text:
Gimlet (cocktail)

The gimlet is a cocktail made of gin and lime cordial. A 1928 description of the drink was: gin, and a spot of lime. A description in the 1953 Raymond Chandler novel The Long Goodbye stated that "a real gimlet is half gin and half Rose's lime juice and nothing else." This is in line with the proportions suggested by The Savoy Cocktail Book (1930), which specifies one half gin and one half lime juice. However, modern tastes are less sweet, and generally provide for up to four parts gin to one part lime cordial.

Etymology
The word "gimlet" used in this sense is first attested in 1928. The most obvious derivation is from the tool for drilling small holes, a word also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing. Thus, the cocktail may have been named for its "penetrating" effects on the drinker.

Another theory is that the drink was named after the Royal Navy surgeon Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Gimlette (27 November 1857 – 4 October 1943 ), who allegedly introduced this drink as a means of inducing his messmates to take lime juice as an anti-scurvy medication. However, this association is not mentioned in his obituary notice in the BMJ, The Times (6 October 1943), or his entry in Who Was Who 1941–1950.

Variations
A variant of the cocktail, the vodka gimlet, replaces gin with vodka. The Schumann's Gimlet adds lemon juice and lime juice to the Gin. The Pimmlet substitutes 2 parts Pimm's No. 1 Cup to 1 part London Dry Gin.

A popular variation, the French gimlet, includes elderflower liqueur.

title: Gimlet (cocktail)


text:
Talk:Morse–Kelley set theory

needs work
Doesn't say anything about what a "property" is (actually we want one definable by a formula in the second-order language of set theory). Doesn't mention what the other axioms are, relationship to ZFC, consistency following from an inaccessible cardinal. --Trovatore 15:05, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

redone
I have given a full account of this theory, though the form of limitation of size due to von Neumann may be viewed as eccentric. KM is not the same as second-order ZF.

Randall Holmes 16:23, 15 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks; this article definitely needed work. I note though that you removed the point about KM being in the second-order language of set theory. I don't think that should have been removed. You're quite right of course that KM is a first-order theory, but it is expressed in second-order LST. It also should perhaps be noted that if you take exactly the same collection of axioms and give them a true second-order semantics (as opposed to the two-sorted first-order semantics that correspond to the first-order theory) you get something categorical up to the first inaccessible. --Trovatore 19:44, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

another issue in rewrite
I don't quite follow the claim that "second-order ZF" "proves the same theorems in practice" as KM. First, I'm not sure what it means for a second-order theory to "prove" something, but if it means logical implication (something is proved if true in all models of the theory), then second-order ZF proves lots of things KM doesn't (for example, Con(KM), and either CH or ¬CH, depending on which one is true). --Trovatore 06:35, 17 December 2005 (UTC)

 * see how you like the new language on the relationship between Morse-Kelley and second-order ZF. Randall Holmes 17:25, 17 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I've modified it slightly; the formulation involving definability was a little problematic. Suppose for example there were exactly five inaccessibles in the real world (of course that's nonsense, there's really proper-class many, but it's just an example). Then "the largest inaccessible" would be a definable rank of the von Neumann hierarchy. Now if we call the second inaccessible k2 and third k3, then Vk2 and Vk3 are both models of second-order ZF, but they disagree about the theory of the stage whose height is the largest inaccessible (though only because they disagree about what the largest inaccessible is). Granted, the new formulation is a little too weak, but at least it avoids this problem, which is awkward to find good language to work around.

relationship to NBG
This has now grown into a nice article.

MK can be viewed as a strengthened version of von Neumann-Bernays-Gödel’s set theory (NBG). Perhaps this relationship can be described?

 * the reference was already there, but not explicit enough. I have added a direct reference.  Randall Holmes 19:57, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

Michael Meyling 15:56, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

second-order language???
I didn't know the phrase "second-order language". I read this as "second-order logic". Is this phrase well known? Perhaps it can be replaced or explained further after the following passage:

"Although this is a first-order theory, it is a common practice (not followed here) to use second-order language, that is, to distinguish between class variables (often capitalized) and set variables."

Perhaps something like this:

"This is can be done in the following way: $$\forall x_i \ \phi(x_i)$$ is shorthand for $$\forall X_i \ (\mbox{set} X_i \rightarrow \phi(X_i))$$ and analogous for the existence quantifier."

Michael Meyling 15:55, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

 * It's not really my phrase, but the result of a conversation with someone else. All I'm saying is that it is the custom of some authors to use set variables and class variables, which makes the language appear like that of second-order logic (though it is not really a two-sorted theory).  I don't want to clarify it because I am not actually using this convention here.  Randall Holmes 19:52, 20 December 2005 (UTC)
 * further, I made a small change to make it clear that I'm not using some peculiar technical terminology "second-order language". Randall Holmes 19:58, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, but isn't it the correct technical terminology? The set variables are intended to be interpreted by objects, and the class variables by predicates. That's second-order language. I think this nomenclature is completely standard, though I don't have any handy reference for it. (It's not second-order logic simply because that would imply some way of making inferences beyond those of first-order logic, and we aren't using any such strengthened inference rules.) --Trovatore 21:58, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I am interested in any reference you find. --Michael Meyling 04:37, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure it is: second-order logic is two-sorted and KM is not.  Even if it is correct it isn't universally recognized; notice also that I simply paraphrased it as "language like that of second-order logic" (though not quite the same!) so that (one hopes) it would be  clear what I meant. Randall Holmes 23:45, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not very convinced by this "not two-sorted" thing. I certainly think of the sets and classes as being different sorts. I don't see any reason the sorts have to be disjoint. --Trovatore 00:03, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * They aren't disjoint in the common nomenclature. In E. Mendelson's "Introduction to Mathematical Logic" or J. D. Monk's "Introduction to Set Theory" lower case letters just indicate classes that are sets and capital letters stand for classes (see above). Being a proper class is just a predicate. Or did I miss the point? --Michael Meyling 04:37, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not saying that the domains of sets and classes in KM are or should be disjoint (they aren't and shouldn't be); the domains of objects and predicates/sets of objects in second-order logic should be disjoint (more precisely, equations between objects of different sorts do not make sense). Randall Holmes 17:25, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * There's something I didn't catch above: it is not necessarily the case that the classes of KM are to be interpreted as predicates.  That seems to go better with the predicative class theory NBG.  The classes of KM are more likely to be viewed realistically (as actual large collections which are not necessarily all definable as predicates).  That is certainly the way I think of it.  (Note that this is not a counterargument to second-order logic being applicable:  second-order objects can be arbitrary collections as easily as predicates).  Re the immediately preceding remark, equality between variables of different sorts is at best problematic; I prefer to think of KM as a one-sorted first order theory. But I think this is all in danger of becoming a quibble; the relationship with second order logic is clearly acknowledged at several points in the article, isn't it? Randall Holmes 00:33, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * further on equality: the basic rule for equality is that if a=b and P(a) then P(b):  but this will not work well if a and b are of different sorts (and so cannot freely be substituted for one another in all contexts). Randall Holmes 00:41, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, I didn't necessarily mean definable predicates. More that they shouldn't be completed totalities. If they're completed totalities, after all, why aren't they sets? But this is part of the neither-fish-nor-flesh problem with interpreting KM. So mostly I tend to think of an interpretation of KM as having some fixed inaccessible κ specified in advance; then its sets are objects of rank less than κ and its classes are subsets of Vκ. Trying to interpret it so that the individuals can be sets of arbitrary rank seems philosophically problematic. --Trovatore 01:11, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't disagree with anything here... Randall Holmes 01:30, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Kelley's original axioms
I have added the full text of Kelley's original axioms to the article. It is worth noting that Kelley does not use "second-order language"; for him the sets and classes evidently have the same status exactly. Randall Holmes 06:18, 30 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Having fun, Randall? I'm afraid that Kelley's axioms do imply the limitation of size in MK, but not necessarily in MKU (with urelements).
 * I am having fun (here, if not in relation (mathematics)). Randall Holmes 07:10, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

