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Talk:Synovial fluid

Thixotropic or Rheopectic?; Pseudoplastic or Dilatant?
Isn't synovial / sinovial fluid thixotropic? One might imagine that's what keeps the joint from blowing apart in a high-g jump/fall... Seems it would be worth mentioning! 207.118.183.142 12:19, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

Synovial fluid is rheopectic, not thixotropic. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1618490/

I'm not sure I agree. This is still a little troubling to me. Fairly authoritative sources seem to be giving contradictory information. Here's the first. A textbook.

1) A) Source: Page 221. https://books.google.com/books?id=PHTycR9_IYAC&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221&dq=synovial+fluid+dilatant&source=bl&ots=SHG94e3_xO&sig=8M-mDUiqlyTXNikn-xpxaAfxXVk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR-fSv-5fMAhUMHD4KHTLsBcwQ6AEIejAS#v=onepage&q=synovial%20fluid%20dilatant&f=false B) Source's Conclusion: It says that synovial fluid is both Pseudoplastic and Thixotropic. C) Reasons to believe the source: it is a textbook, it attempts to describe the physical mechanism by which the fluid is non-newtonian, it appears to give actual data, it explains why rheumatoid and osteo-arthritis differ in relation to the proposed physical mechanism, it contains definitions of terms and those definitions are accurate. D) Reasons to distrust the source: It uses either the wrong units to describe viscosity (Pa*s) or it wrote the first sentence in the first paragraph incorrectly because it wrote that viscosity has units of Pa, which is just not true. It's proposed physical mechanism describing the non-newtonian nature of synovial fluid is either worded wrong or just appears to be wrong because it is counter intuitive. It claims the synovial fluid is shear thinning because as shear rate increases, the hyaluronic acid molecules align. Well, I just don't believe that molecules are more likely to align when they are moving more. So they seem to have made a mistake here. E) My opinion: the source seems authoritative because it is a textbook, but it clearly has at least some minor mistakes. It is moderate evidence that synovial fluid is Thixotropic and Pseudoplastic

2) A) Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11673647 B) Source's Conclusion: Synovial fluid is Thixotropic C) Reasons to believe the source: it is a published paper with NCBI and it makes a modest amount of sense D) Reasons to distrust the source: it is worded a little poorly and can't easily be fully understood E) My opinion: It's modest but not good evidence that synovial fluid has at least the property of Thixotropy. This argument is strengthened by source 1.

3) A) Source: http://jbjs.org/content/45/6/1241 B) Source's conclusion: It suggests that synovial fluid is Thixotropic and Dilatant. C) Reasons to believe the source: It was published in JBJS. D) Reasons to distrust the source: It was published in 1965 and it contains typos. E) My opinion: It is modest but not good evidence that synovial fluid is both Thixotropic and Dilatant.

4) A) Source: http://www.orthopaedicsone.com/display/Main/Synovial+fluid B) Source's conclusion: Synovial fluid is both Thixotropic and Dilatant. C) Reasons to believe the source: It is well written and designed to explain how synovial fluid works, and it explains the biology and chemistry pretty well. D) Reasons to disbelieve the source: It's a commercial site and their priority is sounding good, not living up to academically rigorous standards. E) My opinion: It's pretty good but not great evidence that synovial fluid is both Thixotropic and Dilatant.

5) A) Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1618490/ ; http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/6/167.long B) Source's conclusion: (bovine) Synovial fluid is Rheopectic. C) Reasons to believe the source: It was published in NCBI and in TRS. The publication seems to be extraordinarily thorough. Bovine synovial fluid should not function differently than human synovial fluid, the author thinks so too, no one would research bovine synovial fluid unless it was relevant for humans. The article cites numerous sources that suggest that deteriorated synovial fluids have less viscosity, implying that well functioning synovial fluid is or can become more viscous when functioning properly. ie. Rheopectic D) Reasons to distrust the source: I can't think of any

6) A) Source: http://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/the-inverse-thixotropic-behaviour-of-synovial-fluid(3352d9b1-b3a5-4e7c-95d1-5cc4a04d86e8).html B) Source's conclusion: Synovial fluid is Rheopectic C) Reasons to believe the source: Published in the JOR and cited on the University's website. D) Reasons to distrust the source: I don't have access to the full article.

Conclusion Source 5) seems best and calls it rheopectic, source 1) seems like it should be reliable too but calls it both thixotropic and pseudoplastic. Multiple sources call it both rheopectic and multiple sources call it rheopectic. These can't both be true. Multiple sources call it dilatant and only one source calls it pseudoplastic. These can't both be true either but there are more sources thinking it has dilatant properties. The rheopectic vs thixotropic question seems entirely unanswered from the numerous academic sources i could find but showed fairly one-sided evidence that it is dilatant. A fluid should be able to have any combination of a time-dependent property and a time independent property. So my conclusion is that synovial fluid is dilatant and either rheopectic or thixotropic. But clearly all of this information is inconclusive. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.249.10.252 (talk) 13:04, 18 April 2016 (UTC)

What is articular cartilage
synovial fluid reduces friction between the articular cartilage... I cannot find articular cartilage anywhere, is this right? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.113.122.130 (talk) 00:34, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes, this is right. Any anatomy book will have this information.  Articular cartilage is attached to the end of long bones that are part of a synovial (diarthrotic) joint; it is made of hyaline cartilage. Articular cartilage prevents bone from rubbing against bone.FishAmplexity (talk) 23:58, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

What is the reason of deficiency of synovial fluid in human body ?
What is the reason of deficiency of synovial fluid in human body ? This needs to be answered. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.225.86.153 (talk) 05:52, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Negative health effects of cycling?
Can more information be added to the article on the negative effects of regular cycling on the synovial joints? Does long-term regular cycling permanently wear out the cartilage, synovial tissue, synovial membrane or any other synovial part of the knee joints? Cartilage does not heal from damage, so any damage is permanent. Wsmss (talk) 13:37, 7 January 2011 (UTC)

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Basic anatomic concepts
In teaching Anatomy and Physiology some "core concepts" are pretty much agreed upon. One is that epithelial cells are the secretory cells of the body. Synovial fluid is produced by connective tissue cells, not epithelial cells, so might be thought of as an exception to the basic rule. However, when considered more carefully, it might be pointed out that synovial fluid is NOT secreted. Rather, the hyaluronan and lubricin are extruded from cell membranes and "pull" water from interstitial spaces by virtue of their extreme hydrophilic nature. The fluid is thus not produced by glands, epithelial structures. There can be a great deal of semantic quibbling about this idea - connective tissue by definition includes ground substance that is produced by non-epithelial cells after all. So, should the idea that synovial fluid is different from secretions in general be incorporated into this article? DStowens (talk) 23:28, 9 January 2016 (UTC)

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User talk:Coniungare nox aurorae

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Diamond Jim Brady

James Buchanan Brady (August 12, 1856 – April 13, 1917), also known as Diamond Jim Brady, was an American businessman, financier and philanthropist of the Gilded Age.

Early life and family
Brady was born in New York City to an Irish immigrant family. He was born “into humble circumstances on the far lower West Side of Manhattan, the son of a saloon owner.”

Career
Brady worked his way up from bellhop and courier. After gaining employment in the New York Central Railroad system, he became the chief assistant to the general manager by the age of 21. At 23, Brady parlayed his knowledge of the rail transport industry and its officials to become a highly successful salesman for Manning, Maxwell and Moore, a railroad supply company. In 1899 he became sales agent for the Pressed Steel Car Company.

Lifestyle
Known for his penchant for jewels, especially diamonds, he collected precious stones and jewelry in excess of US$2 million (equivalent to approximately $0 in dollars).

Brady's enormous appetite was as legendary as his wealth, though modern experts believe it was greatly exaggerated. It was not unusual, according to the legend, for Brady to eat enough food for ten people at a sitting. George Rector, owner of a favorite restaurant, described Brady as "the best 25 customers I ever had". For breakfast, he would eat "vast quantities of hominy, eggs, cornbread, muffins, flapjacks, chops, fried potatoes, beefsteak, washing it all down with a gallon of fresh orange juice". A mid-morning snack would consist of "two or three dozen clams or Lynnhaven oysters". Luncheon would consist of "shellfish...two or three deviled crabs, a brace of boiled lobsters, a joint of beef, and an enormous salad". He would also include a dessert of "several pieces of homemade pie" and more orange juice. Brady would take afternoon tea, which consisted of "another platter of seafood, accompanied by two or three bottles of lemon soda". Dinner was the main meal of the day, taken at Rector's Restaurant. It usually comprised "two or three dozens oysters, six crabs, and two bowls of green turtle soup. Then in sumptuous procession came six or seven lobsters, two canvasback ducks, a double portion of terrapin, sirloin steak, vegetables, and for dessert a platter of French pastries." Brady would even include two pounds of chocolate candy to finish off the meal. Supposedly gamblers would make bets on whether he'd drop dead before dessert; as a matter of a fact he did have to cut down on his gargantuan eating several years before his death due to stomach troubles.

A gregarious man, Brady was a mainstay of Broadway nightlife. He often dined with popular society. After further investments in the stock market, Brady accumulated wealth estimated at $12 million, though not always by ethical means. According to biographer Harry Paul Jeffers, "On election night (1896), Brady won about $180,000 (equivalent to approximately $0 in dollars) by making crooked bets on the William McKinley–William Jennings Bryan presidential election." He also enriched himself to the tune of $1.25 million (equivalent to approximately $0 in dollars) through a shady stock deal involving the Reading Railroad.

