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Daniel Hauben

Daniel Hauben (born May 23, 1956, Bronx, NY) is an American painter who grew up in the Bronx, and who often paints Bronx street scenes. Hauben has also painted outdoors around the world.

Education
Hauben studied at the Museum School in Boston, MA and received a B.A. from the School of Visual Arts in NYC. Hauben works in such mediums as oils, textural oil relief, chalk pastel, etchings, bronze, cast paper, plaster, and glass.

Collections
Hauben's work is in the collections of the Library of Congress, the White House, the Museum of the City of New York, the New York Public Library, the New York Historical Society, the Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, the Villa-Haiss Museum, Pfizer Corporation, Harvard University, and in numerous other public and private collections.

Exhibitions
Hauben has had solo exhibitions at the Bronx Museum of the Arts, the Michael Ingbar Gallery, Ache 700 Gallery in Austria, Amerika Haus in Berlin and the Deutsches-Amerikanisches Zentrum in Stuttgart, among others. Selected group exhibitions include: Lehman College Art Gallery, The Painting Center, John Szoke Gallery, Allan Stone Gallery, and the Kunst und Gewerbeverein in Regensburg, Germany.

Hauben has painted in India, Costa Rica, Italy, Germany, France, Spain, Hungary and Denmark, as well as in the US states of Virginia, California, Connecticut, Maine and Massachusetts. He has painted in Virginia extensively, where he has been an artist-in-residence at the Virginia Center for the Creative Arts numerous times. He has also received residencies at Djerassi Art Colony and Villa Montalvo in California, Weir Farm in Connecticut, the Julia and David White Colony in Costa Rica, Fundacion Valparaiso in Spain, and the Oberpfaelzer Kuenstlerhaus in Germany.

Public Art Commissions
Hauben was commissioned by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of NYC to create the artwork for the Freeman Street (IRT White Plains Road Line) on the 2 & 5 elevated train line in the Bronx. The work consists of six faceted glass panels, created with inch-thick colored glass pieces that are held together with epoxy, all of which depict Bronx street scenes.

In 2007 the Americans for the Arts organization recognized Hauben's Freeman Street Station artwork (collectively titled "The El") as one of the top 40 works of public art in the nation.

In 2008 Hauben was selected to create all the artwork for the new North Instructional Building and Library of Bronx Community College. Ground was broken for the 98000 sqft building in October 2008, with a completion date set for 2011. It was designed by Robert A. M. Stern Architects, and complements the original Stanford White plan for the campus. The artwork for the building includes 22 paintings depicting scenes of the Bronx by Hauben.

Awards and Commendations

 * 1990 BRIO award
 * 1995 BRIO award
 * 2005 BRIO award

Personal life
Hauben lives with his wife Judith Lane, a librettist and composer, in the Kingsbridge section of the Bronx.

title: Daniel Hauben


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Clifton Hill Shot Tower

The Clifton Hill Shot Tower is a 78 m cylindrical shot tower located in Clifton Hill, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia. The Clifton Hill Shot Tower held the title of Australia's tallest structure from its construction until 1930. Recognised by Guinness World Records, the landmark is acclaimed as the world's tallest shot tower. The shot tower is on the Victorian Heritage Register.

History
Clifton Hill Shot Tower was built beside Alexandra Parade (Then called Reilly Street) with its associated factory for Richard Hodgson in 1882 to manufacture lead shot and resembles a chimney. Lead shot production required a tall structure where molten lead could be dropped from the top, forming spherical droplets that would solidify during their descent and cool in water tanks at the bottom. The tower was operated by the Coops family, who also managed Coops Shot Tower, now located within the Melbourne Central Shopping Centre.

The tower continued to produce lead shot until the early 1960s when advancements in manufacturing processes and materials rendered the tower obsolete. However, instead of demolishing the historic structure, it was preserved and later converted into a tourist attraction and a symbol of Melbourne's industrial heritage.

Urban legend states that infamous Melbourne biker and gangster, 'Chopper' Read buried a body at the bottom of the Shot Tower, although this remains unproven.

Operation method
During its operational years, the tower employed a gravity-based production method. Molten lead was poured into a cauldron at the top of the tower, and through a series of sieves and funnels, the lead droplets would fall freely and gradually solidify as they made their way down. By the time the lead droplets reached the bottom, they would have cooled and hardened into perfectly spherical shot pellets.

Cultural significance
Sir Neil Cossons, founder of the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust and former chairman of English Heritage, has verified the importance of the Clifton Hill Shot Tower. Cossons, recognised as the leading authority on industrial heritage in Britain, has provided extensive guidance on conservation and management both in the UK and internationally. In 2014, he played a key role in nominating Japanese industrial heritage sites from the period of 1850-1910, which exemplify the emergence of industrial Japan, to be inducted as World Heritage sites. On 1 May 2010, during his visit to Melbourne to explore various industrial sites, he personally inspected the Clifton Hill shot tower. For Cossons, the tower stood out as the highlight of the day, as he had extensively studied shot towers worldwide, believes that the Clifton Hill shot tower boasts a uniquely remarkable design characterised by its scale, architecture, and intricately patterned brickwork.

The Clifton Hill Shot Tower was the tallest building in Australia from its completion in 1882 until 1930. It is one of only three remaining shot towers in Australia, with the others being the Taroona Shot Tower, Tasmania and Coop's Shot Tower located within the Melbourne Central Shopping Centre.

Access
The shot tower is easily visible from both Alexandra Parade and the northern end of Hoddle Street.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Clifton Hill Shot Tower


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User talk:SPACEBAR

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! , SqueakBox 14:55, 5 October 2005 (UTC)
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title: User talk:SPACEBAR


text:
Atlanta Exposition Speech

The Atlanta Exposition Speech was an address on the topic of race relations given by African-American scholar Booker T. Washington on September 18, 1895. The speech, presented before a predominantly white audience at the Cotton States and International Exposition (the site of today's Piedmont Park) in Atlanta, Georgia, has been recognized as one of the most important and influential speeches in American history. The speech was preceded by the reading of a dedicatory ode written by Frank Lebby Stanton.

Washington began with a call to the blacks, who composed one third of the Southern population, to join the world of work. He declared that the South was where blacks were given their chance, as opposed to the North, especially in the worlds of commerce and industry. He told the white audience that rather than relying on the immigrant population arriving at the rate of a million people a year, they should hire some of the nation's eight million blacks. He praised blacks' loyalty, fidelity and love in service to the white population, but warned that they could be a great burden on society if oppression continued, stating that the progress of the South was inherently tied to the treatment of blacks and protection of their liberties.

He addressed the inequality between commercial legality and social acceptance, proclaiming that "The opportunity to earn a dollar in a factory just now is worth infinitely more than the opportunity to spend a dollar in an opera house." Washington also promoted segregation by claiming that blacks and whites could exist as separate fingers of a hand.

The title "Atlanta Compromise Speech" was given to the speech by W. E. B. Du Bois, who believed it was insufficiently committed to the pursuit of social and political equality for blacks.

Although the speech was not recorded at its initial presentation in 1895, Washington recorded a portion of the speech during a trip to New York in 1908. This recording has been included in the United States National Recording Registry.

Cast down your bucket where you are
Washington used this phrase several times in the speech. The phrase was originally a call for a doomed ship to "cast down your bucket" to the ocean, upon which the sailors discovered fresh water to drink from the nearby Amazon River mouth.

For Washington's audience, the phrase had different meanings for whites and blacks. For whites, Washington seemed to be challenging their common misperceptions of black labor. The North had been experiencing labor troubles in the early 1890s (Homestead Strike, Pullman Strike, etc.) and Washington sought to capitalize on these issues by offering Southern black labor as an alternative, especially since his Tuskegee Institute was in the business of training such workers. For blacks, however, the "bucket motif" represented a call to personal uplift and diligence, as the South needed them to rebuild following the Civil War.

Separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand
This phrase appeared at the end of the speech's fifth paragraph. It is commonly referred to as the "Hand simile." Certain historians, like Louis Harlan, saw this simile as Washington's personal embrace of racial segregation. The entire simile reads as follows: Ultimately, many Southern whites (Porter King, William Yates Atkinson, etc.) praised Washington for including such a simile, because it effectively disarmed any immediate threat posed by blacks toward segregation (accommodationism).

title: Atlanta Exposition Speech


text:
Talk:Omiš

Hi! I have started an article on Omiš, my plan is to include some basic information and necessary graphics (city emblem and such), as well as some nice photos.--Promatrax161 14:56, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

spam?!?!
editors, please, someone tell me can this site be regarded as spam -> www.omisinfo.com Irishguy says it is.

That site is a tourist accomodation site, which lures potential tourists with photos of houses on their front page which they do not rent at all. Therefore, I have removed it from the links list.

Say whatever you want, this site has much information about Omis available in 8 different languages. If you knew anything about Omis riviera you could find the house at http://www.omisinfo.com/omis/mimice/mimice-apartments.htm. This site was made and is maintained by people who are born in Omis and know this town and region very well. You are obviously jealous because the site is a commercial success, not because it lures the tourists, but gives them valuable information and provides much needed services. Please find a good reason for exclusion of this site and provide one here.

Reply to the previous paragraph: A good reason to remove the link is that you are apparently trying to boost your search rank by linking your site at a Wikipedia article. As for the site being run by people born in Omis, might be, but I also notice that there are similar sites bearing names of other regions in Dalmatia which are run by the same company, and these sites look exactly the same. Therefore, to be on the safe side, I would drop your site from the link list. By the way, I was also born on the Omis riviera, and believe me I am glad that you are succesful with your business online. I just do not agree that one should commercially advertise on Wikipedia articles, otherwise it quickly becomes unreliable.

