in 1997 and has 7 screens. Jillian's, a bowling alley, arcade, and bar, was a tenant from 1999 to 2011. Jillian's, along with Lady Footlocker, Kids Footlocker, and Men's Footlocker replaced Woolworth at this time.

2000s to present
In February 2005, it was announced that Cachè would be opening in center court. In 2006, Kaufmann's was re-branded to Macy's following the latter's acquisition. In 2007, there was talk of demolishing and expanding a portion of the Sears wing to bring outdoor shopping, dining, and entertainment to the mall. Simon instead filled the space with Shoe Dept. Encore in 2011. In October of the same year, Fox Head opened in center court.

In April 2014, Simon Property Group announced the sale of Southern Park Mall to its spinoff, Washington Prime Group. On April 30, 2015 H&M opened a location at the mall. In October 2015, Bath & Body Works announced they would be expanding and remodeling their store at the mall. In January 2016, Zumiez and Vanity announced they would be coming to the shopping center. Zumiez opened in February next to Crazy 8 in the former Coach New York space. In mid-April, Vanity opened in the former Wet Seal space, next to American Eagle Outfitters. In April 2018, Sears announced that they would be closing their location at the mall in July after nearly 49 years at the mall. In February 2019, Dillard's announced that they would also be closing in May of that year, leaving JCPenney and Macy's as the only remaining anchors. That same month, the Dillard's building was sold to a Cafaro Company subsidiary, Boardman SC LLC.

In redevelopment efforts, Washington Prime Group tore down the Sears building in late 2019 and replaced it with the DeBartolo Commons, which added some smaller exterior storefronts whilst decreasing the overall square footage of the mall. DeBartolo Commons opened in 2021, adding recreational spaces and restaurants to the complex. Earlier in 2021, a Planet Fitness relocated to the mall, combining former tenant locations and creating a new junior anchor space on the mall's east side. In August 2023, Windsor officially opened in the former Aeropostale space. As of May 2, 2023 the mall has an occupancy rate of 76%.

Anchor stores

 * JCPenney 262000 ft2
 * Macy's 186980 ft2
 * H&M 18000 ft2
 * Planet Fitness 27857 ft2
 * Shoe Dept. Encore 10752 ft2

Former

 * Sears: Opened 1970, closed 2018
 * Horne's: Opened 1972, converted to Dillard's in 1992
 * Dillard's: Opened in 1992, closed 2019
 * Kaufmann's: Opened 1986, converted to Macy's in 2006
 * Strouss: Opened 1970, converted to Kaufmann's in 1986
 * Jillian's Opened 1999, closed in 2011

title: Southern Park Mall


text:
Bob MacQuarrie

Robert Waldron MacQuarrie (November 24, 1926 – January 11, 2007) was a politician in Ontario, Canada. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1981 to 1985, as a member of the Progressive Conservative Party.

MacQuarrie was born in Rexton, New Brunswick, educated at Princes of Wales College (later renamed the University of Prince Edward Island), and practiced law with the firm of Cuzner, MacQuarrie.

He began his political career at the municipal level, serving as reeve of Gloucester Township in Ontario from 1972 to 1978, and as a councillor in the Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton from 1969 to 1978. In 1980–81, he was director of the Eastern Ontario Development Corporation.

He was elected to the Ontario legislature in the 1981 provincial election, defeating Liberal candidate Bernard Grandmaitre and New Democrat Evelyn Gigantes in a close three-way contest for Carleton East. MacQuarrie served as a government backbencher for the next four years, acting as parliamentary assistant to the Solicitor-General and Attorney-General. In January 1985, he supported Roy McMurtry's bid to succeed Bill Davis as leader of the Progressive Conservative Party.

The Progressive Conservatives were reduced to a tenuous minority government in the 1985 provincial election, and lost power to David Peterson's Liberals. MacQuarrie was defeated in Carleton East, losing to Liberal candidate Gilles Morin by 7,033 votes.

