text:
Talk:Large cent

image
I've added the obverse and reverse of the 1794 large cent to this article. Floaterfluss (talk) (contribs) 15:11, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

How large is large?
The article states that the large cents measure between 27mm and 29mm, but without a ruler at hand, I don't really know how large that is. Is it as large as a quarter? -ErinHowarth (talk) 04:59, 8 April 2008 (UTC)
 * It's large compared to most coins. A quarter is about 24.25mm and a dollar coin is now 26.5mm, so it is larger than either. I suggest read articles about the coins of various currecies that have a table of the coins showing the their diameters, for example Coins of the Australian dollar or Coins of the Canadian dollar. Karl (talk) 09:32, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Split the difference between a Washington quarter and a Kennedy Half. That's pretty darn close.  Bobby  I'm Here, Are You There? 15:43, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

multiple new articles
A group of new articles have been created for individual patterns, eg Liberty Cap cent, but seem to have less information than the main article. Maybe merges are needed - have tagged a couple, not the whole lot. PamD (talk) 11:33, 15 December 2008 (UTC)
 * You are correct. I will merge Liberty Cap cent now. --Mblumber (talk) 05:58, 2 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I edited the Classic Head page. It was incorrect in its information, grammar and spelling. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.50.4.4 (talk) 19:09, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

Specifications of the Large Cent
There are numerous sources to get specifications for this coin. This information would be both useful and important. This data could be compaired to, for example, the Conneticut Copper, or the English Penny. Sources include the Red Book, the Black Book, or the Blue Book. These are three will-known and respectd sources of numismatic data. Any reasonnably well informed coin collector would know these sources. It is recommended that these specifications be included in this artice. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tcassidycurtis (talk • contribs) 17:32, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Why are images of reverse sides missing?
I find it most bizarre that there are no easily obtained unrestricted photos of United States large cents reverses. If the obverse images are shown, then why not simply show the reverse images using the same unrestricted sources as were already used for the article? For such an otherwise highly informative article, it is totally unacceptable to leave out what the reverse sides of these beautiful coins look like! I am disappointed to say the least. Linstrum (talk) 12:08, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

Why not 1815?
The article currently has two explanations for there being no cent coins minted in 1815: the fire, and a copper shortage. Can we sort out which is right, or if and how both contributed? Onanoff (talk) 17:57, 10 May 2015 (UTC)

 * I have the special February 2015 Issue of Coin World that I will use to fix this up. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 18:10, 10 May 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Photos appear in wrong places in mobile app
The Classic head photo appears in the Draped Bust section. It looks much better on a desktop where it shows to the side of the two sections. GeneCallahan (talk) 16:13, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Large cent


text:
1976 Democratic National Convention

The 1976 Democratic National Convention met at Madison Square Garden in New York City, from July 12 to July 15, 1976. The assembled United States Democratic Party delegates at the convention nominated former Governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia for president and Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota for vice president. John Glenn and Barbara Jordan gave the keynote addresses. Jordan's keynote address made her the first African-American woman to deliver the keynote address at a Democratic National Convention. The convention was the first in New York City since the 103-ballot 1924 convention.

By the time the convention opened Carter already had more than enough delegates to clinch the nomination, and so the major emphasis at the convention was to create an appearance of party unity, which had been lacking in the 1968 and 1972 Democratic Conventions. Carter easily won the nomination on the first ballot. He then chose Mondale, a liberal and a protégé of Hubert Humphrey, as his running mate.

The Carter–Mondale ticket went on to win the 1976 presidential election on November 2.

The convention is also notable for the fact that congresswoman Lindy Boggs, who presided over it, thus became the first woman to preside over a national political convention.

Platform
The Democrats' 1976 platform called for continued price controls on natural gas, a policy which had caused dwindling domestic natural gas reserves since 1974 and which President Gerald Ford was asking to rescind. The platform stated: "Those now pressing to turn natural-gas price regulation over to OPEC, while arguing the rhetoric of so-called deregulation, must not prevail."

Abortion
Despite an address from anti-abortion activist Erma Clardy Craven, the platform added "it is undesirable to attempt to amend the U.S. Constitution to overturn [ Roe v. Wade]".

Presidential vote tally
The following people had their names placed in nomination.

The tally at the convention was:

Vice Presidential nomination
According to Jimmy Carter, his top choices for vice president were: Walter Mondale, Edmund Muskie, Frank Church, Adlai Stevenson III, John Glenn, and Henry M. Jackson. He selected Mondale.

The vice presidential tally was:

 * Walter Mondale, 2,817 (94.28%)
 * Carl Albert, 36 (1.21%)
 * Barbara Jordan, 25 (0.84%)
 * Ron Dellums, 20 (0.67%)
 * Henry M. Jackson, 16 (0.54%)
 * Gary Benoit, 12 (0.40%)
 * Frank Church, 11 (0.37%)
 * Fritz Efaw, 11 (0.37%)
 * Peter F. Flaherty, 11 (0.37%)
 * George Wallace, 6 (0.20%)
 * Allard K. Lowenstein, 5 (0.17%)
 * Edmund Muskie, 4 (0.13%)
 * Philip Hart, 2 (0.07%)
 * Thomas E. Morgan, 2 (0.07%)
 * Mo Udall, 2 (0.07%)
 * Al Castro, 1 (0.03%)
 * Fred R. Harris, 1 (0.03%)
 * Ernest Hollings, 1 (0.03%)
 * Peter W. Rodino, 1 (0.03%)
 * Josephine E. R. A. Smith, 1 (0.03%)
 * Daniel Schorr, 1 (0.03%)
 * Hunter S. Thompson, 1 (0.03%)
 * Wendell Anderson, 1 (0.03%)

In his acceptance speech, Mondale diverted from his printed text which echoed John F. Kennedy's call to "get the country moving again;" Mondale instead said, "Let's get this government moving again!"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1976 Democratic National Convention


text:
Upper Montclair, New Jersey

Upper Montclair is a census-designated place (CDP), unincorporated community and neighborhood within Montclair in Essex County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population for the CDP was 11,565. The area is served as United States Postal Service ZIP Code 07043. It is often misperceived, even by Montclair residents, to be a separate municipality from Montclair, perhaps aided by this postal designation.

History
The area now known as Upper Montclair was first developed in the early 18th century as a rural community known as Speertown, named for John Speer, an early Dutch settler. The area remained a rural hamlet for much of that century. The modern township of Montclair, including Upper Montclair, was incorporated in 1868 from part of Bloomfield Township.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 2.536 square miles (6.569 km2), including 2.535 square miles (6.567 km2) of land and 0.001 square miles (0.002 km2) of water (0.04%).

Upper Montclair is north of Watchung Avenue, covering 40.2% of Montclair township's area.

Demographics
The 2010 United States census counted 11,565 people, 4,178 households, and 3,146 families in the CDP. The population density was 4561.4 /sqmi. There were 4,310 housing units at an average density of 1699.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup was 83.99% (9,713) White, 6.46% (747) Black or African American, 0.10% (12) Native American, 4.18% (483) Asian, 0.00% (0) Pacific Islander, 1.31% (151) from other races, and 3.97% (459) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.61% (649) of the population.

Of the 4,178 households, 44.2% had children under the age of 18; 64.8% were married couples living together; 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present and 24.7% were non-families. Of all households, 20.3% were made up of individuals and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.23.

29.9% of the population were under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 20.8% from 25 to 44, 33.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.1 years. For every 100 females, the population had 90.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 85.7 males.

Education
Upper Montclair is in the township of Montclair and is served by the Montclair Public Schools. More than a quarter of the district's schools are found in Upper Montclair. These include Bradford Elementary and Northeast Elementary, which are two of seven elementary schools in Montclair, and Mt. Hebron Middle School, renamed Buzz Aldrin Middle School in September 2016 in honor of the astronaut, who grew up in Montclair, which is one of three Montclair middle schools. Part of Montclair State University's campus is in Upper Montclair.

Upper Montclair is also home to several private schools. They include Lacordaire Academy, Lacordaire Academy Elementary Division and St. Cassian School.

Transportation
Upper Montclair is well connected to the rest of New Jersey and New York City on account of its transportation infrastructure. Public transportation options in Upper Montclair are buses and trains, both provided by New Jersey Transit, although commuter bus service to Manhattan was also provided until April 2023 by DeCamp Bus Lines.

Rail
New Jersey Transit's Montclair-Boonton Line runs through the neighborhood of Upper Montclair. In Upper Montclair there are a total of three train stations of the overall Montclair total of seven. This is because the stations in Montclair are very close together, sometimes under a mile apart. New Jersey Transit train stations are Upper Montclair, Mountain Avenue, and Montclair Heights. From 1889 to 1928, Valley Road, a major road, had an electric trolley line.

Bus
The area is also on NJ Transit's bus route 28, which goes from Montclair State University or Willowbrook Mall along Valley Road through Montclair, Glen Ridge and Bloomfield, to Downtown Newark. This bus route goes along Valley road for the great majority of its path in Upper Montclair, in some places on the route of Decamp's Number 66. Also, two DeCamp Bus Lines routes took commuters to the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York until April 2023. Some Number 33 buses went along Grove Street, on the Eastern edge of the neighborhood, while number 66 went along Valley Road, in the West, then the central Park Street.