Reply to Reply to the previous paragraph: Hi. Wikipedia does not boost one's search rank, since the no follow attribute was added to the external links some time ago. You should be aware of this. A link from wikipedia to our site could only be beneficial for Wiki page about Omis. Regarding the other sites, all they have in common is the template, the content and the information provided are absolutely unique. The point I am trying to make is that our site has much valuable information about Omis in many languages and that it should be listed on Wiki page about Omis. You do whatever you want, I just don't think it is fair to this what you are doing. I have no intention of spamming or disputing this article. My grandfather was born in Omis, my father, my mother, and me and my brother. I live here all my life. I pay taxes every month. I invested money, time and energy in building this site, yet you decide it is not suitable to be listed on Wiki. And if you ban all the sites that have commercial character from wiki, what would be left?

Reply to Reply Reply to the previous paragraph: Ok, i was not aware of the nofollow attribute. Also, I have found a good link from your site to be put in the link list, and that is the part of your site which is also relevant to the article: http://www.omisinfo.com/omis/about-omis/

Anyway, AFAIC, you are free to change the article as you wish. I will not object, there is no point.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 one external links on Omiš. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160305181452/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=h8NjxTj9-qkC&pg=PA123&dq=Omi to https://books.google.com.au/books?id=h8NjxTj9-qkC&pg=PA123&dq=Omi
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160305180835/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=043jiZHXoJUC&pg=PA260&dq=Omi to https://books.google.com.au/books?id=043jiZHXoJUC&pg=PA260&dq=Omi
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091201195207/http://www.fdk.hr:80/indexeng.html to http://www.fdk.hr/indexeng.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 09:32, 1 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Omiš


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Frederick Bodmer

Frederick Bodmer (actually Friedrich Bodmer) (14 February 1894 – 2 January 1960) was a Swiss philologist and author of the popular book The Loom of Language.

Life
He wrote his PhD thesis in 1924 at University of Zurich on the topic Studies about a dialogue in Nathan by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (Studien zum Dialog in Lessings Nathan). After that he taught in Europe and at University of Cape Town. Later he held a position within the Department of Modern Languages at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He was succeeded in his position at MIT by Noam Chomsky in 1955.

title: Frederick Bodmer


text:
Wojciech Bogusławski

Wojciech Romuald Bogusławski (9 April 1757 – 23 July 1829) was a Polish actor, theater director and playwright of the Polish Enlightenment. He was the director of the National Theatre, Warsaw, (Teatr Narodowy), during three distinct periods, as well as establishing a Polish opera. He is considered the "Father of Polish theatre."

Early life
Bogusławski was born into the minor nobility in Glinno, Poznań County, the son of land regent Leopold Bogusławski and Anna Teresa Linowski (see Pomian coat of arms. It is likely that he initially studied in Kraków before going on to attend a Piarist boarding school in Warsaw. In 1774 he traveled to the court of Bishop Kajetan Sołtyk, where he took part in the amateur theatre performances organized there. In 1775 he enlisted with the Lithuanian Footmen's Guard, and left the military three years later with the rank of officer cadet.

1778-1790
Bogusławski embarked on his theatre career in 1778 by joining the troupe of Ludwik Montbrum, where he made his stage debut, and where his two-act, opera adaptation of Franciszek Bohomolec's cantata Nędza uszczęśliwiona (Misery Made Happy) was very well received.

In 1781 he began performing in Lviv with Agnieszka and Tomasz Truskolaski's troupe, but quickly returned to Warsaw. He was hired by the Polish National Theatre in 1782 and became its director a year later (1782–84), proving to be an enterprising impresario by organizing tours to cities like Grodno and Dubno. During this period he also established his own theatre in Poznań with the support of Stanisław August Poniatowski, but the venture quickly collapsed. He became a Freemason.

In 1785 Bogusławski founded another theatre in Vilnius, which he managed for the next five years. Among the plays he staged were Franciszek Zabłocki's Fircyk w zalotach (The Dandy's Courtship) (1785), and in 1786 gave the Polish premiere of Pierre Beaumarchais's scandalously revolutionary play The Marriage of Figaro. In Vilnius he assembled a troupe of accomplished actors whom he took with him when he returned to Warsaw, where he resumed directorship of the National Theatre.

1790-1794
His second term as director of this institution, lasting from 1790 to the fall of the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, consisted of building a real national stage with an artistic, social and civic mission. Boguslawski saw theatre primarily as a force for good, treating it as a platform for disseminating nationalist ideals: during the turbulent Great Sejm, 1788–92, state reforms were the subject of many productions at the National Theatre. A supporter of the reformist camp, Bogusławski created a repertoire addressing matters he saw as most important to Poles. During this period he also wrote for the theatre. After staging Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz's Powrót posla (The Return of the Deputy) (1791), Poland's first-ever political comedy, he wrote and staged a sequel to this drama titled Dowód wdzięczności narodu (Proof of the Nation's Appreciation) (1791) and followed this with Józef Wybicki's Szlachcic Mieszczaninem (The Noble Bourgeois) (1791).

He also wrote and staged Henryk vi na Lowach (Henry VI on a Hunting Excursion) (1792) and his most famous work, Cud mniemany, Czyli krakowiacy i górale (The Presumed Miracle, or Krakovians and Highlanders) (1794), Poland's first-ever opera, which he set to music by Stefani. Premiering on the eve of the Kościuszko Uprising, the production was banned by censors after just three performances. However, the public immediately understood the political allusions and soon people in Warsaw's streets were singing passages from “Krakovians”.

 * "The faces of vile traitors like Szczęsny Potocki, Kossakowski, Ożarowski, Zabiełło, Ankwicz and their henchmen exuded falseness (...)," wrote Antoni Trebicki of the production at the National. "What could be more comedic and better embody the preposterousness of all those imposed rulers of our kingdom as their collectively issued permission to play the farce 'Krakovians,' which happened to be written when it was, encouraged insurrection and publicly announced to those gentlemen what would actually happen to them imminently."

Bogusławski was due to be arrested for staging “The Presumed Miracle/Krakovians and Highlanders,” but apparently escaped through the intervention of the Royal Marshall Moszynski.

1794-1799
Following the uprising's collapse Bogusławski left Warsaw for Lviv, taking a substantial part of the theatre's costumes, props and the theatre's library with him. In Lviv he started another Polish theatre which operated under his guidance until 1799. Following extended negotiations with local censors he once again staged “Krakovians and Highlanders” in 1796, following this with a production of Shakespeare's Hamlet in 1797. In 1797 he also mounted an interesting production of his own melodrama titled Iskahar, Król Guaxary (Iskahar, King of Guaxara).

 * "Bogusławski Polonized 'Hamlet' and other dramas because the theatre of the Enlightenment, following a practice as old as the world, adapted works by the world's great geniuses to its own tastes. The works were Polonized because it was believed that viewers would not be stunned by the strangeness and exoticism of foreign customs only if they saw themselves as if in a mirror on stage."

Bogusławski introduced Classical tragedies to the Polish stage and did the same for Shakespeare, mounting productions based on translations and adaptations of the Bard's works. He also wrote several original plays and translated, adapted, modified and adjusted to Polish realities many French, German, English and Italian plays. All told, he authored more than eighty tragedies, comedies, dramas and opera librettos.

Bogusławski was a proponent of classical French principles initially, but later shifted his focus to moralizing German dramas that he saw as being closer to life. He directed the plays of Jean Racine, Molière, Voltaire, Pierre Beaumarchais, Denis Diderot, Friedrich Schiller and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. His interests not being limited to an ambitious repertoire, he also staged melodramas and vaudevilles that drew sizeable audiences as well as operas and ballets.

Bogusławski would almost immediately establish a Polish stage wherever he traveled, and these new theatres would continue to function as independent institutions after his departure.

 * "To erect a theatre wherever it was possible to perform in Polish and to perform in Polish as far as this was possible, and in performing what was necessary and when it was necessary, to proclaim and always remember that one had emerged from Warsaw and to Warsaw one would return" – this was his creative and organizational credo.

Actors who emerged from his "school" also founded new theatres. He taught his collaborators gesture and diction while constantly promoting greater naturalness in acting. Bogusławski helped many actors to develop their talents, his protégés including Kazimierz Owsinski, Alojzy Żółkowski, Agnieszka and Tomasz Truskolaski, Franciszka Pierożyńska, Bonawentura Kudlicz, Józefa Ledóchowska, Ludwik Dmuszewski and many others.

As an actor, he began by playing leading men, but his greatest acting triumphs came later, during his second term as director of the National Theatre, playing Old Dominic in "Taczka Occiarza" (1793 – his own adaptation of Sebastian Mercier's play "La Brouette de Vinagrier"), Ferdinand Kokiel in "Henry VI on a Hunting Excursion" and Bardos in "Krakovians and Highlanders". Though all these roles were common folk, Boguslawski was equally convincing as elderly characters, rulers or tyrants, and he played King Lear in Shakespeare's tragedy (1805), King Axur in Axur, a drama set to music by Antonio Salieri (1793), and Old Horace in Pierre Corneille's Horace (1793).

As a stage director, Bogusławski was adept at working with designers and musicians. He cooperated frequently with painters Antoni Smuglewicz, Jan Bogumił Plersch, Innocento Maraino and Antonio Scottio, and with exceptional musicians like Józef Elsner and Karol Kurpiński. His most interesting productions were those where he shaped multiple aspects – as writer and director, and often appearing in the leading role.

1799-1814
In 1799 Boguslawski returned to Warsaw and became director of the National Theatre for the third time, retaining this position until 1814. During this period he also performed in a number of other Polish cities, including Poznań, Kalisz, Łowicz, Kraków and Gdańsk. He remained a favorite of vast segments of the audience, although critics increasingly accused him of manifesting "vulgar tastes".

In 1811 he organized Poland's first School of Drama, simultaneously writing a textbook titled Dramaturgia, czyli nauka sztuki scenicznej dla Szkoły Teatralnej napisana przez Wojciecha Bogusławskiego w Warszawie 1812 (Dramaturgy, or an Instructional Stage Art Program for a Theatre School Written by Wojciech Bogusławski in Warsaw in 1812).