He was known for being the first person in New York City to own an automobile (in 1895).

Thoroughbred racing
Jim Brady owned and raced a significant stable of Thoroughbred horses which were trained by Matthew Allen. Among his top horses, Gold Heels was the Champion Older Male Horse of 1902 and Accountant was the American Co-Champion Three-Year-Old Male Horse of 1906. In his obituary, the Daily Racing Form noted that his activities in racing helped make him a national figure.

Personal life
"Diamond Jim" is known for his longtime relationship with actress and singer Lillian Russell. It is said they would rendezvous at his home at 7 West 46th Street in Manhattan. It is said that her eating habits were a perfect match for his own.

In 1912, Brady donated $220,000 to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, where he had once been treated. The hospital created the James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute in his honor.

Brady never married, and after his death, his estate was distributed to many institutions, most notably New York Hospital. It is now known as NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital, and the department of urology still maintains the James Buchanan Brady Foundation.

Death
Brady died in his sleep on April 13, 1917, of a heart attack. (Although he died of a myocardial infarction, he also suffered from Bright's disease, coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus, gallstones, arterial hypertension, inflammation of the prostate, as well as persistent, recurrent urinary tract infections). When his body was examined, doctors discovered that his stomach was six times the size of that of an average person.

Legacy
Brady was the inspiration for a 1935 film written by Preston Sturges entitled Diamond Jim and might have inspired a character called "Big Jim" in the Bob Dylan song, "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts".

In the 1940 film, Lillian Russell, Diamond Jim Brady is portrayed by Edward Arnold.

Brady is mentioned in two episodes of I Love Lucy: "The Business Manager" (season 4, episode 1) – (Ricky to Fred: "Mr. Hickox? He makes you look like Diamond Jim Brady!") and "Lucy Gets a Paris Gown" (season 5, episode 20) – (Ethel calls Fred "Diamond Jim Mertz" after he warns her not to buy a dress).

In 1968 film The Odd Couple,  Oscar calls Felix  "Diamond Jim Brady" when he orders tea for him at a late night diner while they are discussing his separation.

In the October 26, 1966 The Beverly Hillbillies episode "Come Back Little Herbie", Granny describes the dapperly dressed, playboy gorilla named Herbie as "a hairy Diamond Jim Brady".

Brady was the protagonist of the fictional film Bonjour, Diamond Jim that was featured in the film Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie (2012).

A story about Brady is told in Kurt Vonnegut's novel Jailbird in which Brady, on a bet while dining at the Hotel Arapahoe, eats four dozen oysters, four lobsters, four chickens, four squabs, four T-bone steaks, four pork chops, and four lamb chops.

The Season 5 episode "Lillian Russell" / "The Lagoon" of Fantasy Island involves a woman becoming Lillian Russell and being caught between the affections of Brady and another man.

Brady inspired Monty Python's Flying Circus to create the fictional character Mr. Creosote who appears in the troupe's sketch comedy film The Meaning of Life (1983).

The actor Howard Keel was cast as Brady in a 1963 episode of the TV series Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story, while traveling by train in Texas, Brady accepts a nearly impossible wager that he can sell $100,000 worth of barbed wire to area ranchers who oppose such fencing – and can do so without leaving the train.

Brady is featured in Caleb Carr's The Angel of Darkness near the end of a chapter; as the main characters arrive in Saratoga Springs, New York, the narrator Stevie sees Brady dining with his paramour Lillian Russell, and notes that while neither Brady's manners nor language is all that pleasant, neither are Miss Russell's.

In the 1964 movie What a Way to Go!, the character Louisa May Foster (Shirley MacLaine) said to herself on a flight on Rod Anderson Jr.'s (Robert Mitchum) jet that "he wasn't the Diamond Jim Brady of the Jet set. He was cold, arrogant, sure of himself. Another object lesson on what money and power can do to a human being."

The Famous Beverly Hills Restaurant, Lawry's The Prime Rib has a special cut of Prime Rib called the "Diamond Jim Brady Cut ", an extra-thick portion, rib bone in.

title: Diamond Jim Brady


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File:DRAlogo.jpg

Summary
Democratic Representative Association logo

title: File:DRAlogo.jpg


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Betoota, Queensland

Betoota is a ghost town within the locality of Birdsville, in the Shire of Diamantina, in the Channel Country of Central West Queensland, Australia. Betoota is situated on a gibber plain (a stony desert plain) 170 km east of Birdsville and 227 km west of Windorah.

The town has been designated as Australia's smallest. The only facilities in Betoota are a racetrack, a dry weather airstrip, a cricket field, and the Betoota Hotel. Visitors are drawn to the town during the annual Simpson Desert Carnival which is held in September.

History
Karuwali (also known as Garuwali, Dieri) is a language of far western Queensland. The Karuwali language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Diamantina Shire Council, including the localities of Betoota and Haddon Corner.

The town was surveyed in 1887, but only three streets were ever named. The Betoota Hotel was constructed in the late 1880s and is the last remaining building in town outside the race track. The building is constructed of sandstone and has timber floors.

In 1885, the Queensland Government opened a customs post to collect a toll for stock travelling the stock route. Betoota was once a Cobb & Co change station.

In 1895, a police presence was established in the town as construction of a rabbit-proof fence in the region was attracting many "undesirable characters" to the town. A police station with a court was built in 1915 but was closed in 1930 because an inspection in 1928 found no-one had been taken into custody or placed before the court in more than five years.

The hotel operated until 1997, when its owner, Sigmund (Simon) Remienko, retired at 82 years of age. Originally from Poland, Remienko worked as a grader driver until he bought the Betoota Hotel in 1957. He owned it for 47 years, and was Betoota's sole resident until ill-health forced him to move. The hotel closed in October 1997. Remienko died in 2004.

In 2017, Robert Haken, a smash repairer from Logan, bought the long-defunct hotel from the couple Remienko had left it to. It was being restored, with the aim of reopening in time for the Betoota Races in August 2018. However, that goal was not achieved, "due to paperwork". The Betoota Hotel re-opened on 20 July 2020.

Heritage listings
Betoota has a number of heritage-listed sites, including a protected area known as Burke and Wills "Plant Camp".

Popular culture
The town's name has been used by the Australian satirical news website and digital media company The Betoota Advocate, although the company is actually based in Sydney. It purports to be "Australia's oldest newspaper".

title: Betoota, Queensland


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Flight to Arras

Flight to Arras (Pilote de guerre) is a memoir by French author Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. Written in 1942, it recounts his role in the Armée de l'Air (French Air Force) as pilot of a reconnaissance plane during the Battle of France in 1940.

The book condenses months of flights into a single, terrifying mission over the town of Arras. Saint-Exupéry was assigned to Reconnaissance Group II/33 flying the twin-engine Bloch MB.170. At the start of the war there were only fifty reconnaissance crews, of which twenty-three were in his unit. Within the first few days of the German invasion of France in May 1940, seventeen of the II/33 crews were sacrificed recklessly, he writes, "like glasses of water thrown onto a forest fire".

Saint-Exupéry survived the French defeat but refused to join the Royal Air Force over political differences with Charles de Gaulle, and in late 1940, went to New York where he accepted the National Book Award for Wind, Sand and Stars. He remained in North America for two years, and then in the spring of 1943 rejoined his old unit in North Africa. In July 1944, "risking flesh to prove good faith", he failed to return from a reconnaissance mission over France.

This work was adapted as a radio drama for American audiences by the NBC Red Network and broadcast on 7 October 1942 at the Author's Playhouse.

The work was later adapted, by Rod Wooden, in 1998 as a radio drama by BBC Radio 4, with David Threlfall playing the role of the pilot.

title: Flight to Arras


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James M. Stayer

James M. Stayer (born 1935) is a historian specializing in the German Reformation, particularly the anabaptist movement. He is also a Professor Emeritus at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, Stayer received his PhD from Cornell University in 1964. After teaching at Ithaca College, Bridgewater College and Bucknell University, he moved to Canada in 1968 to teach at Queen's University. He became a Canadian citizen in 1977.

title: James M. Stayer


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Mundaring Weir

Mundaring Weir is a concrete gravity dam (and historically the adjoining locality) located 39 km from Perth, Western Australia in the Darling Scarp. The dam and reservoir form the boundary between the suburbs of Reservoir and Sawyers Valley. The dam impounds the Helena River.

History
A soldier, Ensign Robert Dale, became the first European to explore the region in 1829.

European populations did not grow significantly until construction of the dam in the late 1890s. This involved the building of a Mundaring Weir railway line from Mundaring to the Mundaring Weir site.

The Irish Australian engineer C. Y. O'Connor was involved in the design of a scheme that transported water to the Eastern Goldfields of Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in the eastern part of Western Australia. The weir was completed in 1903.

The lake created by the dam was known as the Helena River Reservoir, it was renamed as Lake C.Y. O'Connor in 2004.

The owner of the dam, the Water Corporation, refers to the weir as Mundaring Dam on its website, but no other authority, such as Geographic Names, or Geoscience Australia uses this term. The Shire of Mundaring uses an image of the Mundaring Weir in its logo.

Work commenced to raise the dam in the late 1940s, and was completed in November 1951.

In the early 1970s the downstream dam from the weir—the Lower Helena Pumpback Dam—was constructed.

It last overflowed into the Helena Valley in 1996.

Overflowing
In the first fifty years overflows were a regular occurrence.

The 1950s raising of the weir affected overflows, but they continued.