The City of Ottawa named a sports complex after Bob Macquarrie - The "Bob MacQuarrie-Orléans Recreation Complex" located at 1490 Youville Drive in Orléans, Ontario, Canada.

title: Bob MacQuarrie


text:
James Welch (writer)

James Phillip Welch Jr. (November 18, 1940 – August 4, 2003), who grew up within the Blackfeet and A'aninin cultures of his parents, was a Native American novelist and poet, considered a founding author of the Native American Renaissance. His novel Fools Crow (1986) received several national literary awards, and his debut novel Winter in the Blood (1974) was adapted as a film by the same name, released in 2013.

In 1997 Welch received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Native Writers' Circle of the Americas.

Early life
James Welch was born in Browning, Montana on November 18, 1940. His father, James Phillip Welch Sr. (June 3, 1914 – May 23, 2006), a welder and rancher, was a member of the Blackfeet tribe. His mother, Rosella Marie (née O'Bryan) Welch (December 14, 1914 – July 3, 2003), a stenographer for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was a member of the Gros Ventre (A'aninin). Both also had Irish ancestry but had grown up within Native American cultures. As a child, Welch attended schools on the Blackfeet and Fort Belknap reservations. Because Welch was raised in an American Indian setting, the traditions and religion, specifically from the Blackfoot history, were the sources of his writing.

Education
In 1958, James Welch graduated from Washburn High School in Minneapolis. Post high school he worked as a firefighter for the U.S Forest Service, as a laborer and as an Upward Bound counselor. Eventually, Welch began a master of fine arts degree program at the University of Montana. It was there that he studied under the poet Richard Hugo, who told him that "his poetry needed roots, so he should write what he knew about. Write about Indians and Indian culture. Write about home" he said. He graduated in 1965 with a B.A. in liberal arts. Shortly after, Welch published his first poem in the "Montana poet" issue of Visions International in 1967. He also briefly attended Northern Montana College.

Career
He began his writing career publishing poetry and fiction. His novels established his place in the Native American Renaissance literary movement. Welch also taught at the university. He also received Honorary Doctorates from Rocky Mountain College (1993) and the University of Montana (1997).

James Welch was an internationally acclaimed writer and had a faithful following in Europe. In 1995, Welch was given the Chevalier de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knight of the Order of the Arts and Letters) by the French Cultural Ministry. His novels were translated into nine foreign languages.

Welch's work was collected in Nothing but the Truth, an Anthology of Native American Literature. He is one of the early authors of what became called the Native American literary renaissance. He wanted to explore Native American life in his writing, both its good and bad aspects as people struggled with modern United States culture.

He based his rich landscape imagery on lands he knew in Montana. In his writing, the landscape was featured as a character. Welch had a unique style of writing from "'an outside observer with an insider's understanding' of Native American experience." Although he was raised on the reservation as a young boy, he lived most of his life off of it. He said that he felt a lack of close connection with the tribal community.

In 1968, James Welch married Lois Monk, a comparative literature professor at the University of Montana. She was head of the English Department there until her retirement. During her sabbaticals, they traveled internationally and lived in France, Greece, Italy, and Mexico. Welch often used these periods to help finish his novels, taking advantage of the relative isolation.

The couple donated regularly to the Piegan Institute's language immersion program, dedicated to restoring use of the native Blackfeet language.

Welch briefly attended Northern Montana College.

In her introduction to the 2007 reprint of Winter in the Blood, fellow writer Louise Erdrich said: "It is a central and inspiring text to a generation of western regional and Native American writers, including me."

In addition to his novels, Welch co-wrote with Paul Stekler the screenplay for Last Stand at Little Bighorn, the Emmy Award-winning documentary that was part of the American Experience, shown on PBS.

Welch served on the board of directors of the D'Arcy McNickle Center of the Newberry Library in Chicago.

Death
James Welch died of lung cancer at the age of sixty-two in Missoula, Montana, on Monday, August 4, 2003.

Poetry and Novels
When he began his writing, Indian authors were unknown in mainstream literary culture. Of his inspiration and purpose, James Welch noted: "Kind of growing up around the reservations, I just kept my eyes open and my ears open, listened to a lot of stories. You might say my senses were really brought alive by that culture. I learned more about it than I knew I did. It was only after I began writing about it that I realize that I had learned. I knew quite a bit, in certain ways, about the Blackfeet and Gros Ventre ways of life."