Road
Upper Montclair has road connections to the rest of Montclair, Cedar Grove, Little Falls, Clifton, and Bloomfield. Just north of the neighborhood's border are U.S. Route 46 and New Jersey Route 3.

Commerce
The commercial zone at the center of Upper Montclair, Upper Montclair Business District is home to several restaurants and shops. Unlike many of Montclair's other commercial zones, it has outlets of several major chain stores. In 2009–2010, several new national and local merchants opened in the area. Montclair Station Restaurant & Bar was opened in the historic Upper Montclair train station. Upper Montclair also has both a park, Anderson Park, and a railway station, Upper Montclair, nearby. There is a post office here.

Parks
Upper Montclair is home to many parks and nature reserves. Within Upper Montclair there are Anderson Park,  Yantacaw Brook Park,  the Bonsal Nature Reserve,  Mountainside Park,  the Presby Memorial Iris Gardens,  and parts of Mills Reservation and Brookdale Park. In addition, Upper Montclair has the Mountainside Public Pool, which is the largest of the three public pools in Montclair.

Upper Montclair also has Immaculate Conception Cemetery and Mount Hebron Cemetery.

Notable people
People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Upper Montclair include:
 * Buzz Aldrin (born 1930), astronaut who was the second man to walk on the Moon.
 * Yael Averbuch (born 1986), soccer player.
 * Raymond A. Brown (1915–2009), attorney whose clients included Black Liberation Army member Assata Shakur, boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter and "Dr. X" physician Mario Jascalevich.
 * Margaret Colin (born 1958), actress.
 * Justin Deas (born 1948), actor.
 * John Langley Howard (1902–1999), muralist, printmaker and illustrator, known for his social realism.
 * Howard Krongard, head of the Office of the Inspector General of the Department of State.
 * Rosemary Rice (1925–2012), actress best known for her role as Katrin on CBS-TV series Mama.
 * Dr. Leo Sternbach (1908–2005), chemist, invented precursor to Valium.
 * Joe Walsh (born 1947), singer, songwriter, composer, multi-instrumentalist and record producer.
 * Ingrid Wells (born 1989), soccer player.

title: Upper Montclair, New Jersey


text:
Talk:Widow's walk

A cupola does not concern a widow's walk
A cupola does not concern a widow's walk
 * ...ok... Skiendog (talk) 19:00, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

widows walk vs widows peak
Am I the only one who has heard of a "widow's walk" being called a "widow's peak"? Like the hair-line? Skiendog (talk) 18:30, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

 * I've heard it, generally by people who abuse the English language in myriad ways :-) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.193.36.91 (talk) 04:52, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I have not heard "Widow's Walk" too often. Generally by northerners who come as snowbirds, and bring their own language with them. Skiendog (talk) 22:31, 16 August 2009 (UTC)

Is this a widow's walk?
I took a picture of this feature in Ottawa which I've been told is a widow's walk, but after doing some googling, I'm not so sure. Is it? --Padraic 15:42, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

I would call this a balcony. A widow's walk is typically the flat section on top of a steep sloped roof and may (or may not) have railings. MLW —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.102.97.218 (talk) 15:48, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * seconded, that is a balcony. not a widow's peak/walk. Skiendog (talk) 18:32, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

To me, a Northerner, this (to the right) is what a widow's walk is, where-as a cupola is more often dome shaped. şṗøʀĸ şṗøʀĸ: τᴀʟĸ 01:50, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

 * And here on the St. Lawrence (Prescott, ON, Canada) we would generally call that a widow's peak. Although, based on the origin of the term, I would argue that it should be spelled "peek" as it is believed to come from the NE United States, specifically the New England region, as a lookout atop the house for wives to watch for their husbands returning as ships entered harbours and docked. 104.200.7.172 (talk) 17:57, 2 June 2023 (UTC)

Merge with Belvedere
Perhaps if this can't be expanded, merge with Belvedere page, and forward-link it or whatever...
 * please remember to sign your comments. I wouldn't argue that a Widows's Walk/Peak is a type of Belvedere, but the term Belvedere is much broader.  A Widow's Walk/Peak is a very specific type of structure.  Skiendog (talk) 18:44, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

Joseph Campbell mentions "widow's walk"
Just a quick note, not sure if this would serve as a reference or not, but Joseph Campbell mentions the "widow's walk" while discussing research for his book "The Hero with a Thousand Faces". —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.81.135.206 (talk) 14:05, 3 July 2009 (UTC)

 * ...Will keep it in mind, thank you. Skiendog (talk) 22:32, 16 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I don't want this mergered with Belvedere (structure) or with the other types of things under the general term of belvedere. şṗøʀĸ şṗøʀĸ:  τᴀʟĸ 01:50, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

What is to "orange the structure?"
In the sentence:

Beyond their use as viewing platforms, they are frequently built around the chimney of the residence, thus creating an easy access route to orange the structure.

What is "orange"? Is that a typo? What is the source of this statement? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.189.127.158 (talk) 04:26, 13 August 2009 (UTC)

 * The word "orange" was stuck in after the rest of the sentence was written. I've removed it.  tk tk  tk  23:26, 15 August 2009 (UTC)

Unclear wording
"The widow's walk is a variation of the Italianate cupola.[2] The Italianate cupola, also known as a "belvedere", was an important ornate finish to this style, although it was often high maintenance and prone to leaks.[3]"

I think one of these "cupola"s - probably the second - is possibly wrong? Don't know much about architecture but it reads very strangely to me as stands. It seems to be saying that a widow's walk is a kind of cupola, and a cupola is also known as a belvedere. If this is true, we don't need to be confused by a second name for cupolas. However, Cupola states that "Cupolas often appear as small buildings in their own right. They often serve as a lantern, belfry, or belvedere above a main roof." which means that a cupola and belvedere are not the same thing. Belvedere says "The actual structure can be of any form, whether a turret, a cupola, or an open gallery."

Basically it looks to me like the second sentence doesn't actually say much of use at present. If it's trying to demonstrate that widow's walks were not for observation of the sea, then I suggest something like:

''However, there is little or no evidence that widow's walks were intended or regularly used to observe shipping. Widow's walks or cupolas are a standard decorative feature of Italianate architecture, which was very popular during the height of the Age of Sail in many North American coastal communities. A viewpoint ("belvedere"), such as the widow's walk, was an important ornate finish to this style, although they were often high-maintenance and prone to leaks.[3]''

But I'm not an architect so leave the judgement to others. -- Shimmin Beg (talk) 15:17, 24 March 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Widow's walk


text:
W. M. Gorman

William Moore "Terence" Gorman (17 June 1923 – 12 January 2003) was an Irish economist and academic. He was predominantly a theorist and is most famous for his work on aggregation and separability of goods, and in this context he developed his famous Gorman polar form. Gorman's career saw him teach at University of Birmingham, Oxford, and the London School of Economics. He was honoured with the Presidency of the Econometric Society in 1972. His work was often highly technical and theoretical in nature, which made him incomprehensible to many of his contemporaries, but his keen eye for applications has given his work a lasting influence on modern economics.

Early life
Gorman was born in Kesh in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, on 17 June 1923. He spent his early childhood in Lusaka, Rhodesia, where his African nanny called him Terence, saying that William was not a proper Irish name; he was subsequently known as Terence, or 'Terry', throughout his life. After his father was shot dead when Gorman was only four years old, he returned with his mother and her staff to her family estate in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, where he was brought up.

He attended Mount Temple School in Rathgar, and Foyle College in Derry before moving on to Trinity College Dublin, in 1941, where he was elected a Scholar in mathematics in 1943. From 1943 to 1946, he interrupted his studies to serve in the Royal Navy as a rating and then petty officer, before returning to graduate in 1948 in economics and in 1949 in mathematics. While at Trinity, he met his future wife, Dorinda. Gorman was highly influenced by Trinity Professor George A. Duncan, as well as by Professor James Davidson at Foyle College.

Academic career
He began his academic career at the University of Birmingham in England, where he taught from 1949 to 1962. Birmingham, at that time, was a leading centre for theoretical research, employing professors including Frank Hahn, and Maurice McManus. It was during this period that what is now called Gorman polar form was rigorously introduced in an article entitled, "On a class of preference fields," published in the journal Metroeconomica, in August 1961.

After Birmingham, he held the chair of economics at Oxford from 1962, and subsequently the chair at the London School of Economics in 1967, where he introduced an American-style mathematical economics programme. He was a fellow of Nuffield College at Oxford from 1979, a senior research fellow in 1984 and an emeritus fellow in 1990. He also spent some time in the United States as a visiting fellow, when he was engaged in research at the Iowa, Johns Hopkins, the North Carolina, and at Stanford.

After retirement, he continued to live in Oxford, although he spent his summers in County Cork, until in his last years illness impaired his mobility.