counterexample -- loosely, start with a model of set theory with at least 2 inaccessibles, κ0 < κ1. Let U be a "set" of urelements with cardinality κ1, and construct V as the "set" of all sets which are hereditarily of cardinality < κ0 over U.  Classes are arbitrary subsets of "the universe".

As On(V) is κ0, while |V| is κ1, there cannot be a bijection between On(V) and V.

proof (in "K", that is, MK) -- again, loosely --

Lemma There is a function W on V (instead of U, for reasons which seem clear), such that for each set x, W(x) is a bijection from an ordinal onto x.
 * Define, by transfinite recursion,
 * $$W(x)(\alpha) = c \left( x - \left\{W(x)(\beta) \mid \beta < \alpha \right\} \right)$$

Then define, by transfinite recursion,
 * $$V_\alpha = \bigcup_{\beta < \alpha} P (V_\beta)$$

For any set x, define the rank of x by:
 * $$\rho(x) = $$ the first $$\alpha$$ such that $$x \in V_\alpha $$.

Define R, by
 * x R y iff $$\rho(x) < \rho(y) \lor (\rho(x) = \rho(y) \wedge (W(V_\rho(x))^{-1}(x) < (W(V_\rho(x))^{-1}(y))$$

R is a well-ordering of the universe with order type On (See WE 4S in the reference below.)  Finally, for any proper class X, R restricted to X is also a well-ordering of X with order type On, so that any two proper classes are equivalent.

(More detailed proofs of the implication can be found in Equivalents of the Axiom of Choice, H. Rubin & J. Rubin, with the additional note that any model of MK is also a model of NBG; Kelley's choice is approximately AC 1S in that book, while the axiom of limitations is approximately P 1S and clearly follows from WE 5S.

I don't know if this is something we want to move up to the main body, or not. Arthur Rubin | (talk) 00:41, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Careful study shows that κ1 need not be inaccessible, so the "counterexample" can be constructed relative to (MK+1 inaccessible), rather than (MK+2 inaccessibles). Arthur Rubin | (talk) 15:30, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * my guess would be that (the way the article is put together now) the fact that Kelley's axioms prove Limitation of Size would be of interest to the reader, but the proof can be left here. The fact that it doesn't hold with urelements is fun but perhaps too technical? Randall Holmes 17:39, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

thanks
thanks for the comments; I'll look. I didn't say anything about what could happen with urelements, and I'm not surprised if weird things happen :-) If the Kelley axioms imply Limitation of Size, I'm pleased (I don't think I say that they do or don't, do I?) Randall Holmes 01:02, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

Axiom of Pairs redundant
Is the Axiom of Pairs necessary? It seems to me that Limitation of Size, Class Comprehension, and Infinity suffice to imply it. For any sets x and y, we have from Class Comprehension a class containing only x and y; from Limitation of Size, this will be a proper class only if the universe contains no more than two sets; and from Infinity, the universe contains more than two sets. Therefore, the pair set {x, y} must exist. Just a minor piddling thing, but I was curious if I missed something here, since the article leaves out the Axiom of the Empty Set and notes why that can be done, but does not do so with regard to the Axiom of Pairs. -Chinju 15:12, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Your argument seems correct to me. But sometimes it is better for clarity to include redundant axioms rather than try to make do with a minimalist set. Personally, I would include the axiom of empty set also rather than derive it. If a theorem is more obviously true than the "axioms" from which it is deduced, it would make sense to just declare it an axiom in its own right. JRSpriggs 03:26, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I tend to agree with that line of thought (especially insofar as it makes for a more "modular" design; i.e., it allows us to then consider alternative systems where, say, Infinity has been removed without losing Empty set and Pairs, or such things). However, just given that the article as given seemed to be attempting a minimal axiomatization and falling clearly short, I thought I'd make sure I wasn't missing anything. -Chinju 16:43, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * This is not correct. We need axiom of pairs, to define Cartesian products, relations, function, injections that are necessary for axiom of limitation of size to work. Therefore we cannot get rid of pairing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.27.119.116 (talk • contribs)

 * That depends on exactly how the axiom of limitation of size is worded. If the injective "function" is given by a formula of set theory with two arguments for the element being mapped and its image, then the axiom (shema) could be formulated without having an axiom of pairing as a prerequisite. JRSpriggs 08:55, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I know of three published first order logic axiomatizations of MK: Rubin (1967), Monk (1980), and Mendelson (1997) (NBG with a 1 page supplement on MK). All three axiom sets feature Pairing, and none mentions its possible redundancy.Palnot (talk) 10:05, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Writing Morse-Kelley
M.K can be further simplified to:

M.K is the set of sentences entailed (from first order logic with identity) by these axioms:

1) Extensionality: AxAy(x=y<->Az(zex<->zey)). 2) Regularity:Ax((Ez(zex))->Ey(yex & ~Ec(cey & cex ))). 3) Class comprehension: If P is a formula in which x doesn't occur free, then all closures of ExAy(yex<->(P(y)&Ez(yez)))

are axioms. Definition 1) x=V <-> Ay(yex <-> Ez(yez)). Definition 2) x is a set <-> xeV Definition 3) x is a proper class <-> ~Ey(xey). Definition 4) x=0 <-> Ay(~(yex))

Accordingly V is the proper class of all sets.

4) Pairing:AaeVAbeVExeVAyeV(yex<->(y=a or y=b)). 5) Union:AaeVExeVAyeV(yex<->EzeV(zea&yez)).

6) Infinity:ENeV(0eN&(Ax(xeN->xU{x}eN))).

with 'U' and {x} having the usual definitions.

7) limitation of size: Ax((Ez(xez)) <-> x is subnumerous to V). x is subnumerous to V <-> Af((f:x->V) ->(f is injective & ~ f is surjective)).

8)Power: AaeVExeVAyeV(yex<->AzeV(zey->zea)).

Zaljohar 03:56, 4 March 2007 (UTC)

Rubin (1967)
I thought she used NBGU, rather than MKU. (As her son and probable heir to the very small income stream from the book, I wouldn't have added it to the article, myself.) My copy doesn't seem to be here at the moment, so I can't check. — Arthur Rubin (talk) 20:58, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I am very pleased that Jean Rubin's son is taking a close interest in this entry. I completely agree that her theory included urelements, but that alone is no reason for omitting her book from the reference section. One of us needs to check whether her class theory was NBG or MK. If the former, go ahead and remove her book from the references.

 * In any event, I am disappointed that in the half century since Kelley (1955), there has been at most one leisurely textbook treatment of MK. I am quite surprised that MK has yet to catch on. We all know that building up set theory and math from ZFC requires some weird contortions. Meanwhile, MK has a fine pedigree; Kelley was neither logician nor foundationalist, but an awesome working mathematician, educator, and political idealist. Morse (1965) is written in such a way that it merits a cult following. The classic text Mendelson (1997) says kind things about MK, in particular that it is friendly to the mathematician who wants to get on with his work and not wallow and set theory. And am I correct in believing that MK suffices for category theory?

 * Unrelated point. I can't make sense of this entry's description of Kelley's version of Class Comprehension. One more reason to trudge to the library at the first opportunity.Palnot (talk) 05:47, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I have just confirmed that the axiomatic set theory of Rubin (1967) and Monk (1980) is indeed MK. In Rubin, this is clear only because her discussion of Class Comprehension includes a footnote describing NBG's predicativity restriction, implying that her version of the schema is impredicative. Monk, who studied at Berkeley under Kelley and Morse, is more explicit. On the other hand, I have just discovered that the library I use has no copy of Kelley (1955). Rats! Palnot (talk) 04:26, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Thank you JR
Thanks to JRSpriggs for adding formal versions of the axioms to this entry. Would you please give a source? All axioms but Class and Comprehension are identical to those for NBG, yet the axioms you have added differ from the NBG axioms in Mendelson (1997), mainly in being more complicated. Note also that this entry is committed to a one-sorted logic (a choice I did not make), abstaining from using upper (lower) case for variables ranging over classes (sets). Either the formal axioms have to change, or the prose of this entry has to be revised to allow for a two-sorted logic. I do not object to the latter choice.

I also think that the entries for NBG and MK should have a common set of formal axioms, Class Comprehension excepted. I propose that this set of common axioms be incorporated into the entry for NBG. The MK entry would then state only one formal axiom, Class Comprehension, and refer readers desiring the other formalized axioms to the NBG entry.Palnot (talk) 20:47, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

 * If MK is taken to be one-sorted and NBG to be two-sorted, then merging the axiom lists would not be practical. I copied the axioms from the relevant articles on those axioms and then modified them for class theory, i.e. to agree with the English text. I did not make any distinction between upper and lower case letters. If you want to fold them all to upper case to show that they are class variables, then please feel free to do so. JRSpriggs (talk) 03:15, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

 * If MK can be formulated as one-sorted with a sethood predicate, then so can NBG, no? If you agree, then we can take all variables as class variables by default, writing them using lower case and freely using the Mx sethood predicated where needed. I submit that that is the best way to go, but admit that that is not the way Mendelson (1997) exposits NBG. If I understand you, you deem the natural language version of these axioms as dog and the FOL versions as the dog's tail; I think the other way.Palnot (talk) 04:38, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

 * The version of the axiom of power set for ZFC (sets alone) is:
 * $$\forall a \, \exists p \, \forall b \, [b \in p \leftrightarrow \forall c \, (c \in b \rightarrow c \in a)]$$

 * We need to modify it for a class theory. If we modify it to read like the English statement "Given a set A, if P is a class whose members are all possible subclasses of the set A, then P is a set.", then we get:
 * $$\forall A \, \forall P \, [(M A \land \forall x \, [x \in P \leftrightarrow \forall y \, (y \in x \rightarrow y \in A)]) \rightarrow M P].$$

 * Alternatively, we could try to stick closer to the original, saying "Given any set A, there is a set P such that, given any set B, B is a member of P if and only if B is a subset of A.":
 * $$\forall A \, (M A \rightarrow \exists P \, (M P \land \forall B \, [B \in P \leftrightarrow (M B \land \forall C \, (C \in B \rightarrow C \in A))]))$$

 * Similarly for the axiom of union. Would you prefer this? However, this alternative is somewhat redundant with the axiom schema of comprehension because it asserts the existence of the class as well as its sethood. JRSpriggs (talk) 05:18, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I have given the axioms my best shot; see entry. I have employed lower case throughout, except when a variable is free to range over the proper classes (because it never appears to the left of an ∈ or to the right of an M). Incidentally, I very much prefer limiting upper case to predicate letters; I share the old fashioned preference for first order theories. I took the monadic sethood predicate is from Mendelson (1997).Palnot (talk) 10:01, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Strong axioms versus weak axioms?
There is a philosophical issue that I would like us to consider — should each separate axiom be formulated in: the strongest possible form, the weakest possible form, or some other form (simplest?)? In the strongest form, it would try to do its job without relying on help from other axioms. This would be advantageous for practical use of the axioms and for constructing sub-theories where some axioms are removed. In the weakest form, any redundant aspects (such as existence of the class for axioms other than class comprehension) would be removed. This would be useful for proving that some model satisfies certain axioms and, perhaps, establishing the independence of an axiom from the others (or the consistency of its negation with the others).