Welch’s poems are alert, sorrowful, and true. His only collection of poetry, Riding the Earthboy 40 (1971), is deeply ingrained in the steppe of Montana. Shortened but expressive, the poems arrive in an instant of thought or experience that handles seasons, animals, and the stories that reservation Native Americans tell.

After writing poetry "exclusively for seven or eight years," Welch turned his attention towards fiction and his first novel, Winter in the Blood, a severe narrative about a nameless youth living on a reservation in northern Montana. Winter in the Blood (1974) attracted immediate critical interest, and, in 1977, scholars discussed the novel at the annual Modern Language Association convention. The notes from the session were released a year after the seminar in a special symposium issue of American Indian Quarterly, edited by Peter G Beidler.

In Winter in the Blood (1974), Welch presents a nameless protagonist who feels displaced, caught between two worlds, helpless in a world of stalking white men, but unaccepted by Indians—a stranger to both. The unnamed narrator is, like Welch, a mix of Blackfoot and Gros Ventre Indian. He calls himself a "servant to a memory of death." (James Welch) Both his father and brother are dead; in the midst of the novel, his deeply loved grandmother also dies. Similarly, in The Death of Jim Loney (1979), Welch portrays a half-blood who is unable to find a place in either world

Unlike Welch's first two novels, Fools Crow (1986) is a historical novel set in the 1870s which depicts the character Fools Crow, striving to live a classic Blackfoot life in the background of the white settlement and the U.S. government's war against Plains Indians.

Welch writes part of his own family's history into his third novel, Fools Crow.

Critics frequently write about how to categorize James Welch, whether to see him as a Native American storyteller or as an American author. The truth is that Welch's work exceeds such categorization; he joins Native American traditions and concepts with Western literary conventions to form compelling narratives. Much of Welch's fiction pivots on the interaction between the American Indian and white America.

Adaptations

 * Winter in the Blood (1974) was adapted as a 2012 feature film by the same name by filmmakers Alex and Andrew Smith, who knew Welch growing up in Montana. Native American writer Sherman Alexie helped produce the film.

Accolades

 * American Book Award, Los Angeles Times Book Prize and the Pacific Northwest Book Award. Fools Crow (1986)
 * Emmy Award. Last Stand at Little Bighorn. Documentary.
 * 3rd Annual Native American Literature Prize (1991)
 * Spur Award from Western Writers of America for Best Television Documentary Script (1992)
 * John Dos Passos Prize for Literature (1994)
 * Western Literature Association's Distinguished Achievement Award (1994)
 * Chevalier de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knight of the Order of the Arts and Letters) by the French Cultural Ministry (1995)
 * Native Writers' Circle of the Americas Lifetime Achievement Award (1997)
 * Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters medal by the FBI
 * Montana Governor's Humanities Award

Tribute
On November 18, 2016, Google celebrated his 76th birthday with a Google Doodle.

Novels

 * Winter in the Blood (1974)
 * The Death of Jim Loney (1979)
 * Fools Crow (1986)
 * The Indian Lawyer (1990)
 * The Heartsong of Charging Elk (2000)

Nonfiction

 * Killing Custer: The Battle of Little Bighorn and the Fate of the Plains Indians (1994)

Poetry

 * Riding the Earthboy 40 (1971 rpt. 1975)
 * Last Stand at Little Bighorn
 * Christmas Comes to Moccasin Flat
 * Surviving
 * Snow Country Weavers
 * Thanksgiving at Snake Butte
 * Dreaming Winter
 * Harlem, Montana: Just off the Reservation

title: James Welch (writer)


text: Category:Science and technology in the Soviet Union


text:
Theta (disambiguation)

Theta (Θ or θ) is the eighth letter of the Greek alphabet.