Approach to economics
Gorman credited his early education at Foyle College and Trinity College Dublin for teaching him "to think of mathematics and economics as styles of thought, not collections of theorems," and his experience at Birmingham taught him "to think of the social sciences as a unity with history as one way of holding them together". With this foundation, Gorman's theory was based both in empirical research and on the opinions and views of social scientists. Above all, however, Gorman was a mathematically talented economist, and his penchant for inter-disciplinarianism was only present in as much as that diversity presented him with tools to use or develop to explore the links between individual preferences and market behaviour.

Awards, honors and honorary positions

 * Presidency of the Econometric Society in 1972
 * Fellowship of the British Academy
 * Membership of Academia Europaea
 * Honorary foreign membership of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * Honorary foreign membership of the American Economic Association
 * Honorary doctorate from University College London
 * Honorary doctorate from the University of Birmingham
 * Honorary doctorate from the University of Southampton
 * Honorary doctorate from the National University of Ireland in 1986
 * Honorary fellowship from Trinity College, Dublin in 1990

The Gorman Lectures
The Gorman Lectures in Economics, named after W. M. Gorman, is an annual event that takes place at the Department of Economics of University College London. The lectures are not confined to any sub-discipline of economics, and they are usually developed into a book, published by co-sponsor, Princeton University Press. The first lectures were delivered by the Nobel Laureate Professor James Heckman of Chicago University in December 2001. Avinash Dixit delivered the lectures in 2003. Robert M. Townsend of MIT delivered them in 2010. The 2011 lecture was given by Jerry Hausman of MIT and the 2013 lecture by Pierre-Andre Chiappori of Columbia.

Resources

 * On a class of preference fields, Metroeconomica, 13, August 1961, 53–56.

title: W. M. Gorman


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Disgaea characters

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was no consensus (4 keep, 3 delete). Rob e  rt  15:38, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Disgaea characters
Delete - According to A Link to the Past, articles such as these are not notable/encyclopedic due to the fact that the characters only appear in one game, such as those of Final Fantasy VI. For a discussion, see User talk:A Link to the Past ~ Hibana 02:50, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * This afd nomination was orphaned. Listing now.  No opinion. —Cryptic (talk) 11:41, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep a list is a perfectly acceptable way to organise minor or single-game characters. The Disgaea: Hour of Darkness article is already too big to merge them back into.  Besides, Disgaea 2 is coming soon anyway, so the "one game" argument won't be valid for long. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd  13:12, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, having an article for the characters is perfectly acceptable per WP:FICT. Kirill Lokshin 17:22, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as preferable to seperate articles for each of the characters --TimPope 09:52, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete on grounds of content: Wiki is not GameFaqs. The page contains capsule bios that could be easily merged into the main Disgaea article, but the special-attack data and stats don't belong here.  -Marblespire 11:44, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep --Mateusc 03:39, 18 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom --Rogerd 09:40, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Trisectrix

In geometry, a trisectrix is a curve which can be used to trisect an arbitrary angle with ruler and compass and this curve as an additional tool. Such a method falls outside those allowed by compass and straightedge constructions, so they do not contradict the well known theorem which states that an arbitrary angle cannot be trisected with that type of construction. There is a variety of such curves and the methods used to construct an angle trisector differ according to the curve. Examples include:
 * Limaçon trisectrix (some sources refer to this curve as simply the trisectrix.)
 * Trisectrix of Maclaurin
 * Equilateral trefoil (a.k.a. Longchamps' Trisectrix)
 * Tschirnhausen cubic (a.k.a. Catalan's trisectrix and L'Hôpital's cubic)
 * Durer's folium
 * Cubic parabola
 * Hyperbola      with eccentricity 2
 * Rose curve specified by a sinusoid with angular frequency of one-third.
 * Parabola

A related concept is a sectrix, which is a curve which can be used to divide an arbitrary angle by any integer. Examples include:
 * Archimedean Spiral
 * Quadratrix of Hippias
 * Sectrix of Maclaurin
 * Sectrix of Ceva
 * Sectrix of Delanges

title: Trisectrix


text:
William G. Gray

William G. Gray (25 March 1913 – 1992) was an English ceremonial magician, Hermetic Qabalist and writer, who published widely on the subject of western esotericism and the occult. Gray founded a magical order known as the Sangreal Sodality. The historian Ronald Hutton described him as "one of Britain's most famous ritual magicians".

Born to a working-class family in Harrow, Middlesex, Gray moved around in his childhood, living in various locations across England, and also in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he took a particular interest in the rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. Developing an early interest in western esotericism from his mother, who was a professional fortune teller, he met a number of famous occultists in his youth, including Victor Neuburg, Aleister Crowley and Dion Fortune. Eventually taking an Austrian named Emile Napoleon Hauenstein to be his magical teacher, he joined the British Army and served for several years, fighting in the Second World War.

Returning to Britain, he befriended and performed rituals with members of many different occult currents in Britain at the time, including Robert Cochrane, and published a number of books on the subject of the esoteric. 1975 saw the publication of The Rollright Ritual, a book about the rituals and alleged spiritual interactions which he had experienced at the Rollright Stones, a Neolithic stone circle in the Cotswolds.

The life and work of Gray is referenced in the works of various occultists and academics studying western esotericism, while in 2003 the writers Alan Richardson and Marcus Claridge published a biography of him, entitled The Old Sod. Gareth Knight, who was acquainted with Gray, referred to him as a "redoubtable old occultist".

Childhood: 1913–1925
Gray was born on 25 March 1913 in Harrow, Middlesex. His mother, Christine Ash Gray (née Christine Chester Logie) was an American with a Roman Catholic background. But she took a great practical interest in Western esotericism and associated with other occultists, believing herself to be the reincarnation of Marie-Noémi Cadiot (1832–1888), the wife of the influential French occultist Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875). William's father on the other hand, John McCammon Trew Gray, was from a "Low Church" background and took little interest in the esoteric. The couple had married on 26 August 1910 in Philadelphia, where John had been managing a theatrical touring company and Christine had been working as an actress; both of them had been previously married, with John being a 44-year-old divorcee and Christine a 27-year-old widow at the time.

When the First World War broke out in 1914, the United Kingdom allied itself with France to fight Germany, leading John Gray to lie about his age to enlist in the British Army, believing it to be his patriotic duty; joining the Ox and Bucks Light Infantry, he served in France and then India, where he took charge of a prisoner of war camp at Elephanta Island near Bombay. With her husband away at war, Christine Gray took up employment with the British War Office, eventually being posted to the London American Headquarters. She sent her young son William to live with his elderly grandmother and Aunt Lella in Ramsgate, where (he would later relate) he was "badly behaved, disobedient, [and] untidy". Eventually, Aunt Lella fell ill and William was sent to live with his Aunt Will and Aunt Florence, a couple who were active in the Theosophical Society. It was there that William first learned about the esoteric, although he would always associate Theosophy somewhat derogatorily with "elderly ladies of both sexes and genteel behaviour whose ideas of Nirvana centred around mysterious Oriental Masters who directed the destiny of all mankind from a secret spot in Tibet."

When he was eight, he began his education at primary school, which he despised, and soon after was sent back to live with his parents, who had settled into Forest Hill, London after the war. His mother took him to Mass at a local Roman Catholic Church, which he enjoyed very much. He developed a lifelong appreciation of ritual and decided he would one day like to be ordained as a Catholic priest. In 1922, he and his mother moved to Montreal in Canada, where she was hospitalised for a serious chest infection. He was put under the care of his Aunt Leslie and her husband Bruce, a wealthy stockbroker. In Montreal, he continued to attend Mass, but lost his desire to become a priest because the rituals at the Canadian church were less impressive than those in England.

Involvement in the occult: 1926–1935
Returning to Britain after his mother's recovery, William and his parents moved into a flat in East Park Terrace in Southampton. Due to problems in the couple's relationship, Christine and John slept in different bedrooms and William shared with his father, with whom he had a strained relationship. Because the family struggled with financial problems, Christine worked as a professional fortune teller and William shared his mother's interest in western esotericism, reading books on metaphysics and psychology from the local library. Later relating that he experienced several visions at this time, he devised several magical rituals using the kitchen as a temple, based upon what he had read in books and his own innovation.

He attended lectures given by the Theosophical Society and also met a number of famous occultists who were friends of his mother; these included Arthur Wilson, who later tried to found a commune in Canada, and Victor Neuburg (1883–1940), whom Gray would always remember as "one of the gentlest men I ever met". "Once or twice" he briefly met the infamous ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), founder of the religion of Thelema and a pariah figure in the British press. An old friend and magical partner of Neuburg's, Crowley made Christine feel uneasy; she later told her son that Crowley was "not a very nice man" and burned the signed copy of his book 777 that he gave her.