In 1814 he handed over his National Theatre "enterprise" to Ludwik Osiński, but remained linked to the theatre. Initially, he performed with his own troupe at the National Theatre, but later also appeared on other stages, including that in Vilnius. Toward the end of his life he wrote and published his Dzieje Teatru Narodowego (Annals of The National Theatre), and also compiled and printed his Dzieła Dramatyczne (Dramatic Works). Wojciech Bogusławski made his last stage appearance in 1827.

Death
He died on 23 July 1829, age 72, in Warsaw.

Afterlife

 * He was commemorated on a Polish postage stamp issued as part of a set depicting dramatists in 1978.
 * He is the protagonist of the novel "Az Ikszek" (1981) by renowned Hungarian writer György Spiró.

title: Wojciech Bogusławski


text:
Vitis rupestris

Vitis rupestris is a species of grape native to the United States that is known by many common names including July, Coon, sand, sugar, beach, bush, currant, ingar, rock, and mountain grape. It is used for breeding several French-American hybrids as well as many root stocks.

Distribution and ecology
The natural distribution of Vitis rupestris is concentrated in the Ozark Hills of Missouri and Arkansas. The species is less common in scattered populations east as far as Pennsylvania and southwest into Oklahoma and Texas. There are a few reports of the species occurring in the San Francisco Bay area of California, but these are most likely escapes from cultivation.

Vitis rupestris is a self-supporting bushy plant that does not grow in the shade, and is found only on rocky riverbanks and streambanks. Much of its habitat has been destroyed due to damming of rivers and destruction of islands for navigation. Vitis rupestris has been listed as threatened or endangered by Indiana, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. Known locations of wild Vitis rupestris are quickly disappearing, which may threaten the future of this grape species.

It is found hybridized in parts of its range with the Riverbank grape and other Vitis species.

Botanical description
Growth is tapering, erect, much branched and rarely climbing more than 4 to 8 feet. The roots are slender, wiry and deep and enable it to resist drought by spreading deep underground to find the water table.

Wood is smooth and red when young, becoming cylindrical and finely striated when mature with dark colored bark that becomes darker with age. Wood is quite persistent with age and dense but not hard. Buds are small, globose or slightly conical. Tendrils are small and crimson colored with short internodes.

Leaves are lanceolate with large stipules with crimson veins. Petiole are deeply and broadly grooved throughout the length. Leaves are distinctly striated and nearly always smooth. Width of the leaves is usually 3" to 4", sometimes 5".

Clusters are very small, sometimes shouldered. Rachis is smooth and light green. Flowers are fertile, stamens recurved and bent laterally with flowers producing abundant pollen. Fruits are 1/4" to 1/2" in diameter, round or slightly flattened around the stem and often doubled like two berries coalesced. The berries are black with little bloom, skin is very thin and tender and pulp is tender and melting. Pulp is deeply colored crimson or violet and part clings closely to the skin. The berries bear 3 to 4 small seeds on clusters around 8" long. Germination is quick and fruit ripens early. The species is able to bear fruit on young shoots pushed out by 2 to 4 year old wood if last year's wood has been lost to winter damage. It propagates easily from cuttings, and the pollen is very prepotent in fertilizing and hybridizing with other Vitis species.

Pest and disease resistance
Has great resistance to drought due to its deep roots penetrating the water table. Where it is unable to do this though it is subject to injury. Foliage is well adapted to resisting fungus and insect attacks, although favored by many grazing mammals. Occasionally attacked by anthracnose but with minimal injury, and resistant to black rot, downy mildew and powdery mildew.

Cultivars and hybrids
Widely used in hybridizing with other species (mostly Vitis vinifera and Vitis lincecumii) to produce disease resistant Hybrid grapes. The species was used extensively to produce varieties able to withstand Phylloxera on their own roots and withstand attacks of Downy mildew.

Breeders that used the species frequently include T.V. Munson, Albert Seibel (see: Seibel grapes), Joannes Seyve and Elmer Swenson (indirectly via hybridizing existing varieties containing 'Vitis rupestris'. 'Vitis rupestris' often contributes a large proportion of ancestries of 'French hybrid' grapes (or 'French direct producers') such as Seyval, although it was often overlooked in its homeland in favor of Vitis labrusca.

A large proportion of modern European "PIWI" varieties categorized as Vitis vinifera contain 'Vitis rupestris' background such as Solaris and Regent.

The cultivar known as Rupestris St. George has been widely used in breeding and as a root stock. A popular cultivar in Australia is Vitis vinifera 'Ganzin Glory', a hybrid of V. rupestris and V. vinifera, that does not fruit and is grown for its autumn foliage as an ornamental plant.

title: Vitis rupestris


text:
MTOR

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), also referred to as the mechanistic target of rapamycin, and sometimes called FK506-binding protein 12-rapamycin-associated protein 1 (FRAP1), is a kinase that in humans is encoded by the MTOR gene. mTOR is a member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase family of protein kinases.

mTOR links with other proteins and serves as a core component of two distinct protein complexes, mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2, which regulate different cellular processes. In particular, as a core component of both complexes, mTOR functions as a serine/threonine protein kinase that regulates cell growth, cell proliferation, cell motility, cell survival, protein synthesis, autophagy, and transcription. As a core component of mTORC2, mTOR also functions as a tyrosine protein kinase that promotes the activation of insulin receptors and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors. mTORC2 has also been implicated in the control and maintenance of the actin cytoskeleton.

Rapa Nui (Easter Island - Chile)
The study of TOR originated in the 1960s with an expedition to Easter Island (known by the island inhabitants as Rapa Nui), with the goal of identifying natural products from plants and soil with possible therapeutic potential. In 1972, Suren Sehgal identified a small molecule, from the soil bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus, that he purified and initially reported to possess potent antifungal activity. He named it rapamycin, noting its original source and activity. Early testing revealed that rapamycin also had potent immunosuppressive and cytostatic anti-cancer activity. Rapamycin did not initially receive significant interest from the pharmaceutical industry until the 1980s, when Wyeth-Ayerst supported Sehgal's efforts to further investigate rapamycin's effect on the immune system. This eventually led to its FDA approval as an immunosuppressant following kidney transplantation. However, prior to its FDA approval, how rapamycin worked remained completely unknown.

Subsequent history
The discovery of TOR and mTOR stemmed from independent studies of the natural product rapamycin by Joseph Heitman, Rao Movva, and Michael N. Hall in 1991; by David M. Sabatini, Hediye Erdjument-Bromage, Mary Lui, Paul Tempst, and Solomon H. Snyder in 1994; and by Candace J. Sabers, Mary M. Martin, Gregory J. Brunn, Josie M. Williams, Francis J. Dumont, Gregory Wiederrecht, and Robert T. Abraham in 1995. In 1991, working in yeast, Hall and colleagues identified the TOR1 and TOR2 genes. In 1993, Robert Cafferkey, George Livi, and colleagues, and Jeannette Kunz, Michael N. Hall, and colleagues independently cloned genes that mediate the toxicity of rapamycin in fungi, known as the TOR/DRR genes.

Rapamycin arrests fungal activity at the G1 phase of the cell cycle. In mammals, it suppresses the immune system by blocking the G1 to S phase transition in T-lymphocytes. Thus, it is used as an immunosuppressant following organ transplantation. Interest in rapamycin was renewed following the discovery of the structurally related immunosuppressive natural product FK506 (later called Tacrolimus) in 1987. In 1989–90, FK506 and rapamycin were determined to inhibit T-cell receptor (TCR) and IL-2 receptor signaling pathways, respectively. The two natural products were used to discover the FK506- and rapamycin-binding proteins, including FKBP12, and to provide evidence that FKBP12–FK506 and FKBP12–rapamycin might act through gain-of-function mechanisms that target distinct cellular functions. These investigations included key studies by Francis Dumont and Nolan Sigal at Merck contributing to show that FK506 and rapamycin behave as reciprocal antagonists. These studies implicated FKBP12 as a possible target of rapamycin, but suggested that the complex might interact with another element of the mechanistic cascade.

In 1991, calcineurin was identified as the target of FKBP12-FK506. That of FKBP12-rapamycin remained mysterious until genetic and molecular studies in yeast established FKBP12 as the target of rapamycin, and implicated TOR1 and TOR2 as the targets of FKBP12-rapamycin in 1991 and 1993, followed by studies in 1994 when several groups, working independently, discovered the mTOR kinase as its direct target in mammalian tissues. Sequence analysis of mTOR revealed it to be the direct ortholog of proteins encoded by the yeast target of rapamycin 1 and 2 (TOR1 and TOR2) genes, which Joseph Heitman, Rao Movva, and Michael N. Hall had identified in August 1991 and May 1993. Independently, George Livi and colleagues later reported the same genes, which they called dominant rapamycin resistance 1 and 2 (DRR1 and DRR2), in studies published in October 1993.

The protein, now called mTOR, was originally named FRAP by Stuart L. Schreiber and RAFT1 by David M. Sabatini; FRAP1 was used as its official gene symbol in humans. Because of these different names, mTOR, which had been first used by Robert T. Abraham, was increasingly adopted by the community of scientists working on the mTOR pathway to refer to the protein and in homage to the original discovery of the TOR protein in yeast that was named TOR, the Target of Rapamycin, by Joe Heitman, Rao Movva, and Mike Hall. TOR was originally discovered at the Biozentrum and Sandoz Pharmaceuticals in 1991 in Basel, Switzerland, and the name TOR pays further homage to this discovery, as TOR means doorway or gate in German, and the city of Basel was once ringed by a wall punctuated with gates into the city, including the iconic Spalentor. "mTOR" initially meant "mammalian target of rapamycin", but the meaning of the "m" was later changed to "mechanistic". Similarly, with subsequent discoveries the zebra fish TOR was named zTOR, the Arabidopsis thaliana TOR was named AtTOR, and the Drosophila TOR was named dTOR. In 2009 the FRAP1 gene name was officially changed by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) to mTOR, which stands for mechanistic target of rapamycin.

The discovery of TOR and the subsequent identification of mTOR opened the door to the molecular and physiological study of what is now called the mTOR pathway and had a catalytic effect on the growth of the field of chemical biology, where small molecules are used as probes of biology.