In the 1960s the weir regularly overflowed.

Dam monitoring
Like any structure of its age and design, the weir requires monitoring and repairs and maintenance. On the original structure the central small building was used for aspects of monitoring the weir's internal status – it was rebuilt on the heightening of the dam, although it was no longer used for its original purpose.

In 2009 two face wall entrance points were created on either side (north and south) of the face to facilitate access to the monitoring tunnels. The weir leaks, and the three photos below show consistent stain/moisture points between 2008, 2010 and 2020 where water moves through the structure:

Changes 2010–2014
A new pump station with an initial capacity of 165000 m3 per day, and an ultimate capacity of 240000 m3 per day, commenced operations in March 2014. The existing two pump stations, a substation and chlorination facility were decommissioned. New treatment facilities included pre-treatment, filtration, chlorination, stabilisation and fluoridation. The old facilities were not able to sustain increasing water demands and current Australian drinking water guidelines. Aesthetic water qualities such as colour, taste and odour had deteriorated over the years.

Railway
Mundaring Weir was the terminus of the Mundaring Weir Branch Railway, which was originally constructed by the Public Works Department of WA for the transport of materials for the construction of the dam.

It was only after the completion of the weir that the location became popular with picnickers and sightseers, as the project caught the imagination of the public in Perth.

The landscaped grounds of the weir, and the lower zig-zag section of the end of the railway line (which can still be seen when the capacity of the dams falls below approximately 35%) feature prominently in postcards of numerous weekend and special picnic excursion trains that travelled to the weir from the 1910s until the late 1940s.

The steepness of the Mundaring weir railway line restricted the capacity of the railways to conduct the picnic trains, as the Msa Garratt locomotives were the most suitable, but in short supply, at times when the weir was overflowing in the 1940s.

The railway line was closed in 1952.

Additionally, a tramway, using timber rails, was constructed to convey sawn timber from a mill 3 mi from the site of what is today known as The Dell in Paulls Valley to the weir from where it was railed on the above railway line. It opened in 1909 and closed in 1913.

Facilities
The old "Pumping Station Number 1" is now the C Y O'Connor Museum run by the National Trust. There is also the Kookaburra outdoor cinema, and the Department of Environment and Conservation has the Hills Forest activity centre, as well as a regional administrative office.

Before rationalisation of its work force at this locality, the Water Authority of Western Australia's operations at the Weir maintained housing for its workers. There is a youth hostel (built at the site of the now defunct primary school), an art gallery in the area, and many picnicking spots. There is still rangers' housing at the site, along with functioning pumping stations and water treatment facilities.

Bibbulmun Track
The 963 km walking trail Bibbulmun Track commences in Kalamunda following Piesse Brook, then along the south side of the Helena valley. Crossing the weir wall the track follows the northern side of C.Y.O'Connor lake before turning south and continuing the journey to Albany.

Golden Pipeline project

The history and context of the whole Goldfields Water Supply Scheme was celebrated by the Golden Pipeline project, where the Water Corporation had the National Trust of Australia (WA) create an "interpretation" of the history of the scheme with guide books, trails, and web-sites to provide information about the history of the scheme. Most of this project was developed between 2001 and 2003.

title: Mundaring Weir


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G. P. Pillai

Govindan Parameswaran Pillai (2 February 1864 – 21 May 1903), also known as Barrister G. P. Pillai, was a freedom fighter, social reformer, barrister, journalist, and publisher. He established the first English language newspaper in South India, The Madras Standard. He drafted the Malayali Memorial in 1891. Pillai is the only Malayali whom Mahatma Gandhi has mentioned in his autobiography. He regularly wrote columns in various newspapers. Pillai stood against autocratic governance in Travancore and promoted civil rights and equal opportunity among all classes.

Early life
He was born on 2 February 1864 in Pallippuram, Trivandrum to an aristocratic Nair family. His parents were Hariharan Iyer and Karthyayani Amma.

During his education at the University College Trivandrum, he used to write on columns of various newspapers under pseudonyms about corruption and against Brahmin supremacy. One such writing in a bi-weekly Western Star in 1883, called the attention of Diwan of Travancore who ordered to expel his from college, however, impressed by his academics, his principal gave him a recommendation letter which got him a seat at Madras Presidency College. After gaining a law degree at the Madras Presidency College he was admitted to the Middle Temple in London in 1898. He was called to the bar of Travancore Highcourt in 1902.

Indian freedom struggle
The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 led to increased agitation for Indian independence from British rule. was the earliest leader of the organisation from Kerala, and twice served as its General Secretary. He was well known as editor of the Madras Standard and as an activist for civil rights in Travancore State. A forceful writer and orator, he had wide contacts in Britain as well as India. Mahatma Gandhi acknowledged the help and guidance given to him by Pillai in the South African Indian issue and also in the temperance movement.

Social activism
He came back from London and established the newspaper The Madras Standard. It became Mahatma Gandhi's platform to write about the grievances of Indians in South Africa. During his stay in Madras, he drafted the Travancore Memorial (also known as Malayali Memorial) in 1891, a memorandum to the Maharaja of Travancore seeking fair share of jobs to Malayali youth in government services. He was an inspiration for Padmanabhan Palpu to draft the Ezhava Memorial. He played key role in inspiring the youth to rebel against the autocratic administration of the Diwan of Travancore. He became one of the secretaries of the Indian National Congress. Gandhi mentioned Pillai in his autobiography: "The greatest help here came to me from G. Parameswaran Pillai, the editor of the ‘Madras Standard".

Pillai is often credited as a mentor to Gandhi and as the "father of political agitation at erstwhile Travancore". In 1896, he took a letter from Swami Vivekananda to Sister Nivedita seeking her help to present the backwardness of the Thiyyas of Malabar before the British Parliament. He has stood for freedom, human dignity, and equal opportunity.

He is the only Malayali whom Mahatma Gandhi has mentioned in his autobiography. He has associated with Gandhi to present a case about Indians in South Africa. Gandhi assigned him with the case while he was studying at Inns of Court in London. During his stay in Madras, he regularly wrote in The Hindu, The Mail, and The Madras Standard. He was one of the founders of the temperance movement. In 1902, he returned to Travancore and enrolled as barrister at High Court of Travancore. He declined the offer to become a judge and was one of the leaders of the bar. According to Eardley Norton, "with him [Pillai] died a brave unselfish spirit, not lightly to be deterred from the sense of public duty by threats of social ostracism or the loss of official favour".

title: G. P. Pillai


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Phil Jaques

Philip Anthony Jaques (born 3 May 1979) is a former Australian cricketer. He is a left-handed opening batsman who has played first-class cricket for New South Wales, Northamptonshire, Yorkshire and Worcestershire, as well as international cricket for Australia.

Personal life
He was married to the Australian women's soccer player Danielle Small from 2006 to 2009. He is now married to Jessica Jaques.

Early career and domestic success
Jaques commenced his cricketing career whilst a student at Nareena Hills Public School in Wollongong. A junior with the Wests team in Wollongong he moved onto the Sutherland club while still attending Figtree High School to further his career.

In 1999 Jaques was awarded a cricketing scholarship by New South Wales, which enabled him to spend the English summer playing for Northern Cricket Club near Liverpool. A last minute call up to the NSW team on 15 March 2001 for a match against Queensland saw him rush from Sydney to Brisbane where he arrived in time to debut at the unfamiliar number 10 position with the score at 70/8, up against a Queensland attack on a seaming green-top, he top scored with 40.

After struggling to establish himself for New South Wales thereafter, Jaques transformed his career by signing for the English County Championship side Northamptonshire in 2003. He was prolific, hitting over 1200 runs including a double century and returned to NSW an established member of the Pura Cup Champions. 2003/04 saw the consolidation of Jaques' English form in Australia as he built a reputation of being a player who could score quickly but also occupy the crease for many hours. After returning to England to play for Yorkshire (1,118 runs in 2004 and 1,359 in 2005) and maintaining a consistent standard with New South Wales (1,191 runs in 2004–05), many were calling for his promotion to the national team. He went back to England to play for Worcestershire for the 2006 and 2007 seasons, where he scored 1689 runs in 18 matches.

Eligibility
Jaques was born to English parents, Stuart and Mary, and is a holder of a British passport. This made him eligible to play for both England and Australia. With Matthew Hayden and Justin Langer established at the top of the Australian batting lineup, Jaques himself did not rule out qualifying to become an English player. However, his desire to play for Australia proved too strong, and his record-breaking form in the 2004–05 season led to his Australian international call-up.

International cricket
In 2005–06, a timely century in the Pura Cup followed three consecutive centuries in the ING Cup for New South Wales, and Jaques was selected for the Australian squad for the 2nd Test against South Africa starting on Boxing Day, 2005 in Melbourne after regular opener Justin Langer pulled a hamstring in the previous match. He was unable to capitalise, however, making only 2 and 28. Jaques was given another chance making 66 in his second Test against Bangladesh in April 2006 after Langer was ruled out with a concussion sustained in an earlier Test.

Making his One-Day International debut for Australia against South Africa, Jaques made 94, falling six runs short of his maiden century. His innings broke a 23-year-old record of the highest score on debut for Australia in a One-Day International. In November 2006, Jaques scored successive centuries in three days against England, in the warm up to the 2006–07 Ashes series in Australia. His first, playing for a Prime Minister's XI, was an impressive 112. His second was 107, playing for New South Wales. However, the selectors stuck with regular openers Hayden and Langer and Jaques was forced to bide his time with NSW. One year later, and following the retirement from international cricket of Justin Langer, Jaques was called up to the Test squad for the home series against Sri Lanka ahead of his rival for the place, Western Australia's Chris Rogers, in part due to a fluent second innings 167 in a Pura Cup match against Western Australia in which Rogers scored 9 and 17.