Theta may also refer to:

Science and mathematics

 * Θ (set theory), the least ordinal α such that there is no surjection from the reals onto α
 * Theta (gastropod), a genus of sea snails
 * Theta functions, special functions of several complex variables
 * Theta meson, a hypothetical meson in quantum physics
 * Theta representation, a particular representation of the Heisenberg group of quantum mechanics
 * Theta wave, in biology
 * Theta*, a pathfinding algorithm in computer science
 * $$f = \Theta(g)$$, a Bachmann–Landau notation in computational complexity theory
 * The denotation for potential temperature
 * A common symbol for a variable of the measure of an angle
 * SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant, one of the variants of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19

Business

 * GM Theta platform, an automobile platform of General Motors
 * Theta Networks a telecommunications software company

Music

 * Theta (musician), a Greek musician
 * Theta (Brymo album), 2022

Other uses

 * Theta Nedra Berwick, or simply Theta, a fictional character and the protagonist of Marvel Comics' Predator by Ed Brission
 * Theta (finance), in quantitative finance, a first order derivative of an option pricing formula versus time
 * Theta role, in linguistics
 * Theta, Gauteng, a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa
 * An IPA symbol for voiceless dental fricative
 * Hyundai Theta engine a four cylinder gasoline engine made by Hyundai.
 * Kappa Alpha Theta, a North American collegiate sorority

title: Theta (disambiguation)


text:
Sigma-Aldrich

Sigma-Aldrich (formally MilliporeSigma) is an American chemical, life science, and biotechnology company owned by the multinational chemical conglomerate Merck Group

Sigma-Aldrich was created in 1975 by the merger of Sigma Chemical Company and Aldrich Chemical Company. It grew through various acquisitions until it had over 9,600 employees and was listed on the Fortune 1000. The company has two United States headquarters, in St. Louis and Burlington, MA and has operations in approximately 40 countries.

In 2015, the multinational chemical conglomerate Merck Group acquired Sigma-Aldrich for $17 billion. The company is currently a part of Merck's life science business and in combination with Merck's earlier acquired Millipore, operates as MilliporeSigma. It is headquartered in Burlington, Massachusetts, United States.

History
Sigma Chemical Company of St. Louis and Aldrich Chemical Company of Milwaukee were both American specialty chemical companies when they merged in August 1975. The company grew throughout the 1980s and 1990s, with significant expansion in facilities, acquisitions and diversification into new market sectors.

Early history

 * 1935 – Midwest Consultants was founded in St Louis by brothers Aaron and Bernard Fischer, who hired chemical engineer Daniel Broida.
 * 1946 – Sigma was formed from Midwest Consultants and manufactured just adenosine triphosphate. They were the first to manufacture pure ATP.
 * 1972 – Sigma's IPO
 * 1951 – Aldrich founded in Milwaukee by Alfred Bader and Jack Eisendrath and manufactured just 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine.
 * 1966 – Aldrich's IPO
 * 1972 – Subsidiary Aldrich-Boranes launched to manufacture hydroboration products
 * 1975 – Merger of Sigma Chemical and Aldrich Chemical to created Sigma-Aldrich. Their first year earned $43 million in sales.
 * 1999 – Sigma-Aldrich reaches $1 billion in sales
 * 2005 – Announced membership in The RNAi Consortium
 * 2014 – Merck KGaA announced that it would purchase Sigma-Aldrich for approx. $17 billion (€13.1 billion).
 * November 3, 2014 – Sigma-Aldrich filed a definitive proxy statement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission to hold a special investors meeting regarding approval for the sale to Merck KGaA.

1970s

 * 1978 – Makor Chemicals

1980s

 * 1984 – Pathfinder
 * 1986 – Bio Yeda, Bristol Organics
 * 1989 – Fluka Chemie AG (Swiss company founded in the 1950s) purchased for $39 million.

1990s

 * 1993 – Supelco, Inc. acquired to enter the chromatography market
 * 1994 – LabKemi AB
 * 1997 – Research Biochemicals International, Riedel-de-Haen, Techcares Systems, Carbolabs, YA Kemia
 * 1998 – Genosys