Specifically, the axioms of pairing, power set, union, and infinity each have at least two forms one of which is stronger than another. That is, they may assert the existence of the class which is the set in addition to its set-hood, or merely assert its set-hood. The axiom of infinity may also assert or not the existence of the empty class and successor classes; or merely say that if they exist and are sets, then they belong to the infinite set. JRSpriggs (talk) 14:25, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Second order ZFC
I do not unterstand the phrase : " whatever is true in all models of second-order ZFC in which the classes are all the collections of the sets, is also provable (because the logic is second-order). "

What does "all the collections of the sets" mean ? How can we say - in second order logic - that all is true in some context is provable? Could someone enlight my lantern, and give some reference? Thank you.--Michel42 (talk) 17:16, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

 * It's certainly not true that anything that is true in all second-order models is provable; I removed that claim from the article. — Carl (CBM · talk) 17:52, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

 * changed "valid" to "provable" at

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morse%E2%80%93Kelley_set_theory&diff=206755216&oldid=206735518

 * JRSpriggs (talk) 09:03, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

strength
What does it mean that MK is stronger than ZFC? Are there sentences in the signature of ZFC, that are independent of ZFC but that are theorems of MK? Especially, I wonder if MK proves any arithmetic sentences that are independent of ZFC. Can something be added about this? 67.117.147.144 (talk) 06:33, 30 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Absolutely. KM (that's the order I'm used to seeing it — I have no idea whether Kelley or Morse actually deserves more credit) proves the consistency of ZFC, which can be represented as a Π01 statement of arithmetic ("for every n, n is not the Goedel number of a ZFC-proof of 0=1").  In fact it proves Con(ZFC+Con(ZFC)), Con(ZFC+Con(ZFC+Con(ZFC))), and so on (for some value of "and so on").  However it does not prove Con(ZFC+"there exists an inaccessible cardinal").
 * I am not aware, though, of any "natural" statement of arithmetic that is provable in KM but not ZFC, and I would be surprised to learn of one. --Trovatore (talk) 07:18, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes, it should be possible to prove some reflection principle according to which given a bound, all sentences of complexity below that bound about sets that are true in the universal class of MK are also true in the set Vκ for some ordinal κ. From this one should be able to get that $$C_\alpha = \operatorname{Con} (\text{ZFC} \land \forall \beta<\alpha \, C_\beta)$$ is provable for recursive ordinals α (such as epsilon zero) less than the proof theoretic ordinal of ZFC. JRSpriggs (talk) 11:13, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

Peculiarity?
It's a minor point, but why in 'domain f and range f denote the domain and range of the function f; this peculiarity has been carefully respected below;' is the word 'peculiarity' used? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.122.37.54 (talk) 20:50, 18 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Probably because it would be more usual to say "the domain X of the function f " in which "X" refers to the domain rather than the function. JRSpriggs (talk) 08:23, 19 October 2012 (UTC)

Axiom of Infinity can assert setness instead of existence
It is noted in the article that "p and s in Power Set and Union are universally, not existentially, quantified, as Class Comprehension suffices to establish the existence of p and s. Power Set and Union only serve to establish that p and s cannot be proper classes."

The same thing holds of the axiom of infinity - namely, that Class Comprehension suffices for the existence of an infinite class, and we need only assert that one such class is a set - and I think this should be mentioned.

This isn't quite clear from the axiom as it stands in the article, since it only asserts the existence of *an* inductive set, and not *the* set of the finite ordinals. However, it is clearly equivalent to assert the existence of ω, and there are indeed first order characterizations of the finite ordinals (see, for example, Axiom of infinity).

By the way, this phenomenon - that most of the axioms of set theory follow from comprehension - is mentioned in Axiom schema of specification. Perhaps that should be linked to? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2607:F2C0:9437:A401:8559:59BC:5C45:B7A1 (talk) 18:03, 31 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, one could replace the current version of the axiom of infinity by
 * $$\forall \omega ( \forall n (n \in \omega \leftrightarrow (Mn \land [n = \empty \,\,\lor\,\, \exists k ( n = k \cup \{k\} )] \,\,\land\,\, \forall m \in n[m = \empty \,\,\lor\,\, \exists k \in n ( m = k \cup \{k\} )])) \rightarrow M \omega ) $$
 * and similarly one could replace the current axiom of pairing by
 * $$\forall x \, \forall y \, \forall z \, [ (Mx \land My \land \forall s \, [ s \in z \leftrightarrow (s = x \, \lor \, s = y)]) \rightarrow Mz ]$$.
 * However, without a reference to support those version, I would hesitate to do so. JRSpriggs (talk) 00:42, 1 September 2016 (UTC)

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MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:33, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Armin76~enwiki


text:
Aries Keck

Aries Keck (born ) is the communications lead for Earth Applied Sciences at NASA HQ. She previously was the social media lead at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md, the first-ever time NASA Goddard had someone in that position full-time. Her previous position at NASA Goddard was as a science writer for Earth science missions.

Biography
Previous to being hired at NASA, Keck was the producer and director of Earthbeat Radio, an hour-long broadcast in America dedicated to global warming. From 2001 – 2006 Keck was a reporter for WHYY-FM in Philadelphia, for which she won a number of national Associated Press awards as well as a Gracie Award from American Women in Radio and Television. She is a frequent contributor to National Public Radio (NPR) and the public radio program Marketplace.