By the age of 14, Gray was intent on finding a magical teacher from whom he could learn more about Western esotericism and the practice of ceremonial magic. On a visit to an uncle in London, Gray travelled to the home of Dion Fortune (1890–1946), the noted ceremonial magician and leader of the Fraternity of the Inner Light. She spoke to him briefly, but informed him that no one under the age of 21 would be admitted to the Fraternity, and simply wished him well before sending him away empty handed. An eager reader of the Occult Review, Gray also wrote a letter to the paper discussing his views on Rosicrucianism, which was subsequently published, leading another occultist to get in touch with him. This man was Emile Napoleon Hauenstein (1877–?), an Austrian esotericist who ran a newspaper shop in Piccadilly where he lived with his daughter. Hauenstein, whom Gray usually referred to as "ENH", had formerly been a Martinist and an associate of the French occultist Gérard Encausse, the founder of the Qabalistic Order of the Rosy Cross. The two struck up a correspondence and then a friendship, with Hauenstein becoming Gray's magical mentor, teaching him various exercises designed to develop his concentration and ability to perform ceremonial magic rituals.

Armed Forces from 1936
Gray had gone through a series of temporary jobs since leaving school, and eventually decided to join the British armed forces. After receiving the blessing of Hauenstein, who informed him that he could continue his magical training while in the army, he duly did so, being admitted into the Royal Corps of Signals, and fought in the Second World War.

Gray underwent a series of nocturnal meditations at the Rollright Stones, a prehistoric site in the Cotswolds, in which he hoped to commune with spiritual energies that he believed existed there. He published his subsequent ideas as The Rollright Ritual in 1975. In this book, he described a ritual that occultists could perform at the site which drew heavily upon the practices carried out by Cochrane.

Gray worked with Robert Cochrane. Cochrane's letters to Gray survive and are a key source for understanding his beliefs. In 1982, Gray met with the California-based Wiccans Dave and Ann Finnin, who were then visiting England to learn more about Cochrane. He gave them a ritual cord in his possession that had once belonged to Cochrane and put them in contact with Cochrane's fellow Clan member, Evan John Jones.

Sangreal Sodality
The Sangreal Sodality is a spiritual brotherhood of the Western Inner Tradition founded by William G. Gray and Jacobus G. Swart, and was officially launched by them on 19 November 1980 on the occasion of the official inauguration of the first Sangreal Sodality Temple named "Domine Dirige Nos" in Johannesburg, South Africa, and the induction of the first initiated member of this brotherhood. Chapters and Temples of the Sangreal Sodality have been established in South Africa, Latin America, North America, Britain and Europe.

The designation “Sangreal Sodality” speaks of spiritual principles and ideals which prompted its foundation. The term "Sangreal" is understood in this brotherhood to be "Sang" ("blood") and "Real" ("authentic)". the basic premise being the "True Identity" and "Inner Values" within each single human individual. The term sodality derives from a Latin root referring to a "Comradeship."

Since the Sangreal concept means bringing out the very best in everyone which their own "Inner Identities" can offer, "Sangreal Sodality" is open to all those intent on a process of personal spiritual development, here considered the most ideal path to Self-discovery and service to our fellow humankind.

Members of the Sangreal Sodality gather in Temples, Lodges or Chapters. These are operated independently of one another. Individuals who agree with, or feel inspired by, the teachings and practices expounded in the basic textbooks of the Sangreal Sodality, may set up a Temple, Lodge or Chapter. Such a working circle is deemed an autonomous grouping, which may link with other such groups, or remain independent in accordance with preference. As such, each group is responsible for its personal self-government, financing, and organisation.

Sangreal Sodality is not a religion, nor does it oppose any valid religion of any denomination whatsoever. The Sangreal Sodality allows a focus for willing individuals to articulate their approach to divinity — without external dictates or interference of hierarchical structures.

Personal life and death
In their biography of Gray, Richardson and Claridge noted that he held to "many of the prejudices of his class, age and locale". He was openly racialist, and Richardson and Claridge claimed that he was also racist, because he used the word "Nigerian" as a euphemism for the derogatory term "nigger". Despite these views, they related that he was neither sexist nor homophobic, getting along well with women and taking no issue with several homosexual occultists that he knew.

Gray died in 1992 at the age of 79.

Works

 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)
 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)
 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)
 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)
 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)
 * (with Bruce C. Griffin)

title: William G. Gray


text:
The Dan & Scott Show

The Dan & Scott Show was an uncensored comedy program named for its hosts, Dan Schulz and Scott Wirkus. The show is credited as pioneering internet radio, with its uncensored comedy format that is now more commonplace both online and in satellite radio formats such as XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio.

The show was first made available as downloadable audio, an early form of podcasting, on AOL in 1995. It debuted as a live streaming audio format on April 1, 1996 first via Audionet.com AKA Broadcast.com. Throughout the show's five-year run, it moved from between several streaming providers such as Audionet, Audioactive, Talkspot.com, Radio HTB, and finally Eyada.com. They had the show on radiofun.com for a number of years as well.

The show was one of the few kept by Eyada in their restructuring attempts but in the end both the Dan and Scott show and Eyada failed to survive the tail end of the dot com crash of 2000-2001 due to Eyada's financial troubles.

The show first received national attention when Rick Rockwell, the bachelor from Who Wants to Marry a Multi-Millionaire? appeared on the show making a plea for contestants. The show also received attention for the weekly Survivor predictions from regular show caller "Jesus".

After trying to find another site to broadcast the show, it became apparent that the dot com crash had killed all the viable streamed radio sites on the market. After trying to work deals with many networks outside the streaming world in 2001–2002 they had a meeting with HBO. But HBO wanted a sanitized version of the show; Dan and Scott submitted a censored demo that exists but felt they just couldn't do the show HBO wanted. Then XM and Sirius also asked for a clean version of the show, which did not come to fruition there. Big supporter of the show and Eyada owner Bob Meyrowitz offered them a chance for a nationally syndicated morning radio show. Bob's big plan was for them to take on Howard Stern. Ultimately though, Scott and Dan decided to stop doing the show; they announced it was going on hiatus on August 24, 2002.

title: The Dan & Scott Show


text: User talk:24.3.11.252

title: User talk:24.3.11.252


text:
Hugo Batalla

Hugo Batalla Parentini (July 11, 1926 – October 3, 1998), Uruguayan politician, was Vice President of Uruguay from 1995 to 1998 during the presidency of Julio María Sanguinetti.

Background
His political activity started in the Colorado Party with Zelmar Michelini. Batalla was elected diputado for the Department of Montevideo from 1962–66 and 1967–71, and was President of the Chamber of Deputies of Uruguay from 1969 to 1970. He was also a member of the Latin American Parliament and Vice-President from 1968–69.

He split from Colorado in 1971 to form the Frente Amplio with Michelini, and was re-elected diputado from 1972 until the instauration of the military dictatorship in June 1973.

After the return of constitutional rule, he was elected senator for the Partido por el Gobierno del Pueblo (Peoples' Government Party, which would later rejoin the Frente Amplio) from 1985–1995, and was Vice-President of the Chamber of Senators during 1993.

Vice President of Uruguay
Batalla rejoined the Colorado Party for the elections of 1994-11-27 and was elected Vice President of Uruguay.

He died in office of lung cancer at the age of 72.

Historical note
Batalla was the eleventh person to hold the office of Vice President of Uruguay. The office dates from 1934, when Alfredo Navarro became Uruguay's first Vice President.

Other activities
Aside from politics, Batalla founded the newspaper Hechos and the political magazine Zeta. He was also President of the Asociación Uruguaya de Fútbol (AUF, Uruguayan Football Association) from 1991–93, and Vice-president of the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CSF, South American Football Confederation) between 1992 and 1993.

Personal
Batalla married Hilda Flores in 1953, and the couple had a daughter Laura.

title: Hugo Batalla


text:
Mount Aigaleo

Aigaleo or Egaleo (Αιγάλεω), and known in antiquity as Poikilon Oros (Ποικίλον Όρος), is a mountain next to the Athens urban area, in Attica, Greece. It lies west of the Athens plain, southeast of Eleusis, and east of the island of Salamis. Most of the mountain is rocky (limestone). It is lower than Hymettus. Most of the forest is to its north where the Daphni Monastery is located. There is also a park in its northern reaches.

With its good view of the Straits of Salamis, Mount Egaleo was the site of Xerxes' throne from which he observed the Battle of Salamis.

Towns and places that surround the mountain include Perama, Drapetsona, Nikaia, Korydallos, the highway, and Chaidari. The Athens Metro connects the area after reducing Iera Odos (Sacred Way) into two lanes in 2002–2003.

A highway linking GR-8 and Keratsini runs through this mountain range. The refineries of Skaramangas are in the north. The new bypass on the northwestern part of the range is part of the Attiki Odos superhighway system, the Aigaleo Ring (Number 65) which was opened on January, 2004 along with the rest of the superhighway northwest of the range. The ring presently does not have full access with Athinon Avenue and GR-8 yet, but includes two interchanges.

title: Mount Aigaleo


text:
King's Park, Hong Kong

King's Park is an area in Yau Tsim Mong District in Kowloon, Hong Kong.

Location
It is bounded approximately by Waterloo Road to the north, the East Rail line to the east, Austin Road to the south, and Nathan Road to the west. There is an elevated portion which is considered the boundary with Yau Ma Tei.