2000s

 * 2000 – First Medical Inc., Amelung GmbH, ARK Scientific
 * 2001 – ISOTEC (produces stable isotopes used in basic research and medical diagnostics)
 * 2004 – Ultrafine (a supplier of contract manufacturing services for drug development), Tetrionics (a producer of high potency and cytotoxic active pharmaceutical ingredients)
 * 2005 – JRH Biosciences, an industrial supplier of cell culture products for the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries; Proligo Group, a global supplier of genomics research tools
 * 2006 – Beijing Superior Chemicals, Iropharm, Pharmorphix, Advanced Separation Technologies (manufacturer of products for chiral chromatography)
 * 2007 – Epichem acquired to expand capabilities in materials sciences and semiconductor markets; Molecular Medicine BioServices acquired to provide large-scale viral manufacturing capabilities; announced alliance with Sangamo BioSciences to develop zinc finger-based laboratory research reagents
 * 2009 – ChemNavigator
 * 2010 – Cerilliant Corporation, ACE Animals
 * 2011 – Resource Technology Corp, Vetec Quimica Fina
 * 2012 – Research Organics Inc., BioReliance (a toxicology and veterinary diagnostics company); BioReliance had previously been acquired by Invitrogen and subsequently sold to Avista Capital Partners.
 * 2014 – Cell Marque
 * 2015 – Combined with EMD Millipore to make MilliporeSigma.

Key numbers
Key numbers for Sigma-Aldrich.

Revenues:
 * $2.79 billion (2014)

Products:
 * 100,000 chemical products (46,000 manufactured)
 * 30,000 laboratory equipment products

Customers:
 * Approximately one million individual customers worldwide
 * 88,000 accounts

Geographies (% of 2008 sales):
 * United States 35%
 * Europe 43%
 * Canada, Asia Pacific, Latin America 22%

Subsidiaries
Aldrich is a supplier in the research and fine chemicals market. Aldrich provides organic and inorganic chemicals, building blocks, reagents, advanced materials and stable isotopes for chemical synthesis, medicinal chemistry and materials science. Aldrich's chemicals catalog, the "Aldrich Catalog and Handbook" is often used as a handbook due to the inclusion of structures, physical data, and literature references.

Sigma is the Sigma-Aldrich's main biochemical supplier, with offerings including antibiotics, buffers, carbohydrates, enzymes, forensic tools, hematology and histology, nucleotides, proteins, peptides, amino acids and their derivatives.

Sigma RBI produces specialized products for use in the field of cell signaling and neuroscience. Their offerings range from standard biochemical reagents to specialized research tools, including ligands for receptors and ion channels, enzyme inhibitors, phosphospecific antibodies, key signal transduction enzymes, and assay kits for cell signaling.

ISOTEC provides isotopically labeled products for protein structure determination, peptide synthesis, proteomics, metabolic research, magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance, breath test substrates, agriculture, as well as gas and gas mixes.

Riedel-de Haën was incorporated with Sigma-Aldrich in 1999 and manufactures reagents and standards.

Supelco is the chromatography products branch of Sigma-Aldrich. It provides chromatography columns and related tools for environmental, government, food and beverage, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical and chemical laboratories; sample preparation products and chemical reference standards.

Sigma-Aldrich Fine Chemicals (SAFC) is the fine chemical supply branch of Sigma-Aldrich specializing in raw materials for cell culture products; customized services for raw materials, manufacturing of active pharmaceutical ingredients.

Sigma Life Science provides products such as custom DNA/RNA oligos; custom DNA and LNA probes; siRNA; isotopically-labelled peptides and peptide libraries.

Sigma Advanced Genetic Engineering (SAGE) Labs is a division within Sigma-Aldrich that specializes in genetic manipulation of in vivo systems for special research and development applications. It was formed in 2008 to investigate zinc finger nuclease technology and its application for disease research models. Located in St. Louis, Missouri, SAGE Labs have developed knockout rats for the study of human diseases and disorders (such as autism), which are sold for up to US$95,000. SAGE also announced its first successful effort in creating a "knockout rabbit". Its facilities include a specific pathogen free, biosecure vivarium as well as research and development labs.

Carbolabs produces research quantities of chemicals produced by phosgenation reactions. The company was acquired in 1998.

BioReliance provides testing and manufacturing services to pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical companies that span the product cycle from early pre-clinical development to licensed production. The company was acquired by Sigma Aldrich in January 2012.