Function
mTOR integrates the input from upstream pathways, including insulin, growth factors (such as IGF-1 and IGF-2), and amino acids. mTOR also senses cellular nutrient, oxygen, and energy levels. The mTOR pathway is a central regulator of mammalian metabolism and physiology, with important roles in the function of tissues including liver, muscle, white and brown adipose tissue, and the brain, and is dysregulated in human diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, depression, and certain cancers. Rapamycin inhibits mTOR by associating with its intracellular receptor FKBP12. The FKBP12–rapamycin complex binds directly to the FKBP12-Rapamycin Binding (FRB) domain of mTOR, inhibiting its activity.

In plants
Plants express the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and have a TOR kinase complex. In plants, only the TORC1 complex is present unlike that of mammalian target of rapamycin which also contains the TORC2 complex. Plant species have TOR proteins in the protein kinase and FKBP-rapamycin binding (FRB) domains that share a similar amino acid sequence to mTOR in mammals.

Role of mTOR in plants

The TOR kinase complex has been known for having a role in the metabolism of plants. The TORC1 complex turns on when plants are living the proper environmental conditions to survive. Once activated, plant cells undergo particular anabolic reactions. These include plant development, translation of mRNA and the growth of cells within the plant. However, the TORC1 complex activation stops catabolic processes such as autophagy from occurring. TOR kinase signaling in plants has been found to aid in senescence, flowering, root and leaf growth, embryogenesis, and the meristem activation above the root cap of a plant. mTOR is also found to be highly involved in developing embryo tissue in plants.

Complexes
mTOR is the catalytic subunit of two structurally distinct complexes: mTORC1 and mTORC2. The two complexes localize to different subcellular compartments, thus affecting their activation and function. Upon activation by Rheb, mTORC1 localizes to the Ragulator-Rag complex on the lysosome surface where it then becomes active in the presence of sufficient amino acids.

mTORC1
mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1) is composed of mTOR, regulatory-associated protein of mTOR (Raptor), mammalian lethal with SEC13 protein 8 (mLST8) and the non-core components PRAS40 and DEPTOR. This complex functions as a nutrient/energy/redox sensor and controls protein synthesis. The activity of mTORC1 is regulated by rapamycin, insulin, growth factors, phosphatidic acid, certain amino acids and their derivatives (e.g., -leucine and β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid), mechanical stimuli, and oxidative stress.

mTORC2
mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2) is composed of MTOR, rapamycin-insensitive companion of MTOR (RICTOR), MLST8, and mammalian stress-activated protein kinase interacting protein 1 (mSIN1). mTORC2 has been shown to function as an important regulator of the actin cytoskeleton through its stimulation of F-actin stress fibers, paxillin, RhoA, Rac1, Cdc42, and protein kinase C α (PKCα). mTORC2 also phosphorylates the serine/threonine protein kinase Akt/PKB on serine residue Ser473, thus affecting metabolism and survival. Phosphorylation of Akt's serine residue Ser473 by mTORC2 stimulates Akt phosphorylation on threonine residue Thr308 by PDK1 and leads to full Akt activation. In addition, mTORC2 exhibits tyrosine protein kinase activity and phosphorylates the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) and insulin receptor (InsR) on the tyrosine residues Tyr1131/1136 and Tyr1146/1151, respectively, leading to full activation of IGF-IR and InsR.

Inhibition by rapamycin
Rapamycin (Sirolimus) inhibits mTORC1, resulting in the suppression of cellular senescence. This appears to provide most of the beneficial effects of the drug (including life-span extension in animal studies). Suppression of insulin resistance by sirtuins accounts for at least some of this effect. Impaired sirtuin 3 leads to mitochondrial dysfunction.

Rapamycin has a more complex effect on mTORC2, inhibiting it only in certain cell types under prolonged exposure. Disruption of mTORC2 produces the diabetic-like symptoms of decreased glucose tolerance and insensitivity to insulin.

Gene deletion experiments
The mTORC2 signaling pathway is less defined than the mTORC1 signaling pathway. The functions of the components of the mTORC complexes have been studied using knockdowns and knockouts and were found to produce the following phenotypes:
 * NIP7: Knockdown reduced mTORC2 activity that is indicated by decreased phosphorylation of mTORC2 substrates.
 * RICTOR: Overexpression leads to metastasis and knockdown inhibits growth factor-induced PKC-phosphorylation. Constitutive deletion of Rictor in mice leads to embryonic lethality, while tissue specific deletion leads to a variety of phenotypes; a common phenotype of Rictor deletion in liver, white adipose tissue, and pancreatic beta cells is systemic glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in one or more tissues.  Decreased Rictor expression in mice decreases male, but not female, lifespan.
 * mTOR: Inhibition of mTORC1 and mTORC2 by PP242 [2-(4-Amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-1H-indol-5-ol] leads to autophagy or apoptosis; inhibition of mTORC2 alone by PP242 prevents phosphorylation of Ser-473 site on AKT and arrests the cells in G1 phase of the cell cycle. Genetic reduction of mTOR expression in mice significantly increases lifespan.
 * PDK1: Knockout is lethal; hypomorphic allele results in smaller organ volume and organism size but normal AKT activation.
 * AKT: Knockout mice experience spontaneous apoptosis (AKT1), severe diabetes (AKT2), small brains (AKT3), and growth deficiency (AKT1/AKT2). Mice heterozygous for AKT1 have increased lifespan.
 * TOR1, the S. cerevisiae orthologue of mTORC1, is a regulator of both carbon and nitrogen metabolism; TOR1 KO strains regulate response to nitrogen as well as carbon availability, indicating that it is a key nutritional transducer in yeast.

Aging
Decreased TOR activity has been found to increase life span in S. cerevisiae, C. elegans, and D. melanogaster. The mTOR inhibitor rapamycin has been confirmed to increase lifespan in mice.

It is hypothesized that some dietary regimes, like caloric restriction and methionine restriction, cause lifespan extension by decreasing mTOR activity. Some studies have suggested that mTOR signaling may increase during aging, at least in specific tissues like adipose tissue, and rapamycin may act in part by blocking this increase. An alternative theory is mTOR signaling is an example of antagonistic pleiotropy, and while high mTOR signaling is good during early life, it is maintained at an inappropriately high level in old age. Calorie restriction and methionine restriction may act in part by limiting levels of essential amino acids including leucine and methionine, which are potent activators of mTOR. The administration of leucine into the rat brain has been shown to decrease food intake and body weight via activation of the mTOR pathway in the hypothalamus.

According to the free radical theory of aging, reactive oxygen species cause damage to mitochondrial proteins and decrease ATP production. Subsequently, via ATP sensitive AMPK, the mTOR pathway is inhibited and ATP-consuming protein synthesis is downregulated, since mTORC1 initiates a phosphorylation cascade activating the ribosome. Hence, the proportion of damaged proteins is enhanced. Moreover, disruption of mTORC1 directly inhibits mitochondrial respiration. These positive feedbacks on the aging process are counteracted by protective mechanisms: Decreased mTOR activity (among other factors) upregulates removal of dysfunctional cellular components via autophagy.

mTOR is a key initiator of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Interleukin 1 alpha (IL1A) is found on the surface of senescent cells where it contributes to the production of SASP factors due to a positive feedback loop with NF-κB. Translation of mRNA for IL1A is highly dependent upon mTOR activity. mTOR activity increases levels of IL1A, mediated by MAPKAPK2. mTOR inhibition of ZFP36L1 prevents this protein from degrading transcripts of numerous components of SASP factors.

Cancer
Over-activation of mTOR signaling significantly contributes to the initiation and development of tumors and mTOR activity was found to be deregulated in many types of cancer including breast, prostate, lung, melanoma, bladder, brain, and renal carcinomas. Reasons for constitutive activation are several. Among the most common are mutations in tumor suppressor PTEN gene. PTEN phosphatase negatively affects mTOR signalling through interfering with the effect of PI3K, an upstream effector of mTOR. Additionally, mTOR activity is deregulated in many cancers as a result of increased activity of PI3K or Akt. Similarly, overexpression of downstream mTOR effectors 4E-BP1, S6K1, S6K2 and eIF4E leads to poor cancer prognosis. Also, mutations in TSC proteins that inhibit the activity of mTOR may lead to a condition named tuberous sclerosis complex, which exhibits as benign lesions and increases the risk of renal cell carcinoma.

Increasing mTOR activity was shown to drive cell cycle progression and increase cell proliferation mainly due to its effect on protein synthesis. Moreover, active mTOR supports tumor growth also indirectly by inhibiting autophagy. Constitutively activated mTOR functions in supplying carcinoma cells with oxygen and nutrients by increasing the translation of HIF1A and supporting angiogenesis. mTOR also aids in another metabolic adaptation of cancerous cells to support their increased growth rate—activation of glycolytic metabolism. Akt2, a substrate of mTOR, specifically of mTORC2, upregulates expression of the glycolytic enzyme PKM2 thus contributing to the Warburg effect.

Autism
mTOR is implicated in the failure of a 'pruning' mechanism of the excitatory synapses in autism spectrum disorders.

Alzheimer's disease
mTOR signaling intersects with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology in several aspects, suggesting its potential role as a contributor to disease progression. In general, findings demonstrate mTOR signaling hyperactivity in AD brains. For example, postmortem studies of human AD brain reveal dysregulation in PTEN, Akt, S6K, and mTOR. mTOR signaling appears to be closely related to the presence of soluble amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau proteins, which aggregate and form two hallmarks of the disease, Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, respectively. In vitro studies have shown Aβ to be an activator of the PI3K/AKT pathway, which in turn activates mTOR. In addition, applying Aβ to N2K cells increases the expression of p70S6K, a downstream target of mTOR known to have higher expression in neurons that eventually develop neurofibrillary tangles. Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with the 7PA2 familial AD mutation also exhibit increased mTOR activity compared to controls, and the hyperactivity is blocked using a gamma-secretase inhibitor. These in vitro studies suggest that increasing Aβ concentrations increases mTOR signaling; however, significantly large, cytotoxic Aβ concentrations are thought to decrease mTOR signaling.