Keck is the author of the 2004 non-fiction book Einstein A to Z with co-author Karen C. Fox. She graduated from Lehigh University and lives in Washington, DC.

title: Aries Keck


text: Category:Mass media in Moldova

title: Category:Mass media in Moldova


text: Category:Society of Moldova

title: Category:Society of Moldova


text:
User:Grumpykansan

I'm a librarian in Kansas. I work primarily with Kansas government publications and cataloging.

I have updated a few links for Kansas county articles so far. I joined Wikipedia in early October, 2005.

Our library finds many of the articles within Wikipedia great resources for basic research in a subject area. With this in mind we began cataloging Wikipedia articles a in September, 2005. We started doing this with the articles on Hurricane Katrina and have moved onto articles on Kansas or of interest to Kansans.

By cataloging Wikipedia articles we provide subject and title access to records within our online catalog which have direct links to those articles within Wikipedia.

You can test this out by going to: http://lib.wuacc.edu/

Click on KEYWORD and type the word, wikipedia, in the search box. Then click on the SUBMIT button below or press the ENTER key on your keyboard. Or better yet, just click on this link: http://lib.wuacc.edu/search/Xwikipedia

We have over 1,0000 records in our library catalog connecting our users to Wikipedia articles. It's a great way of connecting people to information at sites such as Wikipedia.

Personal stuff: Married 26 years, Episcopalian; four children (one deceased, a victim of acute myeloid leukemia, when she was seven); hobby genealogist.

title: User:Grumpykansan


text:
User:MattDumas

Matt Dumas is a 17 year old male from Portage, Michigan. Currently, I'm working to update Wikipedia pages.

title: User:MattDumas


text:
Augusta Wilson

Augusta Jane Wilson ( Evans; May 8, 1835 – May 9, 1909), was an American author of Southern literature and a supporter of the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Her books were banned by the American Library Association in 1881. She was the first woman to earn US$100000 through her writing.

Wilson was a native of Columbus, Georgia. Her first book, Inez, a Tale of the Alamo, was written when she was still young and published by Harpers. Her second book, Beulah, was issued in 1859 and became at once popular, still selling well when the American Civil War began. Cut off from the world of publishers, and intensely concerned for the cause of secession, she wrote nothing more until several years later when she published her third story, Macaria, dedicated to the soldiers of the Confederate Army. This book was burned by some protesters. After the war closed, Wilson travelled to New York with the copy of St. Elmo, which was published and met with great success. Her later works, Vashti; Infelice; and At the Mercy of Tiberius were also popular. In 1868, she married Lorenzo Madison Wilson, of Alabama, and they resided at Spring Hill.

Early years
Augusta Jane Evans was born on May 8, 1835, in Columbus, Georgia, the eldest child of the family. The area of her birth was then known as Wynnton (now MidTown). Her mother was Sarah S. Howard and her father was Matthew R. Evans. She was a descendant on her mother's side from the Howards, a prominent Georgia family. She received little formal education, but was reportedly a voracious reader at an early age.

Her father suffered bankruptcy and lost the family's Sherwood Hall property in the 1840s. He moved his family of ten from Georgia to Alabama, and Augusta was ten when they moved to San Antonio, Texas, in 1845. After the Mexican–American War ended, Evans was educated by her mother. During the Mexican war, San Antonio was the rendezvous for the United States troops sent to assist General Zachary Taylor, and Evans memories of her childhood in San Antonio during the war inspired her first novel.

In 1850, at the age of fifteen, she wrote Inez: A Tale of the Alamo, a sentimental, moralistic, and anti-Catholic love story. It told the story of one orphan's spiritual journey from religious skepticism to devout faith. She presented the manuscript to her father as a Christmas gift in 1854. It was published anonymously in 1855.

By 1849, Evans' parents moved the family to Mobile, Alabama. She wrote her next novel, Beulah, at age 18; it was published in 1859. Beulah began the theme of female education in her novels. It sold over 22,000 copies during its first year of publication and established her as Alabama's first professional author. Her family used the proceeds from her literary success to purchase Georgia Cottage on Springhill Avenue.

Civil War
After most of the Southern states declared their independence and seceded from the Union into the Confederate States of America, Evans became a staunch supporter of the Confederacy. Her brothers had joined the 3rd Alabama Regiment and, when she traveled to visit them in Virginia, her party was fired upon by Union soldiers from Fort Monroe. "O! I longed for a Secession flag to shake defiantly in their teeth at every fire! And my fingers fairly itched to touch off a red-hot-ball in answer to their chivalric civilities", she wrote to a friend. She became active in the subsequent Civil War as a propagandist.

Evans had been engaged to a New York journalist named James Reed Spalding, but broke off the engagement in 1860, because Spalding supported Abraham Lincoln. She nursed sick and wounded Confederate soldiers at Fort Morgan on Mobile Bay. Evans also visited Confederate soldiers at Chickamauga. She sewed sandbags for the defense of the community, wrote patriotic addresses, and set up a hospital near her residence. The hospital was dubbed Camp Beulah in honor of her novel. She also corresponded with General P.G.T. de Beauregard in 1862. The Civil War cut Evans off from her publishers, so it was many years before she published her third novel Macaria, which she later claimed was written by candlelight while nursing wounded Confederates. The novel is about Southern women making the ultimate sacrifice for the Confederacy; it promoted the desire for an independent national culture and reflected Southern values of the time. She sent a copy of this book with a letter to the publishers through the blockade. It was carried safely to Havana, and then to New York City. The book had already been published by a bookseller in Richmond, Virginia, and printed in South Carolina. It was entered according to the Confederate States of America, and dedicated to the soldiers of the Confederate army. Some portions of the manuscript were scribbled in pencil while sitting up with the sick soldiers in "Camp Beulah" near Mobile. A Federal officer in Kentucky seized and burned every copy of the Confederate edition of Macaria which he could find. A Northern publisher reportedly obtained a copy and published it, but swore he would pay no royalties to so "arch a rebel." J. B. Lippincott & J.C. Derby expostulated with him, and finally secured a contract by which the author would receive royalties. General George Henry Thomas, commander of the Union Army in Tennessee, confiscated copies and had the books burned.