Jaques took full advantage of his opportunity to start to cement a permanent opening slot on the Australian side by scoring his maiden test century on the first test at the Gabba. Jaques was dropped on 68 and 90 but made the most of these lives to notch up his first hundred at international level with a boundary off the first ball after a drinks break. His century came from 196 balls and included 14 fours, it having taken him 34 deliveries to get off the mark. He was dismissed without adding to his score just seven balls later, stumped by Prasanna Jayawardene off Muttiah Muralitharan. One week later, Jaques impressed again by scoring 150 and 68 in the second test at the Bellerive Oval. This was enough for him to be selected as Hayden's opening partner for the 2008 West Indies tour where he starred with a century in the final test at Bridgetown. On the subsequent tour to India he was dropped when Simon Katich was selected ahead of him. He returned home early to have surgery on long term back problems, and did not return to the Test team.

Records and achievements

 * Jaques won the 2005–06 Australian Domestic Cricketer of the Year, at the 2006 Allan Border Medal Ceremony.
 * In February 2007, Jaques came within a few runs of beating Victor Trumper's Sydney Grade Cricket record score compiling 321 for Sutherland against North Sydney in less than 6 hours.
 * He has scored 8 first-class double centuries.
 * Jaques claimed the highest score by a player on One Day International debut for Australia with a 94 against South Africa in Melbourne 2005/06, only for that to be beaten by Phillip Hughes in 2013.
 * Scored his maiden test century in his third test; the first test of the 2007/08 Australian summer against Sri Lanka.

title: Phil Jaques


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Talk:Classroom

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 20 August 2018 and 7 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): JessnHolman, Taylor Hays. Peer reviewers: Hayoathout, Gglapion.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 17:47, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Worldwide view
Although it doesn't mention it explicitly, the entire written portion of the 'Types of classroom' section is about the United States. So I'm adding the 'worldwide view' message to it and moving the information from that section into a subsection called 'In the United States'. Coldspur (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 09:27, 27 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Classroom


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User talk:Chris armstrong

Welcome, from Journalist Welcome to Wikipedia!

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title: User talk:Chris armstrong


text:
Democratic education

Democratic education is a type of formal education that is organized democratically, so that students can manage their own learning and participate in the governance of their school. Democratic education is often specifically emancipatory, with the students' voices being equal to the teacher's.

The history of democratic education spans from at least the 17th century. While it is associated with a number of individuals, there has been no central figure, establishment, or nation that advocated democratic education.

Enlightenment era
In 1693, John Locke published Some Thoughts Concerning Education. In describing the teaching of children, he declares,

"None of the things they are to learn, should ever be made a burthen to them, or impos'd on them as a task. Whatever is so propos'd, presently becomes irksome; the mind takes an aversion to it, though before it were a thing of delight or indifferency. Let a child but be order'd to whip his top at a certain time every day, whether he has or has not a mind to it; let this be but requir'd of him as a duty, wherein he must spend so many hours morning and afternoon, and see whether he will not soon be weary of any play at this rate."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book of advice on education, Émile, was first published in 1762. Émile, the imaginary pupil he uses for illustration, was only to learn what he could appreciate as useful. He was to enjoy his lessons, and learn to rely on his own judgement and experience. "The tutor must not lay down precepts, he must let them be discovered," wrote Rousseau, and urged him not make Émile learn science, but let him discover it. He also said that we should not substitute books for personal experience because this does not teach us to reason; it teaches us to use other people's reasoning; it teaches us to believe a great deal but never to know anything.

19th century
Leo Tolstoy set up a school for peasant children to give them the opportunity to free themselves. This was on his own estate at Yasnaya Polyana, Russia, in the late 19th century. He tells us that the school evolved freely from principles introduced by teachers and pupils; that in spite of the preponderating influence of the teacher, the pupil had always had the right not to come to school, or, having come, not to listen to the teacher, and that the teacher had the right not to admit a pupil, and was able to use all the influence he could muster to win over the community, where the children were always in the majority.

Dom Sierot
In 1912, Janusz Korczak founded Dom Sierot, the Jewish orphanage in Warsaw, which was run on democratic lines. In 1940 Dom Sierot was forced to move to the Warsaw Ghetto and in 1942 Korczak accompanied all his charges to the gas-chambers of the Treblinka extermination camp.

Influential democratic schools
A Democratic school is a certain kind of alternative free school with a radical emphasis on students democracy and freedom to learn. The oldest democratic school is Summerhill, in Suffolk, England, founded in 1921. The first democratic school in the United States was the Antioch School in Yellow Springs, Ohio. It was founded in 1921 through Antioch College.

Sudbury Valley School, founded in Framingham, Massachusetts in 1968, has full democratic governance: The School Meeting manages all aspects of the school, including staff hiring and facilities. A "Sudbury school" is now a general class of school modeled after this original.

The term Democratic Education originates from The Democratic School of Hadera, the first school in the world called a democratic school. It was founded in Israel in 1987 by Yaacov Hecht. It is a public school. The term has been embraced by alternative/open schools all over the world, predominantly following the foundation of IDEC – the International Democratic Education Conference, which was first convened at the democratic school in Hadera.

Free schools movement
In the 1960s, hundreds of "free schools" opened, many based on Summerhill. However A.S. Neill, the founder of Summerhill, distanced himself from American Summerhill schools for not successfully implementing the philosophy of "Freedom, not license." Free school movement (including many schools based on Summerhill ) became a broad movement in the 1960s and 1970s, but was largely renounced by the 1980s. Progressive education and Dewey's ideals did influence them, but only indirectly for the most part.

Networks
Networks supporting democratic education include:
 * The Alternative Education Resource Organization launched in 1989 to create a "student-driven, learner-centered approaches to education."
 * The annual International Democratic Education Conference, first held in 1993.
 * The Australasian Democratic Education Community, which held its first conference in 2002.
 * The European Democratic Education Community was founded in 2008, at the first European Democratic Education Conference.
 * The Réseau des écoles démocratiques au Québec, or RÉDAQ, was founded in 2012 in order to sponsor the creation of democratic schools in the province of Québec, Canada.
 * The Alliance for Self-Directed Education launched in 2016 to make Self-Directed Education a normal and accessible option for all families.
 * Democracy Matters, launched in 2009, is a UK alliance of organisations promoting education for citizenship, participation and practical politics

IDEC 2005 named two core beliefs: self-determination and democratic governance. EUDEC has both of these beliefs, and mutual respect is also in their belief statement. IDEN supports schools that self-identify as democratic.

Defining principles
Democratic schools are very diverse but they can all be defined by having two key principles. In other words, it can be said that all democratic schools have these two characteristics in common:

1. Democratic governance: Meetings in which all members of the school community can participate

2. Autonomy for the students to manage their own learning process

Democratic governance
Democratic governance implies the active participation of the entire school community, including the children, in the various collective decision-making processes that define the school. This democratic management can be done in several ways. Most democratic schools make decisions based on a majority vote, while some schools seek to reach a consent. A “consensus” means everyone is for the decision, “consent” only means that no one is actively against the decision. Agile Learning Centers and sociocratic schools use the principle of consent.

Student autonomy
The level of student autonomy and the means of creating it varies widely from school to school. Democratic schools can have different pedagogy, as there are many ways to guarantee and develop student autonomy in the learning process. There are several approaches and pedagogical devices that can be implemented in line with the principles of democratic education.

Variety
Democratic education, similar to democratic government, comes in many different forms. These are some of the areas in which democratic schools differ.

Curriculum
Democratic schools are characterized by involving students in the decision-making process that affects what and how they learn. Democratic schools generally have no mandatory curriculum, considering forced learning to be undemocratic. Some democratic schools officially offer voluntary courses, and many help interested students to prepare for national examinations so they gain qualifications for further study or future employment.

Administrative structure
Democratic schools often have meetings open to all students and staff, where everyone present has a voice and sometimes an equal vote. Some include parents. These school meetings can cover anything from small matters to the appointment or dismissal of staff and the creation or annulment of rules, or to general expenditure and the structure of the school day. At some schools all students are expected to attend these meetings, at others they are voluntary.

Student autonomy
Pedagogical devices that are put into practice in various democratic schools to guarantee and develop students' autonomy in their learning process include:

 * Project-Based Learning: Students learn through an investigation process structured around complex and authentic issues. Students choose the theme, question or objective to direct and create their project until they reach a final output. In this way, they are the protagonists of their own learning process. Projects can be carried out individually or in groups.
 * Committees: Teams formed to help in the organization of the school space, in the completion of routine tasks for the health and maintenance of the community. These groups are usually formed during school meetings, according to the needs of the school community.
 * Study group: Are formed from themes proposed by students and/or educators. They may be questions or topics that they would like to explore. Each group usually has a facilitator or tutor who guides the study process.
 * Self-assessment: The student evaluates their own learning process, based on criteria defined together with the educator/tutor.
 * Mentoring: Each student has a mentor, who can work with each student individually or in groups. The mentoring sessions deal with the goals and aspirations of the student and issues that not only focus on academic performance, but also on the relationship with their peers, educators and family.
 * Study guide: A document planned by the educator to be used by the student inside or outside the school space. It aims to assist students in autonomous study, thus favoring the understanding of concepts, resolution of situations, readings, theoretical and practical deepening, among other aspects of the teaching process and learning.
 * Unschooling/Self-directed Education: Unschooling is an informal learning that advocates learner-chosen activities as a primary means for learning. Unschoolers learn through their natural life experiences including play, household responsibilities, personal interests and curiosity, internships and work experience, travel, books, elective classes, family, mentors, and social interaction. Self-directed education is education that derives from the self-chosen activities and life experiences of the learner, whether or not those activities were chosen deliberately for the purpose of education.