Consistent with data observed in vitro, mTOR activity and activated p70S6K have been shown to be significantly increased in the cortex and hippocampus of animal models of AD compared to controls. Pharmacologic or genetic removal of the Aβ in animal models of AD eliminates the disruption in normal mTOR activity, pointing to the direct involvement of Aβ in mTOR signaling. In addition, by injecting Aβ oligomers into the hippocampi of normal mice, mTOR hyperactivity is observed. Cognitive impairments characteristic of AD appear to be mediated by the phosphorylation of PRAS-40, which detaches from and allows for the mTOR hyperactivity when it is phosphorylated; inhibiting PRAS-40 phosphorylation prevents Aβ-induced mTOR hyperactivity. Given these findings, the mTOR signaling pathway appears to be one mechanism of Aβ-induced toxicity in AD.

The hyperphosphorylation of tau proteins into neurofibrillary tangles is one hallmark of AD. p70S6K activation has been shown to promote tangle formation as well as mTOR hyperactivity through increased phosphorylation and reduced dephosphorylation. It has also been proposed that mTOR contributes to tau pathology by increasing the translation of tau and other proteins.

Synaptic plasticity is a key contributor to learning and memory, two processes that are severely impaired in AD patients. Translational control, or the maintenance of protein homeostasis, has been shown to be essential for neural plasticity and is regulated by mTOR. Both protein over- and under-production via mTOR activity seem to contribute to impaired learning and memory. Furthermore, given that deficits resulting from mTOR overactivity can be alleviated through treatment with rapamycin, it is possible that mTOR plays an important role in affecting cognitive functioning through synaptic plasticity. Further evidence for mTOR activity in neurodegeneration comes from recent findings demonstrating that eIF2α-P, an upstream target of the mTOR pathway, mediates cell death in prion diseases through sustained translational inhibition.

Some evidence points to mTOR's role in reduced Aβ clearance as well. mTOR is a negative regulator of autophagy; therefore, hyperactivity in mTOR signaling should reduce Aβ clearance in the AD brain. Disruptions in autophagy may be a potential source of pathogenesis in protein misfolding diseases, including AD. Studies using mouse models of Huntington's disease demonstrate that treatment with rapamycin facilitates the clearance of huntingtin aggregates. Perhaps the same treatment may be useful in clearing Aβ deposits as well.

Lymphoproliferative diseases
Hyperactive mTOR pathways have been identified in certain lymphoproliferative diseases such as autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS), multicentric Castleman disease, and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD).

Protein synthesis and cell growth
mTORC1 activation is required for myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis and skeletal muscle hypertrophy in humans in response to both physical exercise and ingestion of certain amino acids or amino acid derivatives. Persistent inactivation of mTORC1 signaling in skeletal muscle facilitates the loss of muscle mass and strength during muscle wasting in old age, cancer cachexia, and muscle atrophy from physical inactivity. mTORC2 activation appears to mediate neurite outgrowth in differentiated mouse neuro2a cells. Intermittent mTOR activation in prefrontal neurons by β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate inhibits age-related cognitive decline associated with dendritic pruning in animals, which is a phenomenon also observed in humans.

Lysosomal damage inhibits mTOR and induces autophagy
Active mTORC1 is positioned on lysosomes. mTOR is inhibited when lysosomal membrane is damaged by various exogenous or endogenous agents, such as invading bacteria, membrane-permeant chemicals yielding osmotically active products (this type of injury can be modeled using membrane-permeant dipeptide precursors that polymerize in lysosomes), amyloid protein aggregates (see above section on Alzheimer's disease) and cytoplasmic organic or inorganic inclusions including urate crystals and crystalline silica. The process of mTOR inactivation following lysosomal/endomembrane is mediated by the protein complex termed GALTOR. At the heart of GALTOR is galectin-8, a member of β-galactoside binding superfamily of cytosolic lectins termed galectins, which recognizes lysosomal membrane damage by binding to the exposed glycans on the lumenal side of the delimiting endomembrane. Following membrane damage, galectin-8, which normally associates with mTOR under homeostatic conditions, no longer interacts with mTOR but now instead binds to SLC38A9, RRAGA/RRAGB, and LAMTOR1, inhibiting Ragulator's (LAMTOR1-5 complex) guanine nucleotide exchange function-

TOR is a negative regulator of autophagy in general, best studied during response to starvation,   which is a metabolic response. During lysosomal damage however, mTOR inhibition activates autophagy response in its quality control function, leading to the process termed lysophagy that removes damaged lysosomes. At this stage another galectin, galectin-3, interacts with TRIM16 to guide selective autophagy of damaged lysosomes. TRIM16 gathers ULK1 and principal components (Beclin 1 and ATG16L1) of other complexes (Beclin 1-VPS34-ATG14 and ATG16L1-ATG5-ATG12) initiating autophagy, many of them being under negative control of mTOR directly such as the ULK1-ATG13 complex,  or indirectly, such as components of the class III PI3K (Beclin 1, ATG14 and VPS34) since they depend on activating phosphorylations by ULK1 when it is not inhibited by mTOR. These autophagy-driving components physically and functionally link up with each other integrating all processes necessary for autophagosomal formation: (i) the ULK1-ATG13-FIP200/RB1CC1 complex associates with the LC3B/GABARAP conjugation machinery through direct interactions between FIP200/RB1CC1 and ATG16L1, (ii) ULK1-ATG13-FIP200/RB1CC1 complex associates with the Beclin 1-VPS34-ATG14 via direct interactions between ATG13's HORMA domain and ATG14, (iii) ATG16L1 interacts with WIPI2, which binds to PI3P, the enzymatic product of the class III PI3K Beclin 1-VPS34-ATG14. Thus, mTOR inactivation, initiated through GALTOR upon lysosomal damage, plus a simultaneous activation via galectin-9 (which also recognizes lysosomal membrane breach) of AMPK that directly phosphorylates and activates key components (ULK1, Beclin 1 ) of the autophagy systems listed above and further inactivates mTORC1, allows for strong autophagy induction and autophagic removal of damaged lysosomes.

Additionally, several types of ubiquitination events parallel and complement the galectin-driven processes: Ubiquitination of TRIM16-ULK1-Beclin-1 stabilizes these complexes to promote autophagy activation as described above. ATG16L1 has an intrinsic binding affinity for ubiquitin ); whereas ubiquitination by a glycoprotein-specific FBXO27-endowed ubiquitin ligase of several damage-exposed glycosylated lysosomal membrane proteins such as LAMP1, LAMP2, GNS/N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase, TSPAN6/tetraspanin-6, PSAP/prosaposin, and TMEM192/transmembrane protein 192 may contribute to the execution of lysophagy via autophagic receptors such as p62/SQSTM1, which is recruited during lysophagy, or other to be determined functions.

Scleroderma
Scleroderma, also known as systemic sclerosis, is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterised by hardening (sclero) of the skin (derma) that affects internal organs in its more severe forms. mTOR plays a role in fibrotic diseases and autoimmunity, and blockade of the mTORC pathway is under investigation as a treatment for scleroderma.

Transplantation
mTOR inhibitors, e.g. rapamycin, are already used to prevent transplant rejection.

Glycogen storage disease
Some articles reported that rapamycin can inhibit mTORC1 so that the phosphorylation of GS (glycogen synthase) can be increased in skeletal muscle. This discovery represents a potential novel therapeutic approach for glycogen storage disease that involve glycogen accumulation in muscle.

Anti-cancer
There are two primary mTOR inhibitors used in the treatment of human cancers, temsirolimus and everolimus. mTOR inhibitors have found use in the treatment of a variety of malignancies, including renal cell carcinoma (temsirolimus) and pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, and renal cell carcinoma (everolimus). The complete mechanism of these agents is not clear, but they are thought to function by impairing tumour angiogenesis and causing impairment of the G1/S transition.

Anti-aging
mTOR inhibitors may be useful for treating/preventing several age-associated conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. After a short-term treatment with the mTOR inhibitors dactolisib and everolimus, in elderly (65 and older), treated subjects had a reduced number of infections over the course of a year.

Various natural compounds, including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), caffeine, curcumin, berberine, quercetin, resveratrol and pterostilbene, have been reported to inhibit mTOR when applied to isolated cells in culture. As yet no high quality evidence exists that these substances inhibit mTOR signaling or extend lifespan when taken as dietary supplements by humans, despite encouraging results in animals such as fruit flies and mice. Various trials are ongoing.

Interactions
Mechanistic target of rapamycin has been shown to interact with:

 * ABL1,
 * AKT1,
 * IGF-IR,
 * InsR,
 * CLIP1,
 * EIF3F
 * EIF4EBP1,
 * FKBP1A,
 * GPHN,
 * KIAA1303,
 * PRKCD,
 * RHEB,
 * RICTOR,
 * RPS6KB1,
 * STAT1,
 * STAT3,
 * Two-pore channels: TPCN1; TPCN2, and
 * UBQLN1.

title: MTOR


text:
The Burning (1981 film)

The Burning is a 1981 American slasher film directed by Tony Maylam, and starring Brian Matthews, Leah Ayres, Brian Backer, Larry Joshua, and Lou David. Its plot follows a summer camp caretaker who is horribly burnt from a prank gone wrong, where he seeks vengeance at a nearby summer camp years later. The film marks the debuts of actors Jason Alexander, Fisher Stevens, and Holly Hunter.

Based on the New York urban legend of the Cropsey maniac, the screenplay was written by Bob Weinstein and Peter Lawrence, from a story conceived by producer Harvey Weinstein, Tony Maylam, and Brad Grey. Rick Wakeman, of the progressive rock band Yes, composed the score.

The Burning was theatrically released on May 8, 1981, by Filmways. Its critical reception was largely unfavorable, with many film critics deriding its similarities to Friday the 13th and Friday the 13th Part 2 and its graphic violence. However, it has since become a cult classic and received positive reappraisal from film critics.