Post-war years
After the Civil War ended, Evans went to New York to take the manuscript of her most ambitious effort, St. Elmo (1866). She finished the celebrated novel at the home of her aunt, Mary Howard Jones (wife of Colonel Seaborn Jones), "El Dorado". In St. Elmo the general setting, if not the specific details, seems to be the Jones's El Dorado. In 1878, the home was purchased by Captain and Mrs. James J. Slade who changed its name to St. Elmo in honor of the novel which it had inspired. St. Elmo sold a million copies within four months. It featured sexual tension between the protagonist St. Elmo, who was cynical, and the heroine Edna Earl, who was beautiful and devout. It became one of the most popular novels of the 19th century. Towns, hotels, steamboats and plantations were named after it, and the author was recompensed with large financial returns. The "high flown" language in which it was written, and the rare literary attainments of the little barefoot heroine drew forth severe criticism, and some one even ventured on a parody, "St. Twelvemo"; but all this could not affect the popularity of the book. People were eager for her next work, and after Vashti appeared, could not rest satisfied until they heard that another would soon be given them. Soon after Vashti was published, in 1868, she married Confederate veteran Colonel Lorenzo Madison Wilson, becoming Augusta Evans Wilson. He was 27 years her senior. Colonel Wilson acquired wealth in banking, railroads, and wholesale groceries. Not far from her home at Georgia Cottage, they settled in a columned house called Ashland in Mobile. The couple attended St. Francis Street Methodist Church. Wilson became the first lady of Mobile society, supplanting Madame Le Vert who had fallen into social disfavor for having welcomed the Federal occupation of Mobile too warmly. Because of her delicate health, Lorenzo objected seriously to her writing, and at his request, she discontinued it and devoted herself to decorating her home and grounds. Colonel Wilson died in 1892.

Time and time again flattering offers came for her to contribute to magazines and papers, but she refused. Not even a proposition to let her name her own price for a serial could tempt her. One publisher offered US$25000 if she would only allow them to publish her books in cheap "paperback" form, not to interfere with her library-bound editions, but this permission was never granted. She received a check for US$15000 for Vashti before it ever went to press. Ten years elapsed between Infelice and At the Mercy of Tiberius.

Critical response
Wilson's style was severely criticized as "pedantic." She wrote in the domestic, sentimental style of the Victorian Age. Critics have praised the intellectual competence of her female characters, but as her heroes eventually succumb to traditional values, Wilson has been described as an antifeminist. Of St. Elmo one critic maintained, "the trouble with the heroine of St. Elmo was that she swallowed an unabridged dictionary." Wilson was the first American woman author to earn over $100,000. This would be a record unsurpassed until Edith Wharton.

Macaria, or Altars of Sacrifice, published in 1864, was popular with Southerners and Northerners alike. Melissa Homestead writes that the transportation of the novel to New York was deliberate, done in installments and nearly simultaneous with the novel's preparation for publication in the South. Thus, while previous critics, scholars and biographers have all treated Macaria’s appearance in the North as unauthorized, the truth is much more meaningful. Some scholars say that by dispensing with the romantic notion that the novel appeared in a "bootleg" edition, Homestead debunks the hard and fast distinction between Northern and Southern readerships as an invention of historians and critics rather than an accurate reflection of reading practices of the period. However, a great number of discrepancies exist between the version published in the North and the version published in the South, which remove huge portions of the text which romanticize the Southern heroes that are portrayed.

Her novel St. Elmo was her most famous and it was frequently adapted for both the stage and screen and perhaps the most controversial. It was about the independence of women: although women did not need men, and could achieve independence, they also could save men from their tendency to apostasy. The novel inspired the naming of towns, hotels, steamboats, and a cigar brand. The book's heroine, Edna Earl, became the namesake of Eudora Welty's heroine (Edna Earle Ponder) in The Ponder Heart published in 1954. The novel also inspired a parody of itself called St. Twel'mo, or the Cuneiform Cyclopedist of Chattanooga (1867) by Charles Henry Webb. One reviewer wrote:

"The beauty and purity of Christian truth she coins from the crucible in which her mystic alchemy is cast. She never wavers in the sacred faith of a pure and true religion."

Her books were banned by the American Library Association in 1881: "by reason of sensation or immoral qualities".

Death and legacy
Wilson had become wealthy through her marriage and her literary earnings and retired from writing during her final years. She died of a heart attack in Mobile on May 9, 1909, and is buried in Mobile's Magnolia Cemetery. Her beloved Ashland burned to the ground in 1926. However, Georgia Cottage is still standing with a historical marker on Springhill Avenue designating it as her home.

Given her support for the Confederate States of America from the perspective of a Southern patriot, and her literary activities during the American Civil War, she can be deemed as having contributed decisively to the literary and cultural development of the Confederacy in particular, and of the South in general. She was inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame in 1977 and was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8, 2015.

A film and website on Wilson entitled The Passion of Miss Augusta was produced by Alabama filmmaker Robert Clem in 2016, the 150th anniversary of the publication of St. Elmo. The film combines documentary interviews and dramatized scenes from St. Elmo as a silent film and a 1950s film showing how its story might have been told at a time when Eudora Welty, William Faulkner and Tennessee Williams were the face of Southern fiction. Interviews from the film as well as photographs and other exhibits have been collected in an online 'museum' on Wilson and her career. Brenda Ayres wrote the biography, The Life and Works of Augusta Jane Evans Wilson, 1835–1909 (2016).

Selected works

 * Inez (1850)
 * Beulah (1859)
 * Macaria (1863)
 * St. Elmo (1866)
 * Vashti (1869)
 * Infelice (1875)
 * At the Mercy of Tiberius (1887)
 * A Speckled Bird (1902)
 * Devota (1907)

title: Augusta Wilson


text:
Darbhanga division

Darbhanga Division is an administrative geographical unit of Bihar state of India, and Darbhanga city is the administrative headquarters of the division. It is a part of historical Mithila region. The main language of the division is Maithili. , the division consists of Darbhanga district, Madhubani district, and Samastipur district.