Topography
The northern areas is hilly, while the southern section is relatively flat.

Uses
The area is zoned for Government, residential and recreational use, and there are no commercial outlets.

The hill north hosts a meteorological station of the Hong Kong Observatory, the Blood Transfusion Centre of Hong Kong Red Cross and the Queen Elizabeth Hospital.

From 1967 until June 1995, the 15-storey British Military Hospital (BMH) was also based in the area, on a site to the east of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. It was closed in 1995 as the British Garrison scaled down from more than 10,000 personnel to about 3,000 as 1997 approached. The 7.4 ha site had an estimated market value of HK$5.6 billion in 1995.

The site on which the hospital buildings once were was sold by 1999, and is now a private housing estate, whilst the fields which once surrounded the hospital have been largely preserved due to the lobbying efforts of a group of sporting associations. The Kings Park Sports Association (KPSA) was then formed, with Hong Kong Rugby Football Union as one of its core members.

In 1987, land to the south of the BMH was developed into Wylie Court, a residential estate for civil servants. The Civil Service Club is located nearby.

The southern portion of King's Park is a flat piece of land, hosting various recreation clubs and green sports grounds, including King's Park Hockey Ground, Kowloon Bowling Green Club, YMCA Recreation Ground, the United Services Recreation Club, Kowloon Cricket Club, and Gun Club Hill Barracks, are located south of Gascoigne Road.

The headquarters of Hong Kong Girl Guides Association is situated at Gascoigne Road near its eastern side.

Education
Several schools are located in King's Park, including ELCHK Lutheran Secondary School, Methodist College, True Light Girls' College and Wah Yan College, Kowloon.

King's Park is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 31. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and Jordan Road Government Primary School.

title: King's Park, Hong Kong


text:
Boolaroo, New South Wales

Boolaroo is a suburb and former town of Greater Newcastle, city of Lake Macquarie, in New South Wales, Australia.

Geography
The suburb is located 166 km from Sydney and is 18 km southwest of Newcastle's central business district in Lake Macquarie's West Ward.

Boolaroo borders a number of well-known towns and suburbs within the Lake Macquarie Region, including Warners Bay and Speers Point, and, for a small strip of land, fronts onto Lake Macquarie itself.

History
The Aboriginal people, in this area, the Awabakal, were the first people of this land. The Aboriginal meaning of Boolaroo is 'place of many flies' or 'place of may flies.'

It was founded as a village in 1829 and proclaimed a town in 1896.

The Boolaroo Jockey Club ran race meetings in the town from 1907 to 1931.

It was the epicentre of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake.

The suburb's boundaries were defined on 31 May 1991, and amended on 10 September 2001.

It is unclear when Boolaroo was redesignated from a town to a suburb.

Demographics
In the 2016 census, Boolaroo recorded a population of 1,039 people, 50.5% female and 49.5% male. The median age of the Boolaroo population was 42 years, 4 years above the national median of 38, with 88.0% of people living in Boolaroo were born in Australia. The other top responses for country of birth were England 1.9%, New Zealand 1.7%, Philippines 1.0%, Scotland 0.4% and Wales 0.4%. 94.0% of people spoke only English at home; the next most common languages were 1.1% Tagalog, 0.4% Mandarin, 0.3% French, 0.3% Italian and 0.3% Serbo-Croatian/Yugoslavian, so described.

In the 2021 census, Boolaroo recorded a population of 1,636 people, 52.0% female and 48.0% male. The median age of the Boolaroo population was 39 years, 1 year above the national median of 38, with 85.6% of people living in Boolaroo were born in Australia. The other top responses for country of birth were England 2.4%, New Zealand 1.3%, South Africa 0.7%, India 0.6%, and Scotland 0.4%. 90.5% of people spoke only English at home; the next most common languages were 0.6% German, 0.6% Afrikaans, 0.4% Hindi, 0.3% Arabic, and 0.3% Gujarati.

Amenities
Boolaroo previously housed a lead/zinc smelter, owned by the former Pasminco (now Zinifex) however the site has been cleared since the smelter ceased operations on 12 September 2003.

Boolaroo is home to several churches, of various denominations, as well as Boolaroo Public School, a library, a cinema (which was partially destroyed in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake) and a number of shops, including a small supermarket and a military disposal store.

Transport
Within Boolaroo is the Cockle Creek railway station, a small station on the Central Coast & Newcastle Line.

title: Boolaroo, New South Wales


text:
User talk:Maculated

Aussie photos
Thanks for the great additional Aussie photos. I'd like to put back the red that you removed, however, because it shows a type other than the long-haired, thick-coated, flop-eared aussie. There are plenty of purebred aussies (akc and/or asca registered) that have longer muzzles, longer legs, shorter coats, and more upright ears. Most are from working lines, not show lines. I know that you took out that distinction, but I think it's important to show that there are large variations in the breed and that doesn't make them any less Aussies. Elf | Talk 02:54, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Bucksheep.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Bucksheep.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. You can get help on image copyright tagging from Wikipedia talk:Image copyright tags. --OrphanBot 07:20, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Kite_and_the_Fury_on_cattle.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Kite_and_the_Fury_on_cattle.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images on Wikipedia is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikipedia are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. You can get help on image copyright tagging from Wikipedia talk:Image copyright tags. -- Carnildo 08:41, 1 February 2006 (UTC)
 * My presumption of this image is that you agree to license it under the GFDL. Alternatively, you may select a Creative Commons License (Attribution or Attribution-ShareAlike) or release it to the public domain. There has been some interest to use your image on other language Wikipedias, so if you could clarify the licensing (by editing the image description page and replacing with one of the free licenses from WP:ICT, that would be greatly appreciated. Regards,  howch  e  ng   {chat} 17:46, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Image:Bucksheep.jpg listed for deletion
An image or media file that you uploaded or altered, Image:Bucksheep.jpg, has been listed at Images and media for deletion. Please see the to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Jordan 1972 (talk) 21:54, 30 September 2008 (UTC)

File copyright problem with File:Kite and the Fury on cattle.jpg
Thank you for uploading File:Kite and the Fury on cattle.jpg. However, it currently is missing information on its copyright status. Wikipedia takes copyright very seriously. It may be deleted soon, unless we can determine the license and the source of the file. If you know this information, then you can add a copyright tag to the image description page.

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If you have any questions, please feel free to ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thanks again for your cooperation. ▫  Johnny Mr Nin ja  00:47, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Your submission at Articles for creation: Dream Big Awards (January 31)
 Your recent article submission to Articles for Creation has been reviewed! Unfortunately, it has not been accepted at this time. The reasons left by Dan arndt were:

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Concern regarding Draft:Dream Big Awards
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title: User talk:Maculated


text:
Talk:ADP

The usage of is under discussion, see the discussion at Talk:Automatic Data Processing -- 65.94.171.126 (talk) 21:29, 1 July 2014 (UTC)

ADP Video/Music Format
Can find nothing here on this. 60.242.247.177 (talk) 06:24, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:ADP


text:
USS Spitfire

USS Spitfire may refer to the following ships of the United States Navy:
 * USS Spitfire (1776 gunboat), a gunboat on Lake Champlain.
 * USS Spitfire (1776), a Rhode Island galley captured by the British in 1778 during the Mount Hope Bay raids.
 * USS Spitfire (1803), a merchant sloop operated until 1820.
 * USS Spitfire (1814), a ship operated until 1816.
 * USS Spitfire (1846), a sidewheel gunboat operated until 1848; used during the Mexican–American War
 * USS Hyacinth (1862), a tugboat that was renamed Spitfire when operated by Union forces on the Mississippi River during the American Civil War
 * USS Spitfire (1869), a temporary name of Casco-class monitor USS Suncook while laid up in 1869

title: USS Spitfire


text:
1960 Democratic National Convention

The 1960 Democratic National Convention was held in Los Angeles, California, on July 11–15, 1960. It nominated Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts for president and Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas for vice president.

In the general election that November, the Kennedy–Johnson ticket won an electoral college victory and a narrow popular vote plurality (slightly over 110,000 nationally) over the Republican candidates Vice President Richard M. Nixon and UN Ambassador Henry C. Lodge II.

Due to its size, the Biltmore Hotel was selected to serve as the headquarters hotel for the Democratic National Committee. It also housed command-posts for the campaigns of the various candidates seeking the nomination, temporary studio spaces for the television networks, and workspaces for select print journalists.

Prologue
The major candidates for the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination were Kennedy, Governor Pat Brown of California, Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri, Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, former Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson, Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon, and Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota. Several other candidates sought support in their home state or region as "favorite son" candidates without any realistic chance of winning the nomination. Symington, Stevenson, and Johnson all declined to campaign in the presidential primaries. While this reduced their potential delegate count going into the Democratic National Convention, each of these three candidates hoped that the other leading contenders would stumble in the primaries, thus causing the convention's delegates to choose him as a "compromise" candidate acceptable to all factions of the party.