Other
Finance: Some democratic learning environments are parent-funded, some charity-funded. Schools may have a sliding scale based on family income. Publicly funded democratic schools exist in Canada

Age range: Age mixing is a deliberate policy in some democratic schools. It may include very young children, even babies. Some democratic schools only enroll older students.

Location: Democratic education is not limited to any particular setting. Settings for democratic learning communities include in an office building, on city streets, and in a rural area.

Theory
While types of democratic education are as numerous as types of democracy, a general definition of democratic education is "an education that democratizes learning itself." The goals of democratic education vary according to the participants, the location, and access to resources.

There is no unified body of literature, spanning multiple disciplines, on democratic education. However, there are theories of democratic education from the following perspectives:

Cognitive theory
During the practice theory movement, there was renewed interest in child development. Jean Piaget's theory of universal steps in comprehension and general patterns in the acquisition of knowledge was challenged by experiences at democratic schools. "No two kids ever take the same path. Few are remotely similar. Each child is so unique, so exceptional."

Jean Lave was one of the first and most prominent social anthropologists to discuss cognition within the context of cultural settings presenting a firm argument against the functionalist psychology that many educationalists refer to implicitly. For Lave, learning is a process undergone by an actor within a specific context. The skills or knowledge learned in one process are not generalizable nor reliably transferred to other areas of human action. Her primary focus was on mathematics in context and mathematics education.

The broader implications reached by Lave and others who specialize in situated learning are that beyond the argument that certain knowledge is necessary to be a member of society (a Durkheimian argument), knowledge learned in the context of a school is not reliably transferable to other contexts of practice.

John Locke argues that children are capable of reasoning at a young age: "It will perhaps be wonder'd, that I mention reasoning with children; and yet I cannot but think that the true way of dealing with them. They understand it as early as they do language; and, if I misobserve not, they love to be treated as rational creatures, sooner than is imagin'd," Rousseau disagreed: "Use force with children and reasoning with men."

Humans are innately curious, and democratic education supports the belief that the drive to learn is sufficiently strong to motivate children to become effective adults.

Criticism based on cognitive theory
The human brain is not fully developed until adulthood (around the age of 25). A disadvantage of teenagers being responsible for their own education is that "young brains have both fast-growing synapses and sections that remain unconnected. This leaves teens easily influenced by their environment and more prone to impulsive behavior".

Ethics
Democracy can be valued on ethical grounds.

Cultural theory
Democratic education is consistent with the cultural theory that "learning in school must be continuous with life outside of school" and that children should become active participants in the control and organization of their community.

Research on hunter-gatherer societies indicates that free play and exploration were effective transmitters of the societies' culture to children.

According to George Dennison, democratic environments are social regulators: Our desire to cultivate friendships, engender respect, and maintain what George Dennison terms 'natural authority' encourages us to act in socially acceptable ways (i.e. culturally informed practices of fairness, honesty, congeniality, etc.).

Criticism based on cultural theory
Children are influenced by many curricula beyond the school curriculum: TV curricula, advertisers' curricula, curricula of religious communities, Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts, encyclopedias etc. and therefore "one of the most significant tasks any school can undertake is to try to develop in youngsters an awareness of these other curricula and an ability to criticize them…it is utter nonsense to think that by turning children loose in an unplanned and unstructured environment they can be freed in any significant way. Rather, they are thereby abandoned to the blind forces of the hucksters, whose primary concern is neither the children, nor the truth, nor the decent future of ... society."

Émile Durkheim argues that the transition from primitive to modern societies occurred in part as elders made a conscious decision to transmit what were deemed the most essential elements of their culture to the following generations. He concludes that modern societies are so complex—much more complex than primitive hunter-gatherer societies—and the roles that individuals must fill in society are so varied, that formal mass-education is necessary to instill social solidarity and what he terms 'secular morality'.

Political theory
There are a variety of political components to democratic education. One author identifies those elements as inclusivity and rights, equal participation in decision-making, and equal encouragement for success. The Institute for Democratic Education's principles of democratic education identifies several political principles,
 * The interaction between democratic philosophy and education,
 * Pluralistic education,
 * School administration by means of democratic procedures,
 * Education based on respect for human rights,
 * Dialogic evaluation,
 * Dialogic relationships, and
 * Critical social thinking.

Effect on quality of education
The type of political socialization that takes place in democratic schools is strongly related to deliberative democracy theory. Claus Offe and Ulrich Preuss, two theorists of the political culture of deliberative democracies argue that in its cultural production deliberative democracy requires "an open-ended and continuous learning process in which the roles of both 'teacher' and 'curriculum' are missing. In other words, what is to be learned is a matter that we must settle in the process of learning itself."

The political culture of a deliberative democracy and its institutions, they argue, would facilitate more "dialogical forms of making one's voice heard" which would "be achieved within a framework of liberty, within which paternalism is replaced by autonomously adopted self-paternalism, and technocratic elitism by the competent and self-conscious judgment of citizens."

As a curricular, administrative and social operation within schools, democratic education is essentially concerned with equipping people to make "real choices about fundamental aspects of their lives" and happens within and for democracy. It can be "a process where teachers and students work collaboratively to reconstruct curriculum to include everyone." In at least one conception, democratic education teaches students "to participate in consciously reproducing their society, and conscious social reproduction." This role necessitates democratic education happening in a variety of settings and being taught by a variety of people, including "parents, teachers, public officials, and ordinary citizens." Because of this "democratic education begins not only with children who are to be taught but also with citizens who are to be their teachers."

Preparation for life in a democracy
The "strongest, political rationale" for democratic education is that it teaches "the virtues of democratic deliberation for the sake of future citizenship." This type of education is often alluded to in the deliberative democracy literature as fulfilling the necessary and fundamental social and institutional changes necessary to develop a democracy that involves intensive participation in group decision making, negotiation, and social life of consequence.

Civic education
The concept of the hidden curriculum includes the belief that anything taught in an authoritarian setting is implicitly teaching authoritarianism. Thus civic education, if taught in a compulsory setting, undermines its own lessons in democracy. A common belief in democratic schools is that democracy must be experienced to be learned. This argument conforms to the cognition-in-context research by Lave.

Another common belief, which supports the practice of compulsory classes in civic education, is that passing on democratic values requires an imposed structure.

Arguments about how to transmit democracy, and how much and how early to treat children democratically, are made in various literatures concerning student voice, youth participation and other elements of youth empowerment.

Standard progressive visions of education as collaboration tend to downplay the workings of power in society. If learners are to "develop a democracy," some scholars have argued, they must be provided the tools for transforming the non-democratic aspects of a society. Democracy in this sense involves not just "participation in decision making," a vision ascribed especially to Dewey, but the ability to confront power with solidarity.

Economic theory
Core features of democratic education align with the emerging consensus on 21st century business and management priorities. Such features include increased collaboration, decentralized organization, and radical creativity.

Curriculum theory
While democratic schools don't have an official curriculum, what each student actually does might be considered their own curriculum. Dewey was an early advocate of inquiry education, in which student questions and interests shaped curriculum, a sharp contrast to the "factory model" that began to predominate education during the 20th century as standardization became a guiding principle of many educational practices. Although there was a resurgence of inquiry education in the 1980s and 1990s the standards movement of the 21st century and the attendant school reform movement have squashed most attempts at authentic inquiry-oriented democratic education practices. The standards movement has reified standardized tests in literacy and writing, neglecting science inquiry, the arts, and critical literacy.

Democratic schools may not consider only reading, writing and arithmetic to be the real basics for being a successful adult. A.S. Neill said "To hell with arithmetic." Nonetheless, there is a common belief that people will eventually learn "the basics" when they develop internal motivation. Furthermore, an educator implementing inquiry projects will look at the "next steps" in a student's learning and incorporate basic subject matter as needed. This is easier to accomplish in elementary school settings than in secondary school settings, as elementary teachers typically teach all subjects and have large blocks of time that allow for in-depth projects that integrate curriculum from different knowledge domains.

Allen Koshewa conducted research that highlighted the tensions between democratic education and the role of teacher control, showing that children in a fifth grade classroom tried to usurp democratic practices by using undue influence to sway others, much as representative democracies often fail to focus on the common good or protect minority interests. He found that class meetings, service education, saturation in the arts, and an emphasis on interpersonal caring helped overcome some of these challenges. Despite the challenges of inquiry education, classrooms that allow students to make choices about curriculum propel students to not only learn about democracy but also to experience it.

Play
A striking feature of democratic schools is the ubiquity of play. Students of all ages—but especially the younger ones—often spend most of their time either in free play, or playing games (electronic or otherwise). All attempts to limit, control or direct play must be democratically approved before being implemented. Play is seen as activity every bit as worthy as academic pursuits, often even more valuable. Play is considered essential for learning, particularly in fostering creativity.