Darbhanga district

 * Darbhanga Sadar
 * Benipur
 * Biraul

Madhubani district

 * Madhubani Sadar
 * Benipatti
 * Jhanjarpur
 * Phulparas
 * Jainagar

Samastipur district

 * Samastipur Sadar
 * Dalsinghsarai
 * Rosera
 * Patori

title: Darbhanga division


text:
Kosi division

Kosi division is an administrative geographical unit of Bihar state of India. Saharsa is the administrative headquarters of the division. Currently (2022), the division consists of Saharsa district, Madhepura district, and Supaul district.

Agriculture
It is the major producer of Corn and Makhana in India. Every year tonnes of corn and makhana are disseminated throughout the entire country by railways and airways. The following crops are grown in the region: Makhana (Euryale ferox Salisb), rice, mangoes, litchi, bamboo, mustard, corn, wheat and sugarcane. Sagwan or teak (Tectona grandis) trees are now grown on a large scale.

History
Present-day Kosi division, all of which was previously part of Saharsa district, is part of the Mithila region. Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Mithila Kingdom (also called Kingdom of the Videhas). During the late Vedic period (c. 1100–500 BCE), Kingdom of the Videhas became one of the major political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru and Pañcāla. The kings of the Kingdom of the Videhas were called Janakas. The Mithila Kingdom was later incorporated into the Vajjika League, which had its capital in the city of Vaishali, which is also in Mithila.

Language
The predominant language spoken in this region is Hindi and Maithili language. The most common dialect of Maithili used in Kosi division is Thēthi dialect.

title: Kosi division


text:
Talk:Real Lives (TV channel)

Living2 or LIVING2
Thoughts? I would have presumed it was LIVING2 but have no real reason to support this except the on-air graphics. -Coolmark18 07:58, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Real Lives (TV channel)


text: User talk:82.0.231.154

title: User talk:82.0.231.154


text:
Purnia division

Purnia division is an administrative geographical unit of Bihar state of India. Purnia is the administrative headquarters of the division. The division consists of Purnia district, Katihar district, Araria district, and Kishanganj district. It was established in 1990. It is also known as Seemanchal. It is a part of the Kosi—Seemanchal subregion of the cultural Mithila region.

History
Purnia division, all of which was previously part of Purnia district, is part of the Mithila region. Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Mithila Kingdom (also called Kingdom of the Videhas). During the late Vedic period (c. 1100–500 BCE), Kingdom of the Videhas became one of the major political and cultural centers of Asia, along with Kuru and Pañcāla. The kings of the Kingdom of the Videhas were called Janakas. The Mithila Kingdom was later incorporated into the Vajjika League, which had its capital in the city of Vaishali, which is also in Mithila. During the Mughal rule, Purnia was an outlying military province, and its revenue was mostly spent on protecting its borders against tribes from the north and east. After the capture of Calcutta in 1757, Purnia's local governor raised a rebellion against Siraj ud-Daulah. In 1765, the district became a British possession, along with the rest of Bengal. On February tenth, 1770 The district of Purnia in modern history was formed by the East India Company. Purnia district has seen the three districts partitioned off from its territory: Katihar in 1976, and Araria and Kishanganj in 1990. The districts of Araria, Katihar, Purnia and Kishanganj together from the Purnia division.

English rule and freedom struggle
The last of the Governors was Md. Ali Khan who was replaced in 1770 by Mr. Ducarrel, the first English supervisor or Collector. The early years of British rule were years of trouble for Purnia. The district suffered terribly during the great famine of 1770. From the old records, it appears that there were European settlers in Purnia almost immediately after the establishment of British rule in the district. By 1771, a number of Europeans had settled in the area known as Rambagh, the only building left in Rambagh was the church and the priests' houses. The Roman Catholic Church was dismantled and re-erected in the new station of Purnia where the Europeans had already set up their residences. The foundation of this new church was there until 1934, when it was badly affected by the Bihar earthquake. The church was dismantled again. The nuns of Loretto convent of Darjeeling had come to Purnia near about 1882 and had opened a day school as well as a boarding school for children in Purnia district. When the Jesuit Mission of Bengal took over the Purnia Mission from the Capuchin Mission, the school was closed and the nuns returned to Darjeeling. This house still stands and is known as the Coumblin. It is one of the oldest houses in Purnia town and is now occupied by the Allisons.

Kisan Sabha movement, which had been responsible for an acute agitation in Purnia district in the third decade in 20th century and figured prominently for about 20 years, had its roots in the very agricultural economy and the precious structure of permanent land-lordism in this state. The Kisan Sabha was formed at Munger near about 1922–23. After 1940–41, the kisan sabha movement slowly merged into the Congress Movement.

Purnia district, being so very contiguous to several districts of undivided Bengal, had been promptly affected by the swadeshi movement in the first decade of the 20th century. At that time there were no facilities for higher education in Purnia district and the students who sought higher education had to go to Calcutta or to Patna. The Bihar National College and TK Ghosh Academy were suspected as the two centers for a secret students organization, which indulged in sedition and both these institutions had a sprinkling of students from Purnia. A boy from Purnia, Atul Chandra Mazumdar, a student of the BN College, Patna was arrested under the Defence Act of India.

Since 1919, Purnia had closely followed the policy, aims and objectives of the Indian National Congress. Some of the delegates of Purnia attended the Nagpur session of Congress in 1920 and the moment Mahatma Gandhi gave the call for the Non-Cooperation, there were a number of volunteers in this district. Some of the early local leaders were Gokul Krishna Roy, Satyendra Narayan Roy and a few others who gave up their practice in the Bar and joined the movement.

In 1921, a national school was started in Katihar. Shri Rajendra Prasad toured Purnia district in 1921 and addressed meetings at Purnia and at other places. In 1942 Quit India Movement tactics were fully implemented by the people of Purnia. Mahatma Gandhi visited Purnia in 1929, during which time he met the Raja of Nazargunj and addressed crowded meetings at various places including Kisahnganj, Bishnupur, Araria and Purnia. The survey and settlement operations in Purnia district commenced in 1952 and settlement operations were concluded in 1960. During the 1911–20 period, Purnia suffered from epidemics of cholera every year from 1915 to 1919. A very serious outbreak of cholera occurred in 1925. Incidences of smallpox and malaria was very high during this period.

Since Independence, the region has suffered from significant neglect from successive governments.