Kennedy was initially dogged by suggestions from some Democratic Party elders (such as former President Harry S. Truman, who was supporting Symington) that he was too youthful and inexperienced to be president; these critics suggested that he should agree to be the running mate for another Democrat. Realizing that this was a strategy touted by his opponents to keep the public from taking him seriously, Kennedy stated frankly, "I'm not running for vice-president, I'm running for president."

The next step was the primaries. Kennedy's Roman Catholic religion was an issue. Kennedy first challenged Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey in the Wisconsin primary and defeated him. Kennedy's sisters, brothers, and wife Jacqueline combed the state looking for votes, leading Humphrey to complain that he "felt like an independent merchant competing against a chain store." However, some political experts argued that Kennedy's margin of victory had come almost entirely from Catholic areas, and thus Humphrey decided to continue the contest in the heavily Protestant state of West Virginia. The first televised debate of 1960 was held in West Virginia, and Kennedy outperformed Humphrey. Humphrey's campaign was low on funds and could not compete for advertising and other "get-out-the-vote" drives with Kennedy's well-financed and well-organized campaign. In the end, Kennedy defeated Humphrey with over 60% of the vote, and Humphrey ended his presidential campaign. West Virginia showed that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state.

Although Kennedy had only competed in ten presidential primaries, Kennedy's rivals, Johnson and Symington, failed to campaign in any primaries. Even though Stevenson had twice been the Democratic Party's presidential candidate and retained a loyal following of liberals, especially in California, his two landslide defeats to Republican Dwight Eisenhower led most party leaders and delegates to search for a "fresh face" who could win a national election. Following the primaries, Kennedy traveled around the nation speaking to state delegations and their leaders. As the Democratic Convention opened, Kennedy was far in the lead, but was still seen as being just short of the delegate total he needed to win.

In the week before the convention opened, Kennedy received two new challengers when Lyndon B. Johnson, the powerful Senate Majority Leader from Texas, and Adlai Stevenson II, the party's nominee in 1952 and 1956, announced their candidacies. Johnson challenged Kennedy to a televised debate before a joint meeting of the Texas and Massachusetts delegations; Kennedy accepted. Most observers felt that Kennedy won the debate, and Johnson was not able to expand his delegate support beyond the South.

Two Johnson supporters, including John B. Connally, brought up the question of Kennedy's health. Connally said that Kennedy had Addison's disease. JFK's press secretary Pierre Salinger denied the story. A Kennedy physician, Janet Travell, released a statement that the senator's adrenal glands were functioning adequately and that he was no more susceptible to infection than anyone else. It was also denied that Kennedy was on cortisone.

Platform
The Democratic platform in 1960 was the longest yet. They called for a loosening of tight economic policy: "We Democrats believe that the economy can and must grow at an average rate of 5 percent annually, almost twice as fast as our annual rate since 1953...As the first step in speeding economic growth, a Democratic president will put an end to the present high-interest-rate, tight-money policy."

Other planks included national defense, disarmament, civil rights, immigration, foreign aid, the economy, labor and tax reform. Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina attempted to soften the party's plank on civil rights. A speech by Hawaii delegate Patsy Mink persuaded two-thirds of the party to keep their progressive stance on the issue.

Presidential candidates
Kennedy was the first senator since 1920 to be nominated for the presidency by either the Democrats or the Republicans. On the last day of the convention, Kennedy delivered his acceptance speech from the adjacent Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In the speech he spoke about how Americans may be hesitant about him because of his faith. In his speech he said, "I am fully aware of the fact that the Democratic party, by nominating someone of my faith, has taken on what many regard as a new and hazardous risk." He went on to break down the hesitance some may have about his Catholic faith, "And you have, at the same time, placed your confidence in me, and my ability to render a free, fair, judgment...and to reject any kind of religious pressure or obligation that might directly or indirectly interfere with my conduct of the Presidency in the national interest."

Kennedy's acceptance speech also outlined his vision of "a New Frontier" which he contrasted with Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, being "a set of challenges" rather than "a set of promises". He stated the idea summed up "not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them."

Theodore H. White wrote in The Making of the President 1960 that in Washington DC Richard Nixon decided to watch Kennedy deliver his speech with two members of his own campaign. Nixon concluded that Kennedy's performance was poor and that he could defeat him in proposed televised debates.

Vice presidential nomination
After Kennedy secured the Democratic nomination, he asked Johnson to be his running mate, a move that surprised many, and for several decades, there was much debate about why it was offered to Johnson and why he had accepted. Some speculated that it was a courtesy move for Johnson, who was the Senate Majority Leader, and that Kennedy was surprised when Johnson accepted; Kennedy had preferred Stuart Symington of Missouri or Henry "Scoop" Jackson of Washington as his running mate.

A related story is that after Johnson accepted the offer, Robert Kennedy went to Johnson's hotel suite to dissuade Johnson from becoming the vice-presidential nominee. Johnson was offended that "JFK's kid brother" would brashly urge him to stay off the ticket. In response to his blunt confrontation with Robert Kennedy, Johnson called JFK to confirm that the vice-presidential nomination was his, which JFK confirmed. Johnson and Robert Kennedy became so embittered and the episode marked the beginning of the personal and political feud that would have grave implications for the Democratic Party in the 1960s.

In 1993, Evelyn Lincoln, JFK's personal secretary (both before and during his presidency), described how the decision was made in a videotaped interview. She said she was the only witness to a private meeting between John and Robert Kennedy in a suite at the Biltmore Hotel where they made the decision. She said she went in and out of the room as they spoke and, when she was in the room, she heard them say that Johnson had tried to blackmail JFK into offering him the vice presidential nomination with evidence of his womanizing provided by FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, discuss possible ways to avoid making the offer, and conclude JFK had no choice. This portion of the videotape of Lincoln's interview was included in The History Channel's documentary series The Men Who Killed Kennedy, in concluding Episode 9, "The Guilty Men", produced and aired in 2003.

Kennedy announced Johnson as his choice of running-mate on the afternoon of July 14. Johnson was nominated by acclamation that evening. The Chicago Tribune reported that there were shouts of protest from the galleries against the motion to suspend the rules to nominate Johnson, and again when he was acclaimed. Johnson is recorded as receiving 100% of the vote.

Logistics
The Biltmore Hotel served as the convention's headquarters hotel.

In culture
The convention was the setting for Norman Mailer's famous profile of Kennedy, "Superman Comes to the Supermarket", published in Esquire.

title: 1960 Democratic National Convention


text:
Talk:Five pence (British coin)

However, silent vendors couldn't disambiguate the 5p coin from the 1 DM coin, so that the 5p coin was sometimes, fraudulently, used as a replacement for the 1 DM coin. - Does "silent vendor" mean the same thing as vending machine? Nik42 08:23, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

5p is equal to how much USD--jesusfreek2 18:04, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Right now, 9.4 US cent. See . --ChoChoPK (球球PK) (talk | contrib) 20:44, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:FivePence.jpeg
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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 07:01, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

New 5p sighted in circulation
I have received a new design 5p piece today - so that one is definitely out now. EmleyMoor (talk) 14:20, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Larger pre-1990 coin
If anybody has one, it would be nice to get a picture of the bigger coin on here, perhaps next to a smaller one for comparison. Same for the 10p and 50p. Nick Fel (talk) 13:46, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

Steel 5p coins are in circulation now (May 2012)
I noticed a steel 2012 dated 5p coin in some change a few days ago. Though I have yet to find a 2011 dated coin in steel (as some 10p coins are) I see no reason why they can't exist. Mongoosander (talk) 23:56, 1 May 2012 (UTC)

 * According to my fridge door, a 2011 dated 5p coin found today (05/2012) is magnetic. It seems that nickel plated steel 5p coins bearing a 2011 date do exist, though the Royal Mint haven't yet specified how many 5p coins were actually produced in 2011. Should I add this to the main article? Mongoosander (talk) 16:09, 15 May 2012 (UTC)

 * The nickel-plated steel 5p and 10p coins seem to be slightly different in weight than the earlier ones which is upsetting the vending machines at my work. Can anyone verify this? Richard Gadsden (talk) 12:30, 6 June 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Five pence (British coin)


text:
Gorman polar form

Gorman polar form is a functional form for indirect utility functions in economics.

Motivation
Standard consumer theory is developed for a single consumer. The consumer has a utility function, from which his demand curves can be calculated. Then, it is possible to predict the behavior of the consumer in certain conditions, price or income changes. But in reality, there are many different consumers, each with his own utility function and demand curve. How can we use consumer theory to predict the behavior of an entire society? One option is to represent an entire society as a single "mega consumer", which has an aggregate utility function and aggregate demand curve. But in what cases is it indeed possible to represent an entire society as a single consumer?

Formally: consider an economy with $$n$$ consumers, each of whom has a demand function that depends on his income $$m^i$$ and the price system:
 * $$x^i(p,m^i)$$

The aggregate demand of society is, in general, a function of the price system and the entire distribution of incomes:
 * $$X(p,m^1,\dots,m^n) = \sum_{i=1}^n x^i(p,m^i)$$

To represent the entire society as a single consumer, the aggregate demand must be a function of only the prices and the total income, regardless of its distribution:
 * $$X(p,m^1,\dots,m^n) = X\left(p, \sum_{i=1}^n m^i \right)$$

Under what conditions is it possible to represent the aggregate demand in this way?