Reading, writing and arithmetic
Interest in learning to read happens at a wide variety of ages. Progressive educators emphasise students' choice in reading selections, as well as topics for writing. In addition, Stephen Krashen and other proponents of democratic education emphasise the role of libraries in promoting democratic education. Others, such as children's author Judy Blume, have spoken out against censorship as antagonistic to democratic education, while the school reform movement, which gained traction under the federal initiative 'No Child Left Behind' and later under 'Race to the Top' and the Common Core Standards movement, emphasise strict control over curriculum.

Research into democratic education

 * A study of 12 schools in the United Kingdom by a former school inspector indicates that democratic schooling produces greater motivation to learn and self-esteem among students.
 * A study done in Israel indicates that the decline in interest in science that occurs regularly in conventional schools did not occur in democratic schools.
 * Three studies done on students of Sudbury schools in the United States of America indicate that students "have been highly successful in their higher education (for those who chose that route) and careers. They have gone on to all walks of life that are valued in our society and report that they feel advantaged because of the sense of personal responsibility, self-control, continued interest in learning, and democratic values they acquired at Sudbury Valley."
 * Sands School in the United Kingdom was inspected in 2013 by Ofsted was found to be 'Good' overall with a number of 'Outstanding' features. No area of the provision was found to be less than "good' and all of the Statutory regulations (the school "Standards") were met in full. This is the same outcome as the previous inspection in 2010. Ofsted observed that taking part in decision-making process developed "exceptional qualities of thoughtfulness and the ability to offer balanced arguments". Good pupil achievements were found to be a "consequence of the democratic structures". Personal development was deemed to be "outstanding" because of the exceptional impact of the democratic principles. The inspector was particularly impressed with pupils' behaviour, noting that "lessons took place in an atmosphere of mutual respect" and that "visitors were greeted with interest and impeccable manners".

Education in a democratic society
As English aristocracy was giving way to democracy, Matthew Arnold investigated popular education in France and other countries to determine what form of education suited a democratic age. Arnold wrote that "the spirit of democracy" is part of "human nature itself", which engages in "the effort to affirm one's own essence...to develop one's own existence fully and freely."

During the industrial age, John Dewey argued that children should not all be given the same pre-determined curriculum. In Democracy and Education he develops a philosophy of education based on democracy. He argues that while children should be active participants in the creation of their education, and while children must experience democracy to learn democracy, they need adult guidance to develop into responsible adults.

Amy Gutmann argues in Democratic Education that in a democratic society, there is a role for everyone in the education of children. These roles are best agreed upon through deliberative democracy.

The journal Democracy and Education investigates "the conceptual foundations, social policies, institutional structures, and teaching/learning practices associated with democratic education." By "democratic education" they mean "educating youth...for active participation in a democratic society."

Yaacov Hecht claims that the Democratic Education, being an education that prepares for life in a democratic culture, it is the missing piece in the intricate puzzle which is the democratic state.

Training programs
Israel's Institute for Democratic Education and Kibbutzim College in Tel Aviv collaborate to offer a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree with a Specialization Certificate in Democratic Education. Student teaching placements are in both regular schools and democratic schools.

United Nations
United Nations agreements both support and place restrictions on education options, including democratic education:

Article 26(3) of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children." While this in itself may allow parents the right to choose democratic education, Articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child place requirements on educational programs: Primary education is compulsory, all aspects of each student must be developed to their full potential, and education must include the development of respect for things such as national values and the natural environment, in a spirit of friendship among all peoples.

Furthermore, while Article 12(1) of the Convention mandates that children be able to have input on all matters that affect them, their input will have limited weight, "due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child."

Summerhill
In 1999, Summerhill received a 'notice of complaint' over its policy of non-compulsory lessons, a procedure which would usually have led to closure; Summerhill contested the notice and went before a special educational tribunal. Summerhill was represented by a noted human rights lawyer, Geoffrey Robertson QC. The government's case soon collapsed, and a settlement was offered. This offer was discussed and agreed at a formal school meeting which had been hastily convened in the courtroom from a quorum of pupils and teachers who were present in court. The settlement guaranteed that future inspections of Summerhill would be consistent with Summerhill's educational philosophy.

Theorists

 * Joseph Agassi – Israeli philosopher, proponent of democracy
 * Michael Apple – social scientist, educational theorist
 * Matthew Arnold – English poet, cultural critic, wrote about education in an age of democracy
 * Sreyashi Jhumki Basu – American researcher, science educator, author of Democratic Science Teaching
 * Pierre Bourdieu – French anthropologist, social theorist
 * George Dennison – American writer, author
 * John Dewey – American social scientist, progressive education theorist
 * Émile Durkheim – French sociologist, functionalist education theorist
 * Michel Foucault – French postmodern philosopher
 * Peter Gray – American psychologist, studied relationship between education and play
 * Daniel Greenberg – "principal philosopher" among the founders of the Sudbury Valley School
 * Amy Gutmann – American political scientist, diplomat, president of the University of Pennsylvania
 * Yaacov Hecht – Israeli educator, founder of the Democratic School of Hadera, and founder of IDEC
 * John Holt – American critic of conventional education, proponent of un-schooling
 * Ivan Illich – Austrian philosopher, priest, author of Deschooling Society
 * Lawrence Kohlberg – American professor, psychologist, wrote about moral and democratic education
 * Homer Lane – American-English educator, founder of the Ford Republic (1907–12) and the Little Commonwealth (1913–17)
 * Deborah Meier – founder of democratic schools in New York and Boston, writer, leader of the small schools movement
 * A. S. Neill – Scottish educator and author, founder of the Summerhill School
 * Claus Offe – German political sociologist, theorist of deliberative democratic culture
 * Karl Popper – Austrian-British philosopher of science
 * Bertrand Russell – British philosopher, author of On Education and founder of Beacon House School

title: Democratic education


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MacLehose Trail

The MacLehose Trail is a 100-kilometre hiking trail that crosses much of the New Territories, Hong Kong, starting from Pak Tam Chung, Sai Kung District in the east to Tuen Mun Town, Tuen Mun District in the west. It is the longest trail in Hong Kong and the path is marked by distance posts at 500-metre intervals. The trail is named after Murray MacLehose, Baron MacLehose of Beoch, the longest-serving governor of Hong Kong, who established the Country Parks and was himself an enthusiastic hiker. The trail passes through a variety of natural scenery including beaches and mountains.

The MacLehose Trail starts in Pak Tam Chung, then weaves its way anticlockwise around the Sai Kung peninsula. It then hugs the Sai Kung district border with Sha Tin, until it meets the mountains separating Kowloon and the New Territories. The trail proceeds along the mountain range, culminating in an ascent up to the highest point in Hong Kong, Tai Mo Shan. The trail then winds its way to Tuen Mun in the western end of the New Territories, following a catchwater for much of its last section.

History
In the 1970s, the Hong Kong Government, spearheaded by Sir Murray MacLehose, moved to protect Hong Kong's countryside and open it up for recreation. The first step towards the creation of country parks was the approval of a $33 million, five-year plan for "recreational development" in 1972, which included the provisioning of equipment such as picnic tables, litter bins, and barbeque pits. The Director of Agriculture and Fisheries, E. H. "Ted" Nichols, announced in July 1975 that the Government planned on passing legislation to give country parks statutory status. As part of the plan, "Nature Trails" were proposed to "maximize understanding and consequent enjoyment of the countryside". The Country Parks Ordinance was enacted and came into effect in 1976, and the Country Parks Board was formed shortly thereafter. The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries under Nichols "joined up village paths and grass cutters' tracks" to form a trail extending from Mirs Bay to Castle Peak, and Nichols named the trail after MacLehose and his wife, both avid ramblers. After nine months' work, the MacLehose Trail was officially opened on 26 October 1979 by MacLehose and Nichols. The trail opened with 12 campsites along its route, equipped with simple toilet facilities and barbeque pits.

Only days after the opening, the trail was marred by fires that broke out due to the reckless use of joss sticks by grave-sweepers on Chung Yeung Festival. Parts of the Tai Lam Country Park were badly burnt and said to take at least five years to regrow.

The MacLehose Trail was instantly popular with long-distance hikers; multiple attempts were made to complete the 100-kilometer trail in under a day. The first reported sub-24-hour record was achieved on 13 November 1979 by two British Army workmates, who completed the trail in 22 hours 25 minutes. The record was beaten not a month later by eleven locals; the fastest runner having traversed the trail in 18 hours 28 minutes. Numerous attempts have been made since then; the record of 10 hours, 38 minutes, 8 seconds was set by Wong Ho-Chung, one of Hong Kong's best ultramarathon runners, on 4 December 2020.

Isolated incidents of robbery happen infrequently on quieter parts of the trail. Hikers have been advised not to attempt the trail on their own, especially at night. On 23 November 1980, a group of 24 hikers were robbed when three of them were held at knifepoint. In 2018, a mainland Chinese man was sentenced to seven years' imprisonment for serial robbery on hiking paths, including the MacLehose Trail at Ma On Shan. Emergency phones maintained by PCCW are dotted along the trail, and mobile network coverage is good virtually throughout.

The MacLehose Trail celebrated its 40th anniversary on 26 October 2019, with the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD) holding celebratory events in Shing Mun Country Park, through which Sections 6 and 7 run. Events included treetop ropes courses, a hiking challenge up Needle Hill, guided war relic tours, and children's free play activities. Chan Yat-fong, veteran hiking organiser and trailblazer, and Stephen Chu, TV personality and avid hiker, both spoke at a talk organised by the AFCD for the occasion.