Current leadership
Matthias Heinzel became CEO of the Life Science business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany in April 2021 following Udit Batra's departure from the company.

title: Sigma-Aldrich


text:
Category:United States taxation and revenue case law

This category contains articles relating to United States federal and state law on government's assessment of taxes and other sources of revenue.


text: User:Xueguo

title: User:Xueguo


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Nggàm

Nggàm is a type of divination found among many groups in western Cameroon. Among the best documented is its practice by the Mambila people of Cameroon and Nigeria, in which the actions of spiders or crabs are interpreted by the diviner. The form used by the neighbouring Yamba people was described by Gebauer in 1964 based on experience in Mbem going back to before 1939, and more recently by Hermann Gufler (1996 and 2003). Good documentation of Nggam has been also published for the Bekpak (Bafia) people by Dugast and for Bamileke people by Pradeles de Latour. The crab form has been studied in north Cameroon by Walter van Beek (2013, 2015 ).

The comparative linguistics of spider divination in Cameroon was surveyed by Blench and Zeitlyn in 1989/1990.

In 2021, Argentinian artist Tomás Saraceno developed a durational community project as part of the Berliner Festspiele’s Immersion programme. Described as “a web portal by, with and for the spider diviners of Somié, Cameroon”, the project invites audiences to learn about the practice.

title: Nggàm


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User:Mr. Mediocre

Mr Mediocre is me. I'm 15 and I live in Chattanooga, Tennessee. I like Halo and Coheed and Cambria. I don't like typos.

title: User:Mr. Mediocre


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Rayleigh flow

Rayleigh flow refers to frictionless, non-adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a variable. The heat addition causes a decrease in stagnation pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will cause both supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in choked flow. Conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic Mach number along the duct. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the maximum entropy occurs at M = 1. Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh.

Theory
The Rayleigh flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the change in Mach number with the change in stagnation temperature, T0. The differential equation is shown below.

 * $$\ \frac{dM^2}{M^2} = \frac{1 + \gamma M^2}{1 - M^2}\left(1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M^2\right)\frac{dT_0}{T_0} $$

Solving the differential equation leads to the relation shown below, where T0* is the stagnation temperature at the throat location of the duct which is required for thermally choking the flow.

 * $$\ \frac{T_0}{T_0^*} = \frac{2\left(\gamma + 1\right)M^2}{\left(1 + \gamma M^2\right)^2}\left(1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M^2\right) $$

These values are significant in the design of combustion systems. For example, if a turbojet combustion chamber has a maximum temperature of T0* = 2000 K, T0 and M at the entrance to the combustion chamber must be selected so thermal choking does not occur, which will limit the mass flow rate of air into the engine and decrease thrust.

For the Rayleigh flow model, the dimensionless change in entropy relation is shown below.

 * $$\ \Delta S = \frac{\Delta s}{c_p} = \ln\left[M^2\left(\frac{\gamma + 1}{1 + \gamma M^2}\right)^\frac{\gamma + 1}{\gamma}\right] $$

The above equation can be used to plot the Rayleigh line on a Mach number versus ΔS graph, but the dimensionless enthalpy, H, versus ΔS diagram is more often used. The dimensionless enthalpy equation is shown below with an equation relating the static temperature with its value at the choke location for a calorically perfect gas where the heat capacity at constant pressure, cp, remains constant.

 * $$\begin{align}

H &= \frac{h}{h^*} = \frac{c_pT}{c_pT^*} = \frac{T}{T^*} \\ \frac{T}{T^*} &= \frac{\left(\gamma + 1\right)^2M^2}{\left(1 + \gamma M^2\right)^2} \\ \end{align} $$

The above equation can be manipulated to solve for M as a function of H. However, due to the form of the T/T* equation, a complicated multi-root relation is formed for M = M(T/T*). Instead, M can be chosen as an independent variable where ΔS and H can be matched up in a chart as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows that heating will increase an upstream, subsonic Mach number until M = 1.0 and the flow chokes. Conversely, adding heat to a duct with an upstream, supersonic Mach number will cause the Mach number to decrease until the flow chokes. Cooling produces the opposite result for each of those two cases. The Rayleigh flow model reaches maximum entropy at M = 1.0 For subsonic flow, the maximum value of H occurs at M = 0.845. This indicates that cooling, instead of heating, causes the Mach number to move from 0.845 to 1.0 This is not necessarily correct as the stagnation temperature always increases to move the flow from a subsonic Mach number to M = 1, but from M = 0.845 to M = 1.0 the flow accelerates faster than heat is added to it. Therefore, this is a situation where heat is added but T/T* decreases in that region.