Early results by Antonelli (1886) and Nataf (1953) had shown that, assuming all individuals face the same prices in a market, their income consumption curves and their Engel curves (expenditure as a function of income) should be parallel straight lines. This means that we can calculate an income-consumption curve of an entire society just by summing the curves of the consumers. In other words, suppose the entire society is given a certain income. This income is somehow distributed between the members of society, then each member selects his consumption according to his income-consumption curve. If the curves are all parallel straight lines, the aggregate demand of society will be independent of the distribution of income among the agents.

Gorman's form of the expenditure function
Gorman's first published paper in 1953 developed these ideas in order to answer the question of representing a society by a single individual. In 1961, Gorman published a short, four-page paper in Metroeconomica which derived an explicit expression for the functional form of preferences which give rise to linear Engel curves. The expenditure function of each consumer $$i$$ (the amount of money required to reach a certain utility level in a certain price system) must be linear in utility:

 * $$ e^i \left (p, u^i \right ) = f^i(p) + g(p) \cdot u^i $$,

where both $$f^i \left (p \right )$$ and $$g \left (p \right )$$ are homogeneous of degree one in prices ($$p$$, a vector). This homogeneity condition ensures that $$e^i \left (p, u\right )$$ gives linear Engel curves.

$$f^i \left (p \right )$$ and $$g \left (p \right )$$ have nice interpretations: $$f^i \left (p \right )$$ is the expenditure needed to reach a reference utility level of zero for each individual ($$i$$), while $$g \left (p \right )$$ is the price index which deflates the excess money income $$e^i \left (p, u\right) - f^i (p)$$ needed to attain a level of utility $$\bar{u}$$. It is important to note that $$g \left (p \right )$$ is the same for every individual in a society, so the Engel curves for all consumers are parallel.

Gorman's form of the indirect utility function
Inverting this formula gives the indirect utility function (utility as a function of price and income):
 * $$ v^i \left (p,m^i \right ) = \frac {m^i-f^i(p)}{g(p)} $$,

where $$m$$ is the amount of income available to the individual and is equivalent to the expenditure ($$e^i \left (p,u^i \right )$$) in the previous equation. This is what Gorman called “the polar form of the underlying utility function.” Gorman's use of the term polar was in reference to the idea that the indirect utility function can be seen as using polar rather than Cartesian (as in direct utility functions) coordinates to describe the indifference curve. Here, income ($$m^i$$) is analogous to the radius and prices ($$p$$) to an angle.

Examples
Two types of preferences that have the Gorman polar form are:

Quasilinear utilities
When the utility function of agent $$i$$ has the form:
 * $$u_i(x, m) = u_i(x) + m$$

the indirect utility function has (assuming an interior solution) the form:
 * $$v_i(p, m) = v_i(p) + m$$

which is a special case of the Gorman form.

Indeed, the Marshallian demand function for the nonlinear good of consumers with quasilinear utilities does not depend on the income at all (in this quasilinear case, the demand for the linear good is linear in income):
 * $$x_i(p, m) = -\frac{dv(p)/dm}{v(p)/dp_i} = -\frac{1}{dv(p)/dp_i} = (v_i')^ {-1}(p)= v_i'(p)^{-1}$$

Hence, the aggregate demand function for the nonlinear good also does not depend on income:
 * $$X(p, M) = \sum_{i=1}^n{(v_i')^{-1}(p)}$$

The entire society can be represented by a single representative agent with quasilinear utility function:
 * $$U(x, m) = U(x)+m$$

where the function $$U$$ satisfies the equality:
 * $$(U')^{-1}(p) = \sum_{i=1}^n{(v_i')^{-1}(p)}$$

In the special case in which all agents have the same utility function $$u(x,m)=u(x)+m$$, the aggregate utility function is:
 * $$U(x,M) = n \cdot u\left(\frac{x}{n}\right) + M$$

Homothetic preferences
The indirect utility function has the form:
 * $$v(p, m_i) = v(p)\cdot m$$

which is also a special case of the Gorman form.

Particularly: linear, Leontief and Cobb-Douglas utilities are homothetic and thus have the Gorman form.

Proof of linearity and equality of slope of Engel curves
To prove that the Engel curves of a function in Gorman polar form are linear, apply Roy's identity to the indirect utility function to get a Marshallian demand function for an individual ($$i$$) and a good ($$n$$):

 * $$x^i_n(p,m^i) = -\frac{\frac{\partial v^i(p,m^i)}{\partial p_n}}{\frac{\partial v^i(p,m^i)}{\partial m^i}} = \frac{\partial f^i(p)}{\partial p_n} + \frac{\partial g(p)}{\partial p_n}\cdot\frac{m-f^i(p)}{g(p)}$$

This is linear in income ($$m$$), so the change in an individual's demand for some commodity with respect to a change in that individual's income, $$\frac{\partial x^i_n(p,m^i)}{\partial m} = \frac{\frac{\partial g(p)}{\partial p_n}}{g(p)}$$, does not depend on income, and thus Engel curves are linear.

Also, since this change does not depend on variables particular to any individual, the slopes of the Engel curves of different individuals are equal.

Application
Many applications of Gorman polar form are summarized in various texts and in Honohan and Neary's article. These applications include the ease of estimation of $$f^i(p)$$ and $$g(p)$$ in certain cases. But the most important application is for the theorist of economics, in that it allows a researcher to treat a society of utility-maximizing individuals as a single individual. In other words, under these conditions a community indifference mapping is guaranteed to exist.

title: Gorman polar form


text: File:Horseshoe Bay, BC.jpg

title: File:Horseshoe Bay, BC.jpg


text:
Talk:File (tool)

Untitled
Three Square Files Somebody wrote in the edit that obviously a triangular file is not square - it has 60 deg. angles, not 45 deg. That is true, of course. Historically, though, triangular files are often called "three square files", so it is accurate on that level, one of slang. Round files are also called "rat-tail files" for obvious reasons. It is scientifically wrong, but culturally correct, in other words. Thanks, cool place, WikiP. Jjdon (talk) 02:09, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Merge request
I have put a merge tag on File (tool) asking it to be merged into File (metalwork) File (metalwork) asking it to be merged into File (tool). The metalwork article is much better, and as a layman I don't know if there's really two terms here or not. So, if somebody "in the biz" wants to tell me I'm an idiot for proposing such a merge (since the metalworking template does list both) then all I ask is a response here explaining to a layman like myself why they shouldn't be merged. Thanx! — RevRagnarok  Talk Contrib Reverts 13:41, 16 July 2006 (UTC)
 * In principle, I agree. But files are not only used to shape metal, but also wood and plastics. So I would argue that the good stuff should be merged to File (tool) and the File (metalwork) be made into a redirect. The file disambiguation page should also be fixed. Luigizanasi 06:12, 17 July 2006 (UTC)
 *  reverse merge - to file (tool): It's way overdue for a merge but I'd be tempted to merge the other way, (tool) is a broader specifier than (metalwork). FWIW my contributions to File (metalwork), in both images and text, have been major and it doesn't worry me if it's merged to file (tool). If I had found file (tool) first my edits would have gone there instead. — Graibeard(talk) 06:57, 17 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I moved this discussion, and reversed order of merge. I agree 'tool' is the better of the descriptions, but wasn't really thinking too much that day and did my usual criteria of 'merge the little scrawny article into the big one.' — RevRagnarok  Talk Contrib Reverts 10:59, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

 * merge - to file (tool):'''as per above. Long overdue Bridesmill 20:08, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Done. Steve Summit (talk) 02:38, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

? wording incorrect
New to Wikipedia and non-expert in metalworking, however... I believe the wording is incorrect "Generally, as with saws, the more teeth per inch, the softer the material it is intended is remove..." Shouldn't it say the "fewer teeth per inch" (i.e. a more corse file)? Jmlunds 21:56, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

 * The fewer teeth per inch, the rougher and more aggressive the file is. For both harder and softer materials, bulk removal is done with a rough file, then the finishing is preformed with sequentially finer and finer files.  It doesn't have squat to do with how hard or soft the material is.  That whole part should be gone.  Even though it alludes to saw blades, this is also incorrect.  One may easily cut aluminum with a 4 TPI (or less) blade, and in many situations this is the correct blade choice.  The tooth profile on files, saws, endmills, single point tools, etc., is what controls the cutting characteristics in various materials.  The teeth per inch controls chip clearance and cutting pressure.  Too many teeth, on both files and on saws, spreads the pressure out over more surface area.  Trying to cut through a 10"x10" block of aluminum with a 14 tpi blade will dull the blade due to rubbing, which in turn causes grabbing, heat buildup, and eventual blade failure.  Likewise, trying to cut thin-walled tubing with a 2 tpi blade will wipe the teeth off the saw.  Back to files: In rough files, the teeth can hold a larger volume of swarf which results in a deeper cut per stroke, but leave a jagged finish.  In fine files, the teeth clog quickly, resulting in far less material removal per stroke and requiring frequent cleaning in exchange for a finer finish. Both kinds of file will cut hard and soft materials equally well.  An inexperienced filer will mistake the greater difficulty of rough filing harder materials using a low-TPI file as a problem with the file itself. While a finer file may apparently relieve the problem, the finer file is just taking a less aggressive cut.  Less aggressive cut, less power required per stroke, and the user believes the finer file is cutting 'better.' - Toastydeath 04:14, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