Route description
The MacLehose Trail is marked by two hundred numbered distance posts at 500-metre intervals, ranging from M001 to M200. Fingerposts and stone pillars mark the trail at junctions with other major hiking routes. In addition to their respective post numbers, distance posts indicate their trail section, grid reference number, and the AFCD website, all information which can assist hikers in communicating their location to relevant authorities in an emergency. The most prominent feature is arguably the distinctive logo for the MacLehose Trail: the silhouette of a young backpacker with one leg on a rock, hands resting on their knee, facing towards the left. The logo was designed by Tong King-sum, a famous local sculptor who once worked as a civil servant in the AFCD. Lord MacLehose commented that the logo "immortalise[d him] as the perpetrator of intense fatigue in exhausted bodies under heavy loads on semi-perpendicular slopes", but others have described it as "aesthetically beautiful". Early stone markers were individually carved by workers, resulting in slightly varied designs of the silhouette.

The MacLehose Trail is divided into ten sections of varying lengths and difficulties, as shown in the table below:

Easy Moderate Demanding Difficult Very Difficult

Sai Kung
Section 1 starts at the junction between Tai Mong Tsai Road and Pak Tam Road, around 500m due northeast from the Pak Tam Chung carpark, bus terminus, and visitor centre. The trail ascends along Tai Mong Tsai Road and continues along Sai Kung Man Yee Road, on the south side of the High Island Reservoir. About 4km from the start, the trail crosses the western dam of the reservoir, providing an expansive view over Kau Sai Chau, Chong Hing Water Sports Centre and Yuet Ming Pavilion. The pavilion was built on what was the High Island Detention Centre, which processed Vietnamese boat people from 1989 to 1998. Continuing onto High Island itself, minor trails branch off towards coastal villages, serving as their only land-based connection to the rest of Sai Kung. One such village is Pak Lap, a Hakka village with more than 300 years of history and home to a small, idyllic campsite. Another village, Tung A, houses one of the oldest surviving Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong. Other villages on the northern shore of High Island were flooded during the construction of the reservoir, displacing four hundred Hakka villagers. The trail leaves High Island onto the East Dam, where visitors are able to view hexagonal columnar jointing of volcanic tuff, an integral part of the UNESCO Global Geopark. Other attractions in the vicinity include the dolosse wall lining the East Dam, a wooden boardwalk overlooking a sea cave, and a sea stack of hexagonal columns at Po Pin Chau. A blue monument in the shape of a dolos stands at the southern end of the dam, commemorating those who died in the construction of the High Island Reservoir. Section 1 ends 800m away from the East Dam near Long Ke, 90m above sea level.

Section 2 starts with a short section along the distinctive Long Ke coastline, which is formed by jagged columns of rhyolite. The trail then takes a steep ascent up Sai Wan Shan (Sai Kung), an exposed route without any shade — the Government Flying Service on one day in September 1999 took off seven times to rescue 17 heatstroke victims from this area. However, at the peak, hikers are rewarded with a clear view over the Sai Kung coastline and of Sharp Peak to the north. Sharp Peak, true to its name, is one of the Three Sharp Peaks of Hong Kong, known for its difficulty from steepness and remoteness. The trail gradually snakes down to a crossroads at Chui Tung Au. A clear, concreted-over path here leads to Sai Kung Sai Wan Road, where private minibus services are available. Veering right at Chui Tung Au, the main trail reaches sea level at Sai Wan Beach, a popular campsite with toilet facilities and small stores. Visitors are able to enjoy panoramic views over Sai Wan and the two outcropping islands of Tai Chau and Tsim Chau; campers in particular have unobstructed visibility of the sunrise over the South China Sea. Leaving Sai Wan Beach, the trail weaves along the coastline of Tai Long Wan until it reaches Ham Tin, a small fishing village. The trail climbs a small hill to reach Tai Long Au and crosses the Sai Kung/Tai Po administrative border, before descending westwards to sea level at Chek Keng, where kai-to services to Wong Shek and Wan Tsai are available. This is followed by a gradual ascent towards Pak Tam Au, where Section 2 ends. Public transport, toilet facilities, and a water refilling station are available here.

Section 3 leaves Pak Tam Road to enter the Sai Kung West Country Park. Hikers are immediately faced with a steep ascent up Ngau Yee Shek Shan, 425m above sea level. Section 3 is often said to be one of the toughest parts of the MacLehose Trail, due to its "undulating mountains" and "steep gradients" — however, hikers are rewarded with an unobstructed view over Tolo Harbour, Tai Po, and Ma On Shan throughout the first half of the Section. The trail continues westwards along the side of Ngam Tau Shan, descending gently towards Cheung Sheung plateau. This area once housed multiple villages in the 1960s, but many villagers have moved away since the industrialisation of Hong Kong during the 1970s. The area is now a small campsite, with a small store open on holidays, partially utilising the former village school's recreational area. The area was far-flung and hard to access, and was consequently one of the last rural settlements in Hong Kong. Wildlife like South China tigers, muntjacs, and wild boars were spotted, but soon declined in numbers due to deforestation by local Hakka villagers. Smaller animals such as pangolins and porcupines retreated into the remaining forests. From the campsite, the Cheung Sheung Country Trail provides an escape route via Jacob's Ladder to Yung Shue O. The MacLehose Trail continues southwards through the uplands of the Sai Kung peninsula, passing Wa Mei Shan and Lui Ta Shek. The trail then dips briefly into a small valley, before steeply ascending Kai Kung Shan. The view from the peak provides a 360-degree panorama over Three Fathoms Cove, Yim Tin Tsai, and other mountains in the Sai Kung West Country Park. Section 3 finishes by winding its way down to Kei Ling Ha and Sai Sha Road, the main thoroughfare connecting Ma On Shan and Sai Kung. There are toilets, water refilling stations, and multiple barbeque areas near the endpoint.

Section 4 traverses the Ma On Shan massif, connecting Ma On Shan Country Park with the mountains of Kowloon. The Section starts with a flight of concrete steps up to join the Kei Ling Ha Forest Track. 1.5 kilometres later, the trail merges with Chuk Yeung Road, a small road serving the now-abandoned village of Wong Chuk Yeung. The trail branches off onto a dirt path at distance post M073, providing views of Ma On Shan and Pyramid Hill. This is shortly followed by a sharp ascent up Ma On Shan itself — a section with steep drops either side of the path. The trail branches off to the south, around half a kilometre away from the summit. Skirting past Pyramid Hill, the path opens up onto the Ngong Ping plateau, offering expansive views over Sai Kung Town and Port Shelter. In addition to being a hotspot for paragliding, there is an official campsite on the plateau. The Ma On Shan Country Trail runs parallel with the MacLehose Trail along the plateau, and provides exit routes towards Ma On Shan Town and Sai Kung Town. Continuing along Section 4, the trail passes through woodlands before reaching Mau Ping, a resting area at the crossroads of various hiking routes. From here, the MacLehose Trail roughly forms the administrative boundary between Sha Tin and Sai Kung, proceeding southwards towards Buffalo Pass while commanding a view over Hebe Haven and the Hong Kong Marina. The trail then bypasses the twin peaks of Buffalo Hill and West Buffalo Hill, past which the mountains of Kowloon, especially Tate's Cairn, come into view. Section 4 concludes with a short climb towards Gilwell Campsite, a major campsite managed by the Scout Association of Hong Kong. The Section ends where it meets an access road, just outside the campsite grounds.

Central New Territories
Section 5 is the closest section to urban Kowloon, running westwards along the mountains separating New Kowloon and the New Territories. The mountains formed a natural physical barrier, unbroken until the original Beacon Hill Tunnel was built for the Kowloon-Canton Railway in 1910. Section 5 starts by briefly following the Gilwell Camp access road northbound, then sharply swerves left to lead onto a mountain trail, skirting Tate's Cairn. The path then joins Fei Ngo Shan Road near Jat's Incline Viewpoint, which provides panoramic views over urban Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, Victoria Harbour, Lei Yue Mun, and the old Kai Tak Airport. The trail from here runs along Shatin Pass Road, sharing the same route as Section 4 of the Wilson Trail until they reach Lion's Pavilion at Shatin Pass. A store at this crossroads act as an important refreshment point for hikers, but has in 2017 been prohibited by the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department from serving hot food, despite having operated since 1960. The MacLehose Trail then enters the Lion Rock Country Park and ascends Unicorn Ridge, passing just south of the summit. The trail continues westwards, reaching the Reunification Pavilion after bypassing the iconic Lion Rock along its northern slopes. From here, paved pathways down to Wang Tau Hom provide easy access from urban Kowloon. The last uphill section consists of a climb up Beacon Hill, on top of which a radar station for the Civil Aviation Department stands. Although the radar station is closed to visitors, its surroundings command an expansive view over Sha Tin and much of Kowloon. After descending from Beacon Hill, Section 5 ends with a flat section through Eagle's Nest, merging with the Eagle's Nest Nature Trail. The endpoint of Section 5 is on Piper's Hill Road, near the junction with Tai Po Road.