Additional relations
The area and mass flow rate are held constant for Rayleigh flow. Unlike Fanno flow, the Fanning friction factor, f, remains constant. These relations are shown below with the * symbol representing the throat location where choking can occur.

 * $$\begin{align}

A &= A^* = \mbox{constant} \\ \dot{m} &= \dot{m}^* = \mbox{constant} \\ \end{align} $$

Differential equations can also be developed and solved to describe Rayleigh flow property ratios with respect to the values at the choking location. The ratios for the pressure, density, static temperature, velocity and stagnation pressure are shown below, respectively. They are represented graphically along with the stagnation temperature ratio equation from the previous section. A stagnation property contains a '0' subscript.

 * $$\begin{align}

\frac{p}{p^*} &= \frac{\gamma + 1}{1 + \gamma M^2} \\ \frac{\rho}{\rho^*} &= \frac{1 + \gamma M^2}{\left(\gamma + 1\right)M^2} \\ \frac{T}{T^*} &= \frac{\left(\gamma + 1\right)^2M^2}{\left(1 + \gamma M^2\right)^2} \\ \frac{v}{v^*} &= \frac{\left(\gamma + 1\right)M^2}{1 + \gamma M^2} \\ \frac{p_0}{p_0^*} &= \frac{\gamma + 1}{1 + \gamma M^2}\left[\left(\frac{2}{\gamma + 1}\right)\left(1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M^2\right)\right]^\frac{\gamma}{\gamma - 1} \end{align} $$

Applications
The Rayleigh flow model has many analytical uses, most notably involving aircraft engines. For instance, the combustion chambers inside turbojet engines usually have a constant area and the fuel mass addition is negligible. These properties make the Rayleigh flow model applicable for heat addition to the flow through combustion, assuming the heat addition does not result in dissociation of the air-fuel mixture. Producing a shock wave inside the combustion chamber of an engine due to thermal choking is very undesirable due to the decrease in mass flow rate and thrust. Therefore, the Rayleigh flow model is critical for an initial design of the duct geometry and combustion temperature for an engine.

The Rayleigh flow model is also used extensively with the Fanno flow model. These two models intersect at points on the enthalpy-entropy and Mach number-entropy diagrams, which is meaningful for many applications. However, the entropy values for each model are not equal at the sonic state. The change in entropy is 0 at M = 1 for each model, but the previous statement means the change in entropy from the same arbitrary point to the sonic point is different for the Fanno and Rayleigh flow models. If initial values of si and Mi are defined, a new equation for dimensionless entropy versus Mach number can be defined for each model. These equations are shown below for Fanno and Rayleigh flow, respectively.

 * $$\begin{align}

\Delta S_F &= \frac{s - s_i}{c_p} = ln\left[\left(\frac{M}{M_i}\right)^\frac{\gamma - 1}{\gamma}\left(\frac{1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M_i^2}{1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M^2}\right)^\frac{\gamma + 1}{2\gamma}\right] \\ \Delta S_R &= \frac{s - s_i}{c_p} = ln\left[\left(\frac{M}{M_i}\right)^2\left(\frac{1 + \gamma M_i^2}{1 + \gamma M^2}\right)^\frac{\gamma + 1}{\gamma}\right] \end{align} $$

Figure 3 shows the Rayleigh and Fanno lines intersecting with each other for initial conditions of si = 0 and Mi = 3.0 The intersection points are calculated by equating the new dimensionless entropy equations with each other, resulting in the relation below.

 * $$\ \left(1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M_i^2\right)\left[\frac{M_i^2}{\left(1 + \gamma M_i^2\right)^2}\right] = \left(1 + \frac{\gamma - 1}{2}M^2\right)\left[\frac{M^2}{\left(1 + \gamma M^2\right)^2}\right] $$

The intersection points occur at the given initial Mach number and its post-normal shock value. For Figure 3, these values are M = 3.0 and 0.4752, which can be found the normal shock tables listed in most compressible flow textbooks. A given flow with a constant duct area can switch between the Rayleigh and Fanno models at these points.

title: Rayleigh flow