Plot
One night at Camp Blackfoot, several campers pull a prank on Cropsy, the camp's alcoholic and abusive caretaker, by setting a worm-riddled skull with candles in the eye sockets next to his bed. When the caretaker is awakened by the campers banging on his window, he gets frightened by the skull and accidentally knocks it onto his bed, starting a fire. The flames reach a gas tank, which ignites Cropsy and his cabin. He runs outside, engulfed in flames, and stumbles down into a river as the boys flee. Despite his horrific injuries, Cropsy survives.

Five years later, Cropsy is released from the hospital despite dealing with failed skin grafts and wears a coat and hat to hide his disfigurement. A prostitute lures him to her apartment, where he stabs her with scissors in a fit of rage. He then arms himself with a pair of pruning shears and sets out for another summer camp, Stonewater. The counselors and campers are playing softball there when a camper searching for a lost ball in the woods narrowly avoids Cropsy.

The next morning, a camper named Alfred scares Sally as she steps out of the shower. Her screams bring the attention of counselors Michelle and Todd, and campers Karen and Eddy catch him. Michelle is furious at Alfred and demands that he leave, but Todd talks to him. He learns that Alfred has no friends and is merely pulling a prank on Sally. Sally's boyfriend, Glazer, confronts Alfred, but Todd gets him to back off, and the latter apologizes to Sally. Alfred spots Cropsy outside his window that night, but nobody believes him.

The following day, the campers are brought by Todd and Michelle on a canoe trip down to the river Devil's Creek. After Todd tells them about the legend of Cropsy, Karen, and Eddy, go to a lake to skinny dip. He leaves upset when she reconsiders having sex with him, and Karen leaves the lake to find her clothes scattered in the woods. As she collects them, Cropsy slashes her throat with his shears. The next morning, Michelle finds Karen and the canoes missing. Eddy, Fish, Woodstock, Diane, and Barbara search for the canoes on a makeshift raft. They spot a canoe and paddle to it, but Cropsy ambushes them by jumping out from the canoe and savagely murders them all with his shears.

Glazer has sex with Sally in the woods but suffers premature ejaculation. When he leaves to get matches for a campfire, Cropsy shoves his shears into Sally's chest. Her boyfriend returns only for Cropsy to stab him through the throat and pin him to a tree. Alfred witnesses his death and wakes up Todd, but Todd is rendered unconscious by Cropsy, who then chases after Alfred. Meanwhile, Michelle finds the mutilated bodies on the makeshift raft and brings the remaining campers back to the camp to contact the authorities.

Todd regains consciousness and chases after the killer with an axe. Cropsy grabs Alfred inside an abandoned mineshaft and pins him to a wall with his shears. Todd discovers Karen's body and sees Cropsy armed with a flamethrower, where he begins to remember being involved with the prank. He is attacked by Cropsy, who reveals his disfigurements, and Alfred frees himself to stab him with his own shears. Before they can leave, Cropsy reappears, and Todd ultimately slams the axe into his face, killing him. Alfred ignites his body with his own flamethrower, and they make their way outside to Michelle, who brought the police with her, as Cropsy's body burns away. At a campfire, another group of teenagers is seen retelling the story of Cropsy.

Conception
In 1980, Harvey Weinstein was desperate to break into the movie business. Weinstein and producing partner Michael Cohl recognized the success of low-budget horror films such as The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and Halloween (1978), and began swapping horror stories. Having heard stories about the Cropsy legend when he was a young camper in upstate New York, Weinstein brought the idea to Cohl, who loved it.

The project was initiated before the popularity of Sean S. Cunningham's sleeper hit Friday the 13th (1980), with Harvey Weinstein creating a five-page treatment in 1979 under the title "The Cropsy Maniac" and registering it in April 1980, a full month before Cunningham's film was released. Coincidentally, at the same time, director Joseph Ellison also had a film in pre-production under the title "The Burning", but changed the name to Don't Go in the House (1980) to avoid confusion with Weinstein's film. The production also bore similarities to another slasher movie in pre-production, a film that would become known as Madman (1982). In summer 1980, during a casting call for Madman, one of the actresses commented that her boyfriend was acting in The Burning. This prompted Madman to change its entire premise, which was built around the Cropsy legend. This led to a delay in its filming until October 1980, which proved costly as it didn't receive a theatrical release until January 1982. The over-saturation of genre films competing with each other was one of the side-effects of the early 1980s slasher boom.

Cohl told Variety that he, Weinstein and producer Corky Burger took an early version of the script to the 1980 Cannes Film Festival, where it was well received, although they rejected initial six-figure offers, hoping to land more money once the film had been shot. This was a similar approach to how Friday the 13th had earned distribution with Paramount Pictures.

British director Tony Maylam, known for rock music documentaries in the 1970s, was hired as The Burning's director in summer 1980. Maylam had met Weinstein and Burger while the producers worked as rock promoters.

During his discussion with film critic Alan Jones on the audio commentary of MGM's DVD, Maylam said that once he came on board things moved very quickly. The screenplay was written in just six weeks and was sculpted to conform to the emerging genre conventions of the time. As the film takes place mostly outside and is set in summer, the production had a small window of opportunity in which to make the film or it risked having to wait until the following year. Knowing that the slasher craze would not last forever, and wanting to get their film released before it fizzled out, the producers rushed into production. The screenplay was written by Peter Lawrence and Harvey's brother Bob Weinstein. Again, reflecting an understanding of slasher movie conventions of the time, the script featured a murder every ten minutes in the script. It was Maylam's idea to make gardening shears Cropsy's weapon of choice.

The film originally had a different ending. A script dated July 6, 1980 shifted the location to one much more in keeping with a summer camp slasher. Originally, the showdown was to take place in a boathouse. Another big change is that Todd ends up as the "final boy" rather than as the heroic adult, and Alfred is killed by Cropsy. Other changes included an excised character named Alan, who was to be the love interest for Tiger. This version also ends with a campfire scene, but the last line is different: "...And every year he seeks revenge for the terrible things those kids did to him ... every year he kills!"

The production company became Miramax, named after Harvey and Bob Weinstein's parents, Miriam and Max, who helped fund the picture. The budget is reported to have been between $500,000 and $1.5 million, although the latter is more often cited. Cohl admitted that the relatively inexperienced filmmakers underestimated production costs, which caused the movie to go over budget.

Casting
Casting took place in New York in the spring of 1980, and Maylam met most of the cast in person. There was a remarkably quick turnaround, as the start date for filming was August 18, 1980 (although some shooting may have taken place prior to this date). Brian Matthews and Leah Ayres were cast first. Ayres already had a successful small screen career. Maylam reportedly insisted that Matthews dye his hair brown, as he did not think he would look macho enough with blonde hair. Larry Joshua was cast as one of the kids at the camp, even though he was older in real life than either Matthews or Ayres. Like most of the cast, it was his first role, but led to a long and successful career, mostly on the small screen. The rest of the cast was hired during a series of auditions. For some of the soon-to-be-stars, such as Holly Hunter, Jason Alexander, and Fisher Stevens, The Burning was their first big screen appearance.

The Weinsteins and Maylam also secured the services of make-up supremo Tom Savini, who they flew to Pittsburgh to meet. Savini had worked on films such as Dawn of the Dead (1978), Friday the 13th (1980), Maniac (1980), and Eyes of a Stranger (1981). Savini turned down the chance to work on Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981), ostensibly because he could not understand the logic that Jason was fully grown and was now the killer, as well as what he described as "miscommunications" with the film's backers. He also said that he liked the script for The Burning more.

Filming
The Burning was shot in the late summer of 1980 around Buffalo and North Tonawanda, New York. Much of the filming took place in and around existing summer camps to give it an authentic look while keeping costs down. The cast wore their own clothes throughout the production. Many of the cast were local to the New York area and were aware of the Cropsy legend.

In the interview on the MGM DVD, Savini recalls that the cast were literally queuing up to find out how they would die, making him feel like an assassin. He was very hands-on with the production, though he did not have much time to put together the special effects. He only had three or four days to make the Cropsy make-up – the mask was created in his dressing room in-between special effects duties elsewhere on the film. In Grande Illusions, his first book on his life as a special effects guru, Savini says he based the look of Cropsy on a burnt beggar he had seen as a kid in Pittsburgh, as well as textbooks on burn victims. Due to time constraints, the resulting mask was more of a melt than a burn. Savini was pleased enough with what he had done that he subsequently agreed to go on a publicity tour for the film.

Savini expanded on his Friday the 13th experience for his work on The Burning. The scene where a victim has her throat cut by Cropsy with the shears was similar in execution to the demise of the hitchhiker in the earlier film. Cropsy's demise, when the axe smashes into his face, is an almost identical effect to a scene in Friday the 13th.

The mine system was chosen for the climactic battle between Cropsy and Todd. As an earlier script showed, it was originally meant to be a boat house at the camp, but this was switched to a cave system. Indeed, another subsequent version of the script has a scene in Cropsy's lair, where he looks over old newspaper clippings. Maylam says it was changed again to the copper mine because they found bats roosting in the boat house and considered it unsafe.

Maylam has recalled that Carolyn Houlihan, who was Miss Ohio USA in 1979, found her nude scenes extremely difficult to do. Carrick Glenn, who also had a nude scene, was relaxed in front of the camera, according to the director.

Maylam maintains that he was Cropsy for about 90% of the movie, as he could not get anyone else to hold the shears the way he wanted (to perfect the gleam bouncing off the metal).

Post-production
The film was edited by Jack Sholder, who went on shortly to direct the first film for New Line Cinema, the slasher Alone in the Dark (1982), starring Jack Palance, Martin Landau, and Donald Pleasence. He also directed A Nightmare on Elm Street 2: Freddy's Revenge (1985), a sequel to the 1984 classic.

Maylam has said that there was talk of a sequel at the time The Burning was wrapping; however, Maylam was leery of being type-cast as a horror director and the disappointing box office performance of the original stalled the sequel's production.