Section 6 is the shortest stage of the MacLehose Trail and runs chiefly through Kam Shan Country Park. The trail first crosses Tai Po Road on a footbridge and turns onto Golden Hill Road, an access road for the Kowloon Reservoirs, where groups of rhesus macaques can be seen. These monkeys were first introduced in Hong Kong to improve water safety by having them eat the narrow-flowered poison nut and umbel-flowered poison nut, native plants toxic to humans. Various structures of the Kowloon Reservoir are declared monuments, most of which date back to 1901. The MacLehose Trail continues northwards onto Smuggler's Ridge — an area full of historic relics and monuments from the Battle of Hong Kong, the most prominent of which is the remnants of the Gin Drinkers' Line. The tunnels of the Shing Mun Redoubt, an integral part of the Gin Drinkers' Line, still stand in good condition, bearing the names of major London thoroughfares such as Shaftesbury Avenue and Regent Street. The view from the Redoubt and the main hiking trail overlooks Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung — both part of Tsuen Wan New Town, one of the older new towns developed in the early 1970s. Tai Mo Shan, the highest peak in Hong Kong, is also visible from this part of the trail. Section 6 ends by descending gently to Shing Mun Road on the edge of the Shing Mun Reservoir, where there are toilet facilities, a water refilling station, and a barbeque area. Hikers can leave the MacLehose Trail by turning left at Shing Mun Road and walking approximately 2 km to Lei Muk Shue, where public transport is available.

Section 7 begins by following Shing Mun Road in the opposite direction, crossing the main dam of the Reservoir. The Reservoir itself was completed in 1937, many buildings of which is now of Grade I protected status. The construction of the dam necessitated the relocation of 855 villagers from eight Hakka villages, but provided Hong Kong with 13 million cubic metres of water storage capacity. The hiking trail braches off into a dirt path shortly after crossing the dam, marking the start of a steep ascent up Needle Hill, along the border between Tsuen Wan District and Sha Tin District. This is "one of the most notorious climbs on the whole 100km route", as scaling Needle Hill requires hikers to climb more than 1000 steps in less than 1.7 km, all with little to no shade. However, the view on the summit is expansive, despite Needle Hill standing only 532 m above sea level — to the east are panoramic views of Sha Tin New Town. In the opposite direction, the Shing Mun Reservoir, Tsuen Wan, and Kwai Chung are clearly visible. The trail continues northwards on a descent equally as steep as the preceding ascent, and joins the paved Shing Mun Forest Track near distance post M130. The route follows the track up to just before the summit of Grassy Hill, where views stretch as far as Ma On Shan on a clear day. Branching off into the forest, the trail descends westward towards Lead Mine Pass, where Section 7 ends — there is an official campsite close by, complete with barbeque pits and flushing toilets.

Western New Territories
Section 8 starts with a 600-step climb up Sze Fong Shan, the fourth-tallest peak in Hong Kong. The trail flattens out near the summit of Sze Fong Shan — here, the mountain path is littered with boulders, but provides a clear view of Tai Mo Shan ahead. Eventually, the trail opens into the paved Tai Mo Shan Forest Track, winding its way up to the summit of Tai Mo Shan. The highest point on Tai Mo Shan is closed to visitors, as it houses a Hong Kong Observatory weather station and a People's Liberation Army radar station — however, hikers can still enjoy sweeping views over "virtually every part of Hong Kong", including the Tsing Ma Bridge. Tai Mo Shan is the coldest place in Hong Kong, attracting visitors wanting to catch a glimpse of frost during cold spells. Tai Mo Shan also receives more than 30% more rainfall than urban Hong Kong, and acts as the source for both the Lam Tsuen and Shing Mun rivers. The MacLehose Trail follows the winding Tai Mo Shan Road down the opposite side of the mountain. This road segment consists of numerous hairpin bends, which attracts illegal street racing during the night. Until October 2009, the trail ran along the full length of the road to the junction with Route Twisk, but now diverges mid-way onto a dirt path in a bid to segregate vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Section 8 ends on Route Twisk near the Rotary Club and the Tai Mo Shan Country Park Visitor Centre. The Visitor Centre hosts the only kiosk in the area — its proprietor Kong Fo Lin, who had been nominated twice for a lifetime award at the Gone Running Hong Kong Trail Running Awards, acts as "a mother-like figure to the area's many frequent hikers and cyclists". Nearby, toilet facilities, a small campsite, and barbeque areas are available for public use.

Section 9 starts on the opposite side of Route Twisk and follows a paved concrete road westwards until it meets Section 10 at Tin Fu Tsai. The trail runs through Tai Lam Country Park, along the mountain ridge separating Tsuen Wan and Yuen Long. Shortly past the starting point is a viewing platform, overlooking Tsuen Wan and Stonecutters Bridge. Further along the trail, the Ho Pui Irrigation Reservoir can be seen towards the north. Situated in a deep valley, Ho Pui Reservoir serves as an important source of water for agriculture in the northwestern New Territories, and was voted one of the top ten attractions of Hong Kong. At the foot of the mountains are the rural communities of Shek Kong, Kam Tin, and Pat Heung, the idyllic scenery of which hikers can enjoy from the MacLehose Trail. Along the trail, flora such as skullcaps, mock strawberries, and Dichrocephala integrifolia can be found. The trail eventually descends from the mountain ridge and meanders through the woodland, before terminating at Tin Fu Tsai, two kilometres away from Tai Lam Chung Reservoir. Tin Fu Tsai Village was founded by the Choi clan 300 years ago, housing several hundred villagers at its peak — it was considered an influential village in the region. Now, few villagers remain, but a medium-sized campsite equipped with barbeque pits and rudimentary toilet facilities is situated nearby.

Section 10 is the longest section of the MacLehose Trail. Continuing off Section 9, the trail follows the Tai Lam Forest Track towards Kat Hing Bridge, a historically important bridge connecting Yuen Long and Tsuen Wan before the completion of Castle Peak Road. The MacLehose Trail originally diverged from the concrete road here to follow the northern shore of the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir, but was permanently diverted in October 2009 — the trail now continues along the road, passing through the sweet gum woods of Tai Tong — a seasonally popular destination known for its red autumn leaves. The concrete road eventually gives way to an undulating mountain path, along which a Kwan Tai Temple known for its statue of a red horse is situated. Further along the trail is a crossroads, where a prominent set of stairs leads towards the Reservoir Islands Viewpoint. The viewpoint provides expansive views over the islands of the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir, which gave the reservoir its nickname of "Thousand Island Lake". The main trail then re-joins a concrete road and the old lakeside path near distance post M186. After reaching a car barrier, the trail follows a flat catchwater westwards along the contours of the mountain. This portion stretches for more than six kilometres, with average views over So Kwun Wat and the Gold Coast. Towards the end of the Section, Tuen Mun Town comes into view. The endpoint of the full MacLehose Trail is under a Light Rail overpass near Pui To stop, at the end of a descent from the catchwater — an example of the contrasts between Hong Kong's countryside and urban areas.

Trailwalker
The Oxfam Trailwalker is a major annual fundraising event held every November that largely follows the MacLehose Trail. The Trailwalker started in 1982 as a military exercise for the Gurkhas, then opened to the public four years later. Participants are required to complete the full 100 kilometres within 48 hours, passing through nine checkpoints along the way. The route follows the MacLehose Trail from Pak Tam Chung to Tai Mo Shan, then descends to Route Twisk following the old pre-2009 route along Tai Mo Shan Road. The Trailwalker route then rejoins the MacLehose Trail but eventually diverges to follow the northern shore of the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir. At the end of the reservoir, the route takes a sharp turn northwards towards Yuen Long to finally end at the Po Leung Kuk Jockey Club Tai Tong Holiday Camp. the fastest record for the Trailwalker route is 10 hours and 58 minutes, set in 2013. Since 1986, the event has raised over HK$600m to support poverty alleviation and emergency relief projects across the world.

A sporting event derived from the Trailwalker is the Rebel Walker, which follows the Trailwalker route in reverse. First held in 2018, it aimed to provide a "different hiking experience" on the MacLehose Trail. There is an option to complete a half course, starting in Tsz Wan Shan and ending in Pak Tam Chung.

HK100
The Vibram Hong Kong 100 Ultra Trail Race, or HK100 in short, runs from Pak Tam Chung to Tai Mo Shan, following the MacLehose Trail up to Route Twisk for most of its course. The main detour is its deviation from Section 3 of the MacLehose Trail to reach Hoi Ha in the north of the Sai Kung peninsula. The event was first held in 2011 and has since been held annually. HK$862,557 was raised through the 2020 edition of the race, benefitting charities such as the Hong Kong Breast Cancer Foundation and Food Angel.

title: MacLehose Trail


text:
California State Route 117

Two (post-1964) highways in the U.S. state of California have been designated Route 117:
 * California State Route 117 (1964-1965), Junipero Serra Boulevard in the San Francisco Bay Area
 * California State Route 117 (1972-1986), Otay Mesa Road near San Diego (now SR 905)

title: California State Route 117


text:
Chronopolis

Chronopolis may refer to:

 * Chronopolis, a 1974 novel by Barrington J. Bayley, also known as The Fall of Chronopolis
 * "Chronopolis" (short story), a 1960 short story by J. G. Ballard, first published in New Worlds, June 1960
 * Chronopolis and Other Stories, a 1971 collection of stories by J. G. Ballard, also published as Chronopolis
 * Chronopolis (film), a 1982 animated feature film by Piotr Kamler
 * Chronopolis (Marvel Comics), a fictional city in the Marvel Comics universe, ruled by Kang the Conqueror
 * Chronopolis, a fictional city in the Chrono Cross universe
 * Chronopolis, a fictional city in the DC Comics universe, home to a version of Chronos
 * Chronopolis, a grid-based digital preservation environment based at the San Diego Supercomputer Center

title: Chronopolis