References or sources
Being one who edited a fair amount of this topic, I can say that if anybody can find decent references to working with files, then you're a better man than I. Probably this article is a better source than any other single thing I've ever read. Not much out there. Just to say that the tag will likely be there till the end of time......Not something that's in books, much. "This is a file, you push it and it cuts....." My own knowlege comes from old timers showing me how, as it is with most people, no doubt.Jjdon (talk) 20:56, 10 February 2009 (UTC)

 * What about:
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=PPBeyopKQI8C&pg=PA6&dq=files+metalworking&as_brr=3&ei=WfCRSaSmPJeMlQTC99WtCg#PPA5,M1
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=bM01FIZce7IC&pg=PA12&dq=files+metalworking&as_brr=3&ei=WfCRSaSmPJeMlQTC99WtCg#PPA12,M1
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=ogBUIJk5OhUC&pg=PA275&dq=files+metalworking&as_brr=3&ei=WfCRSaSmPJeMlQTC99WtCg#PPA275,M1

 * That's just an off the cuff search. Wizard191 (talk) 21:27, 10 February 2009 (UTC)

Cool! By all means, reference the article.....Jjdon (talk) 16:59, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

Hey, I've been digging and found a great reference specifically on files and their history.
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=DlZAAAAAIAAJ&dq=history%20of%20files&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false

It's somewhat skewed as it was written by a file manufacturing company so their files are the best of course.Chancwj (talk) 21:01, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

How are files made?
While this information is not necessary for the use of a file, this page would be improved with a brief description how files are typically made. This is the age-old toolmaker problem that a harder tool is necessary to make a hard tool. Yet files for ages have been produced inexpensively, in quantity, and with remarkable regularity in surface detail. Are there special techniques used in file making?

Steven M. Haflich (talk) 15:52, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

 * "Files" are a relatively recent and high-cost invention. A much older variant is the rasp, as that's easier and cheaper to make - within the limits of a local blacksmith, making tools for their own use. Files have mostly been cut by machine, quite complex and very specialised machines.
 * Rasps have individual spur-shaped teeth. They're cut by striking lengthwise along a blank, so as to raise this small spur up from a groove. Tedious to make, but requiring little more than a small hand chisel, anvil, hammer and some time.
 * Files have their teeth cut by a point tool, moving sideways across the blank so as to shave out the gullet between teeth. This pretty much requires a machine to carry it out: the cutting force is high and sustained, so it can't be done by striking a chisel with a hammer. There's also the need for accurate placement of the teeth, if the file is to be useful (sharp and consistent in its cut) afterwards. File-cutting machines are based on ratchet gearing and screw mechanisms to advance cutters tooth by tooth. Although there are examples of hand-cut files, these were always rare and expensive. They were mostly produced by dedicated file makers, then sold into trades that could justify their use, such as clockmakers.
 * Oddly today, machine-cut files are cheap and hand-cut rasps are expensive. A hand-cut rasp is favoured for wood-carving, as the irregular spacing of the teeth avoids the harmonic "tramline" effect that regular teeth can give on soft materials. Andy Dingley (talk) 16:15, 26 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I just happened to notice last night - Leonardo da Vinci invented a file-cutting machine. It used a falling chisel-edged trip-hammer to cut a tooth in one blow, with a leadscrew mechanism for feed. Probably wouldn't have worked though - steels good enough to make files from usually need a single-point tool to cut their teeth. Andy Dingley (talk) 15:33, 2 July 2010 (UTC)

Check out this book published in 1920 by the Disston company, a large file and saw manufacturing firm.
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=DlZAAAAAIAAJ&dq=history%20of%20files&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false

It has lots on the history of files, which were made by hand for thousands of years. Of course the teeth weren't as precise as machine cut files. The book also recounts the gradual change from hand cut files to machine cut files more than a hundred years ago.

Making files requires careful heat treating of steel. You have to anneal the metal to make it soft so you can cut teeth with a chisel. After the teeth are formed the file is heat treated to harden the steel.
 * Chancwj (talk) 21:09, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

Hardening
Diff (Thanks, Andy!) I'd like to know more about the hardening of file steel. It certainly can't be dead soft, and I suspect it is not tempered to a state as "soft" as chisel steel, for example. The times I've used file steel for projects, I've often annealed it before shaping, usually re-hardening it after, not always tempering it then. Since files have a long history of being produced in commercial quantities, I'd be interested to see more info on differential hardening of their teeth. __ Just plain Bill (talk) 00:44, 17 March 2011 (UTC)

 * I have added some information about the case hardening process used on steel files. Note that it's not a differential hardening process. Wizard191 (talk) 18:02, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

"tile file" and "engineer's file"
I was hoping to find a simple description a "tile file" and an "engineer's file" on this page, but neither of these common terms seems to appear. Paulmdt (talk) 07:14, 16 October 2011 (UTC)

 * A 'tile file' is a steel (sometimes plastic) stick, coated with a silicon carbide abrasive grit. They're not strictly a file, more of a beefed up emery board, as they don't have "teeth" as such. They're used for tiling, as the hard grit can be used to sand at hard materials such as ceramics or glass.
 * An 'engineer's file' is too vague a term to really give a distinct definition. It's mostly used as a term for the generic hand file. It's also sometimes used (perhaps oddly, as it uses a meaning of "engineer" to mean "locomotive driver") for what is also called a "toolbox file" or a "farmer's file". These are typical steel hand files, about 10" or 12" long, but instead of having a spiked tang for a wooden handle, they have a smooth flat handle formed in the steel. Andy Dingley (talk) 10:32, 16 October 2011 (UTC)

Escapement Files?
I'm not a Wiki expert, so I won't touch the article, but I see no mention of escapement files. They are a classification of short, (very) thin files with bastard-cut or embedded diamond surfaces, similar to needle files in form and function but smaller. Typical dimensions are on the order of approximately 10 cm (4 in.) in length and 3-5 mm (1/8-3/16 in.) in width. Best used for very fine work on small pieces, escapement files are commonly used by clock-/watch-makers, as well as in crafting jewelry. Technotom2001 (talk) 18:58, 16 July 2014 (UTC)
 * No one has yet incorporated this material, so I have boldly taken the liberty of doing so myself. It is not my intention to step on toes, but no discussion on the classification of files is complete without describing of escapement files.  Being an artisan jeweler, I can attest to their singularly being suited to certain types of work.  Technotom2001 (talk) 18:12, 9 November 2014 (UTC)

 * Thank you for adding this info. It is a good improvement in coverage. — ¾-10 00:58, 10 November 2014 (UTC)

Dreadnought files are vixen style in North America
Dreadnought and millenicut are obscure and not commonly used in the US. The few references that turn up resolve to UK based tool vendors. The specialized tooth patterns that match the description are common in auto body repair shops where they are used in body files for plastic filler and other soft materials. The curved cut is often called vixen style in North America after the brand that held the patent many decades ago. The brand still exists but the name has become largely generic as the pattern is now sold by multiple manufacturers.

Here's some background and a sampling of products from various vendors: https://www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk/files/what-is-a-vixen-file https://stonesculptorssupplies.com/9-vixen-file/ https://www.yardstore.com/14-flex-vixen-file-single-cut https://www.yardstore.com/sheet-metal-hand-tools/miscellaneous/hand-files-vixen/new/vixen-8-with-tang-curved-tooth https://www.tinmantech.com/products/hand-tools/files-holders/car-body-files/ https://www.lasaero.com/products/article/N037VLVPX

Note that Wonkee Donkee Tools, a UK site, mentions that vixen files are also known as dreadnought files. A brief search didn't turn up a US site that made the connection. There doesn't seem to be a corresponding term for millenicut in use in North America.

76.121.140.140 (talk) 09:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Safe Edges
The article states:

″Most files have teeth on all faces, but some specialty (sic) flat files have teeth on only one face or one edge, so that the user can come right up to another edge without damaging the finish on it.″

A significant proportion of my files have a safe edge, and I have several dozen of all sorts. The main exceptions are those with a curved face as they don't have flat 'edges'; it's not really a 'speciality'.--Stub Mandrel (talk) 12:40, 30 November 2021 (UTC)

Feather Files
While not here listed, I understand these shallow-triangular-cross-section files/hones, with the widest edge toothless/gritless, sharpen wood-cutting handsaw teeth, where the teeth are steep triangular in shape. Could these be described? Briancady413 (talk) 11:07, 16 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:File (tool)