Promotion and release
According to Maylam, the film received a very good response at test screenings. In February 1981, Filmways Pictures picked up the rights to distribute the film from Miramax for an undisclosed sum after viewing it in Los Angeles. According to Variety, Filmways was in financial difficulties and saw an opportunity to make quick money during the slasher boom. The company had already produced Brian De Palma's Dressed to Kill (1980), which had made serious money the previous year. Filmways also released horror thrillers such as The Town That Dreaded Sundown (1976), Without Warning (1980), and The Last House on the Left (1972). Filmways originally was intent on renaming the film Tales Around the Campfire due to its now-iconic campfire scenes, but its original title remained. The film was subsequently sold to foreign territories including Britain, Germany, France, Spain and Japan at the 1981 Cannes Film Festival.

Box office
The film opened on May 8, 1981, in Florida on 110 screens, with a regional rollout following on May 22.

According to Variety, the film did especially well in Buffalo, near where it had lensed, playing in three theaters and two drive-ins, bringing in $33,000. Interest soon fizzled, and the film suffered a more than 50% drop-off in box office receipts the following week. Despite this brief bright spot, overall box office for The Burning was initially pretty dismal. It lasted in the top 50 for only four weeks, with a take of just $270,508. Variety reported it received a "chilly reception" in San Francisco and Chicago. Unlike in Buffalo, it opened elsewhere to stiff competition: it debuted at number 23 behind slasher films Happy Birthday to Me, which was at number one, and Friday the 13th Part 2 at number two; however, The Burning also opened on far fewer screens than those wider releases.

The oversaturation of the slasher film market did not help draw in audiences to The Burning. Aside from having the very similar-plotted Friday the 13th Part 2 also playing, the film suffered from competition with Happy Birthday to Me, Final Exam, The Fan, Graduation Day, Eyes of a Stranger, and a successful re-release of Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre. The success of Friday the 13th Part 2 hampered The Burning's attendance, as the audience flocked to the known property.

The Burning opened in New York with new poster artwork (showing a face with a fire reflected in an eye) on November 5, 1982, distributed by Orion Pictures, who had recently merged with Filmways. The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin's gave a scathing review. An ad in Variety from November 17 noted that the film had grossed $401,258 in just 7 days. Its last week on Variety sample chart was December 8, where it had slipped from 78 screens the previous week to just 8 that week, with a final gross of $707,770.

Promotional press artwork also exists under the title Cropsy, but it is unclear when it played theaters under that title, as it was a common practice to give films multiple names in an effort to trick audiences into seeing it multiple times. According to the MPAA site, it may have also played under the title Campfire Tales. These releases and re-releases make it difficult to find a definitive box office tally for the film.

According to Tony Maylam, the film sold well around the world, making back its $1.5 million budget. The film performed well in Japan when it was released there in September 1981. Variety reported it making a total of $283,477 in a week at just four cinemas in Tokyo. In its first 16 days, it had grossed $1.2 million from 11 theatres in Japan.

The film was released to British screens on November 5, 1981, by HandMade Films, where it was met with modest success. Within a couple of weeks it was on a double feature with When a Stranger Calls (1979), which did not boost its fortunes, as Variety said it soon "hit the skids" with "pathetic" results.

Censorship
Despite the graphic gore effects of slasher films being the driving force behind their box office success, the MPAA gave in to the critical reception and reaction of pressure groups who were protesting the films in the wake of violent acts, such as the assassination of John Lennon, and the growing debate about violence in the media. The Burning was heavily trimmed to receive its R rating. The film remained cut in the United States until its 2007 DVD release that restored the scenes of gore.

The British cinema release of The Burning was severely cut as well by the BBFC, receiving an X certificate on September 23, 1981, with cuts to the scissor murder of the prostitute and some gore during the raft attack. When the film was accidentally released uncut on video in the United Kingdom by Thorn EMI, the tape was liable for seizure and prosecution under the Obscene Publications Acts. Thorn-EMI had unwittingly released a "video nasty", a term used to describe films judged as obscene and too violent for home rental. They tried to rectify matters by reissuing a BBFC-approved version. The original uncut Thorn-EMI release is worth a great deal of money today. In 1992, the United Kingdom video re-release suffered additional cuts to the raft attack, plus cuts to the killing of Karen. It was finally released fully uncut in 2002.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 77% based on reviews from 13 critics, with an average rating of 6.90/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 42 out of 100, based on reviews from 5 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

A number of critics noted the film's graphic violence and parallels to Friday the 13th (1980) and its sequel: On his weekly "Sneak Previews" show with Gene Siskel, Roger Ebert chose the film as one of the critics' "Dogs of the Week"; Ebert was particularly unimpressed by the film's similarity to Friday the 13th Part II, another slasher film from the summer of 1981 that he despised. Bill Cosford of the Miami Herald praised the film's dialogue and special effects as convincing, but similarly noted that it bore too many similarities to films such as Friday the 13th and Friday the 13th Part II. Joe Baltake of the Philadelphia Daily News also compared the film to Friday the 13th, but added that, where that film "is periodically nasty, The Burning is all nastiness." A review published in Variety was similarly critical of the film, describing it as derivative and overtly violent.

Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote: "The Burning makes a few minor departures from the usual cliches of its genre, though it carefully preserves the violence and sadism that are schlock horror's sine qua non".

The Time Out film guide wrote: "Suspensewise, it's proficient enough, but familiarity with this sort of stuff can breed contempt". Kim Newman of Empire magazine was critical of the film for being "an obvious imitation of Friday the 13th" but praised Tom Savini's special effects. AllMovie wrote: "With deliberant pacing and shocking scenes of full-on gore, The Burning delivers on the creep-out levels and would probably be better regarded if not for the boom of familiar flicks that came out after this release". While reviewing the film's 2013 Blu-ray release from Scream Factory, Scott Weinberg of Fearnet wrote, "[The Burning is] dated and sort of dull. But there's some amazing gore, and the new Blu-ray makes it shine". Leonard Maltin gave the film one out of a possible four stars, calling it "[an] awful Friday the 13th rip-off".

Home media
The Burning was released on DVD in North America for the first time ever on September 11, 2007, by MGM Home Entertainment. The DVD contains several extras, including a commentary by director Tony Maylam, a featurette covering Savini's make-up effects, a stills gallery, and the theatrical trailer. Despite the DVD cover displaying the 'R' rating, the print used is the full uncut version.

Shout! Factory released The Burning on Blu-ray Disc/DVD Combo Pack on May 21, 2013, under their sub-label Scream Factory. In May 2023, Scream Factory announced a Ultra HD Blu-ray release that came out on July 11, 2023.

Soundtrack
A soundtrack album featuring Rick Wakeman's score was released on LP in 1981 in Europe, and shortly after in the United States and Japan. It includes music from the film and rock band arrangements by Wakeman, known as The Wakeman Variations, as well as selections from the score, written by Alan Brewer and Anna Pepper. Brewer was musical director for the film and co-producer of the score and soundtrack album with Wakeman.

The soundtrack was released in the United Kingdom for the first time on CD in February 2007.

 * Track listing
 * 1) "Theme from The Burning" – 3:32
 * 2) "The Chase Continues (Po's Plane)" – 3:53
 * 3) "Variations on the Fire" – 5:13
 * 4) "Shear Terror and More" – 4:39
 * 5) "The Burning (End Title Theme)" – 2:00
 * 6) "Campfire Story" – 3:08
 * 7) "The Fire" – 3:25
 * 8) "Doin' It" – 2:42
 * 9) "Devil's Creek Breakdown" – 2:21
 * 10) "The Chase" – 2:00
 * 11) "Shear Terror" – 2:49

Legacy
Many people involved in The Burning have gone onto achieve great success. Bob and Harvey Weinstein have become successful film producers, acting as founders and heads of Miramax Films from 1979 until 2005 (which was owned by The Walt Disney Company from 1993 until 2010), when they created The Weinstein Company. Bob is also the founder and head of Dimension Films, which continues to release genre films, though many of them heavily reedited by Weinstein from 1992 until 2019, including the successful Scream slasher film franchise and five of the Halloween films. Harvey won an Academy Award for producing Shakespeare in Love and has garnered seven Tony Awards for producing a variety of winning plays and musicals, including The Producers, Billy Elliot the Musical, and August: Osage County. Brad Grey, who received a writing credit on The Burning, became the chairman and CEO of Paramount Pictures, a position he held from 2005 until his death in 2017. Grey produced eight of the ten top-grossing films to come from the studio. Actress Holly Hunter won an Academy Award in 1993 for her performance in The Piano, and was also nominated for her performances in Broadcast News (1987), The Firm (1993), and Thirteen (2003), as well as winning two Emmy Awards and receiving seven nominations. Jason Alexander would star in the long-running, critically acclaimed sitcom Seinfeld as George Costanza. Fisher Stevens would star in The Flamingo Kid (1984) and Short Circuit (1986), before turning to documentary directing, where he won an Academy Award for his film The Cove (2010) and an Independent Spirit Award for Crazy Love (2007).

The film was cited by Hifumi Kono as being the inspiration for Bobby Barrow's signature scissors weapon in Clock Tower.

In 2009, writer-director Joshua Zeman and director Barbara Brancaccio released a documentary titled Cropsey, which details the Cropsey maniac urban legend on which The Burning is based. Despite sharing little connection to The Burning, the film re-ignited the popular mythos of the character.

In 2017, Complex magazine named The Burning the 12th-best slasher film of all time. The following year, Paste included it in their list of "The 50 Best Slasher Movies of All Time", while Cropsy was ranked the 12th-greatest slasher villain of all time by LA Weekly.

In October 2017, former-production assistant Paula Wachowiak alleged that producer Harvey Weinstein's history of predatory behavior went back as far as the initial filming of The Burning in June 1980. Then a 24-year-old University at Buffalo graduate and divorced mother, Wachowiak was tasked with getting Weinstein to sign checks for an auditor working with the production's accounting department. When Wachowiak arrived at Weinstein's hotel room to have him sign the checks, he allegedly answered the door wearing only a towel, that he then dropped and asked for a massage from his employee. When Wachowiak refused, she alleges that Weinstein harassed her about the incident through the rest of the film's production, up until the film's May 1981 premiere.

title: The Burning (1981 film)


text:
Talk:Yoshi's Cookie

Comment

 * Most fans consider the 8-Bit NES/Famicom version to be superior to the 16-Bit version because it has fewer frames of animation and more responsive controls.

Is this really the opinion of most fans, or just the opinion of the person who happened to edit the article? I never had any problem with the 16-bit version, myself. - furrykef (Talk at me) 14:58, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

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External links modified
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Revolutionary Forward Bloc

Revolutionary Forward Bloc was a political party in Tamil Nadu, India. The party was founded in 1968 by S. Andi Thevar and Velayudham Nayar, following a split from the All India Forward Bloc.

In the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election, S. Andi Thevar challenged the regional AIFB leader P.K. Mookiah Thevar. S. Andi Thevar was defeated, receiving 16 909 votes (25%) against 49 292 for P.K. Mookiah Thevar (75%).

In the 1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election, RFB contested as part of the 'Progressive Front'. The front consisted of All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Congress (R), Communist Party of India, Tamil Nadu Muslim League, Tamil Nadu Toilers Party, Backward Classes Progressive Federation and RFB.

In 1979, following mediation by P.K. Mookkiah Thevar, RFB merged back into AIFB.

title: Revolutionary Forward Bloc


text:
Irish Republican Police

The Irish Republican Police (IRP) was the police force of the 1919–1922 Irish Republic and was administered by the Department for Home Affairs of that government.

Foundation
The IRP was founded between April and June 1920 under the authority of Dáil Éireann. It was initiated by Richard Mulcahy the IRA Chief of Staff, and Cathal Brugha, Minister for Defence. It was handed over to the Minister for Home Affairs Arthur Griffith and later to his successor Austin Stack. Simon Donnelly, an IRA Staff Officer at GHQ, was transferred to the Department of Home Affairs as Chief of Police. At this time there were only six full-time Republican Police in Dublin city. Donnelly immediately instructed that a paid full-time policeman be appointed to each of the seventy-two IRA Brigade areas. They were chosen by the Brigades, and most though not all were IRA volunteers. The purpose of the IRP was to provide security for the Republican Courts, to enforce their judgements, to put into effect the Decrees of the Dáil and to maintain general order. It also occupied itself with such mundane matters as enforcing licensing regulations, dealing with theft and maintaining street patrols. From a propaganda perspective, as with all the institutions of the Irish Republic, it sought to put into effect secession from the United Kingdom. More specifically, the existence of the IRP was considered an important component in the campaign to undermine the authority of the Royal Irish Constabulary.

In 1920, the IRP had a presence in 21 of Ireland's 32 counties. In June 1920, the Irish Bulletin claimed that the IRP had arrested 84 criminals in 24 counties within 13 days.

Functioning
The IRP faced considerable difficulties in enforcing its authority. It was viewed as an illegal and subversive body by the Dublin Castle administration and IRP members at times came into conflict with Crown forces. In one instance, IRP members James Cogan and Harry Sheridan arrested a suspected cattle thief named John Farrelly on 22 July 1920 in Clonsilla. When the commandeered motor vehicle they were using to transport Farrelly encountered a British Army checkpoint, a brief shootout occurred which killed Cogan and wounded Sheridan and Farrelly. During and briefly after the Irish War of Independence, the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) repeatedly challenged the Dáil Courts and threatened its judges with prosecution.

The operation of the IRP was also made difficult by some confusion regarding the separation of civil and military structures during the Irish War of Independence. For individual volunteers, their military role as members of the Irish Republican Army and their police function in the IRP were not always clearly differentiated nor was this difference always obvious to the general public. The IRP had no permanent jails or prisons in which to confine suspects and offenders. Despite this obvious limitation in a system of criminal justice, improvised solutions were found to detain prisoners. Some of those convicted by the Republican Courts were expelled from the area and even from the country. In one incident, three offenders who had been banished by a Republican Land Court to an island off the coast of County Clare for three weeks refused to be rescued by the RIC declaring that as citizens of the Irish Republic, the RIC had no jurisdiction over them. Abandoned buildings in isolated areas were also used for detention, as in the case of a former barracks in the Nire Valley deep in the Comeragh Mountains. A suggestion by the Chief of Police that "incorrigible criminals" should be flogged was turned down by his superiors as "a barbarous form of punishment".

Policing emigration
On 4 June 1920, Cathal Brugha as Minister for Defence, issued a manifesto condemning those who had emigrated during the war as 'deserters' and 'degenerates'. There quickly followed a proclamation from the Dáil with instructions regarding the procedure for obtaining an Emigration Permit. For legal travel other than to Britain, (which still required an internal Travel Permit) a British Passport was necessary and often a visa from the receiving state. The Republican Police were charged with the responsibility of issuing Permit application forms, forwarding them with the specified fee of five shillings to the Minister for Home Affairs, and transmitting to the applicant the permit or, more generally a letter of refusal. The irony of the IRP on the one hand enforcing deportation orders as a punishment, while on the other preventing voluntary emigration of people personally known to them, was not lost on local IRP members. There is considerable correspondence from local officials seeking a more lenient interpretation of the Emigration ban by the Department. It may be that because it was so rigidly applied with little apparent prospect of being enforced that it was widely ignored. This served to further undermine the authority of local officers. The Department responded by ordering shipping companies and Emigration Agents not to receive money from prospective migrants that did not possess a Permit under threat of their premises being raided or burned. The manager at the offices of Thomas Cook, a prominent travel company in Grafton Street, Dublin, narrowly avoided being killed for persistent non-compliance with this instruction. Simon Donnelly had ordered him to be shot, however Austin Stack decided instead on the destruction of the offices. The operation was scheduled for the morning of 11 July 1921, but had not been carried out before the Truce took effect at noon that day.

Organisation
IRP recruits generally came from the ranks of the Irish Republican Army. In the city of Cork, where the IRP had a considerable presence, the IRA elected officers for duty with the IRP. The following extract taken from a contemporary memo, gives a precise overview of the numbers involved nationwide as reported by the officer in charge.

"The Police were formally organised according to the military areas, and the Brigade was the basis of organisation. The details of strength were:- One Brigade Police Officer for the area. One Officer for each Battalion Area. One Company Officer and four men for each Company Area. The approximate strength of the force under this scheme was 72 Brigade Officers, about 340 Battalion Officers, 1,910 Company Officers and 7,640 rank and file. This force was, of course, rather big but owing to the fact that the men were untrained and were working under great difficulty and under extraordinary circumstances, it was found necessary to retain them. The scheme came into operation last June (ed. 1921)."

The members of the IRP wore no uniform, however some wore armbands with the letters IRP

Civil war and replacement of IRP
On 25 August 1922, following the outbreak of civil war, the Adjutant-General of the National Army addressing Kevin O'Higgins, Acting Minister of Home Affairs, issued an internal memorandum regarding the local policing situation in Cork. This was done on his return to Dublin from a tour of inspection in the south of the country. Gearóid O'Sullivan reported that "prior to and during the Irregular occupation of Cork, the work of policing the city was carried on by the Irish Republican Police. These men were paid by the Merchants, who voluntarily paid up to £200 for the purpose. They were admitted on all sides to have been fairly efficient in preventing ordinary crime, but when the Irregulars fled the city at the approach of the National Forces, Cork was without a police force of any sort. Robbery, burglary and looting became rife."

As a replacement, he confirmed authorisation for the establishment of a force of one hundred locally recruited men, to be paid at a rate of £3 6s 0d per week by the Government. The force was called the Cork City Civil Patrol. Recruiting had commenced on 11 August and they were drawn from 'neutral' IRA men, and Irishmen who had previously been part of the British Army and Royal Navy. They were to be augmented by 50 Civic Guards from Dublin, and those found suitable would be gradually absorbed onto the new national police force. The Cork police were unarmed and in lieu of a uniform wore "a white brassard with the letters CCP inscribed on it in black." In case there was any doubt that they were, at least temporarily, under the authority of the Army rather than the Department of Defence much less Home Affairs, each new member took the following pledge: I hereby undertake and agree to obey the lawful orders of Captain Joseph MacCarthy, or any other officer nominated by General Dalton for the time being in charge of the Patrol. I acknowledge that any employment is purely temporary and agree that one weeks notice on either side may terminate same, Dated this ______ day of August 1922

Bibliography and notes

 * Sheills, Derek,"The Politics of Policing: Ireland 1919–1923", in Policing Western Europe eds. Clive Emsley, Barbara Weinberger ISBN 978-0-313-28219-5
 * Kotsonouris, Mary (a), Retreat from Revolution: The Dáil Courts, 1920–24: Irish Academic Press, Dublin: 1994 ISBN 978-0-7165-2511-0
 * Ministry for Home Affairs: The Constructive Work of Dáil Éireann (sic) No. 1 – The National Police and Courts of Justice: Talbot Press: Dublin: 1921 (Attributed to Erskine Childers) Politics and Irish life, 1913–1921
 * Mitchell, Arthur: Revolutionary Government in Ireland- Dáil Éireann 1919–1922, Gill & MacMillan, Dublin, 1995
 * Desmond, Michael: IRP West Waterford B'de.: Witness Statement W.S. 1338 : Bureau of Military History Ext. Link (Copies of the Witness Statements are accessible to the public at the National Archives of Ireland though not, as yet, online.)
 * Cork Archives Institute PR4 Terence MacSwiney 1920 Files.
 * The Dáil Éireann Courts Commission, National Archives of Ireland
 * Donnolly, Simon, Chief of Republican Police: Witness Statement W.S. 481: Bureau of Military History: Accessed at National Archives of Ireland
 * NAI JUS H97/3 Chief of Police (S. Donnelly) to Min. Home Affairs 24/02/22 Report on Republican Police Force
 * Early Dept. Finance files : National Archives of Ireland : FIN 1/513-dated; 25 August 1922-titled; Report on Cork -(To) Acting Minister of Home Affairs- signed: Domhnall Ó Súillabháin.

title: Irish Republican Police


text: User talk:200.24.98.46

title: User talk:200.24.98.46