Demographics
According to the 2011 census, Purnia division has a population of 1,08,37,617 which is 10.41% of the population of Bihar. Maithili is the main language of this area. Hindi, Urdu, Surjapuri, Bengali, Santali and Kulhaiya boli are also spoken in this area.

The religious demographics of Purnia division are very different from the rest of Bihar. Although in Bihar the overall Muslim population is 16.86%, in Purnia division the Muslim population is 45.93% while the Hindu population is 53.51%.

2017 North Bihar Floods
2017 Floods affected 19 districts of North Bihar causing death of 514 people,     in which four districts of Purnia division (Araria 87, Katihar 40, Kishanganj 24 and Purnia 9) accounted for 160 deaths alone.

title: Purnia division


text:
Waxweb

Waxweb is a hypermedia version of the film Wax or the Discovery of Television Among the Bees by David Blair.

The online version of Waxweb has been hosted since 1994 by the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities at the University of Virginia. It is an 85-minute movie in 80,000 pieces.

In the story at the centre of Waxweb Jacob Maker is a beekeeper who designs flight simulators. "One day, the past arrives out of the future, and Jacob enters". The online version enables users to watch the sequences in the order determined by choices made at every step of the way through the story. There is also a CD-ROM version.

The production has received support from the New York State Council for the Arts. Between 1995 and 1997, technical support (and inspiration for this final version) was provided by RACE Laboratory at the University of Tokyo. An early version of Waxweb ran as a MOO, technically supported by Brown University Graphics Lab students (Tom Meyer, Suzanne Hader, David Klaphaak, and others). Additional software for that version was provided by Eastgate Systems with additional assistance from Melynda Barnhardt.

In the movie, Wax or the Discovery of Television Among the Bees, David Blair plays Jacob Maker, Meg Savlov plays Melissa Maker, Florence Ormezzano plays Allelle Zillah, William Burroughs plays James "Hive" Maker, and Dr. Clyde Tombaugh is himself. The movie was created in co-production with Das Kleine Fernsehspiel, a program of ZDF Channel 2 of German Public Television.

title: Waxweb


text:
Bhagalpur division

Bhagalpur division is one of the nine administrative units of Bihar, a state in the east of India. Bhagalpur city is the headquarters of the division. Established in 1765, it is oldest division of the state.

City and town in Bhagalpur Division
Bhagalpur is the largest city in Bhagalpur Division situated on the southern bank of the Ganges river.The old name of Bhagalpur was Champanagri which was the capital of Anga Kingdom.

Kahalgaon (formerly known as Colgong during British rule) is a municipality town and one of three subdivisions in Bhagalpur district in the state of Bihar, India. It is located close to the Vikramashila.

Banka is a town and headquarters of Banka district of bihar.

Naugachia is a town and an important railway station in Bhagalpur district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is a block and one of three subdivisions of the Bhagalpur district and also a police district.

Sultanganj is a town and a block in Bhagalpur district of Bihar. It is located 25 km from Bhagalpur.

Note
Population data obtained from the sum of the populations of the districts.

title: Bhagalpur division


text:
Talk:Stefan Bellof

Untitled
This year some newspapers in Germany published some articles about Bellof and Winkelhock, who died 20 years ago. For example the Stuttgarter Zeitung and the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung reported accordingly, that Bellof had already signed a contract with Ferrari for the year 1986. So i guess the article is right and therefore deleted the comment in the article.

Hmmm, I'd prefer to have seen something a bit more contemporary... why would Ferrari buy Johansson's contract from Tyrrell instead of Bellof's in '85 when they fired Arnoux? I'm really not convinced that's anything more than a rumour myself - albeit one later picked up in innocence by the above sources... I couldn't find anything in the contemporary issues of Autosport or Motorsport. The other thing is Bellof died not long after midway through the 1985 F1 season - in those days that would be very early for a contract to be signed, especially for a non mega-star driver. Not to deride Bellof, who would have been one of the very greatest drivers of all time, but about the only guys who fitted into that category at the time would have been Piquet, Prost and Rosberg.

I dunno, something just doesn't add up, though I'd be happy to be proven wrong :)

--Tom Prankerd 01:29, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

I'll change the article according to The Official Stefan Bellof Website. The author claims, that there was an offer from Ferrari for the 1986 season, but not a contract.

I would like to point out that the text conveys the wrong picture about Monaco 1984. Bellof AND Senna were catching up to Alain Prost before the race was red flagged. The way it is put in the text, implies that Bellof was actually faster than Senna, which according to many account is untrue, as this is considered one of Senna's near perfect drives.

You are right that Senna was catching Prost, but Bellof in turn was catching both at quite a rate, so the article is correct. Shame everyone forgets Bellof's drive though.MRHMI (talk) 18:41, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 6 one external links on Stefan Bellof. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20080513170156/http://f1rejects.com/drivers/gartner/biography.html to http://www.f1rejects.com/drivers/gartner/biography.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070929092037/http://wspr-racing.com/wspr/results/wscc/ms1982.html to http://wspr-racing.com/wspr/results/wscc/ms1982.html#5
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20061112165655/http://wspr-racing.com/wspr/results/drm/drm1982.html to http://www.wspr-racing.com/wspr/results/drm/drm1982.html#9
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081120165339/http://www.962.com/registry/956_962/956-007/index.htm to http://962.com/registry/956_962/956-007/index.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081018160912/http://www.suhw.de:80/Hobbywelt/Stefan-Bellof-Memorial/stefan-bellof-memorial.html to http://www.suhw.de/Hobbywelt/Stefan-Bellof-Memorial/stefan-bellof-memorial.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120208112925/http://www.suhw.de/Hobbywelt/Stefan-Bellof-Memorial/stefan-bellof-memorial.html to http://www.suhw.de/Hobbywelt/Stefan-Bellof-Memorial/stefan-bellof-memorial.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 22:15, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stefan Bellof


text:
Oxygen radical absorbance capacity

Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) was a method of measuring antioxidant capacities in biological samples in vitro. Because no physiological proof in vivo existed in support of the free-radical theory or that ORAC provided information relevant to biological antioxidant potential, it was withdrawn in 2012.

Various foods were tested using this method, with certain spices, berries and legumes rated highly in extensive tables once published by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Alternative measurements include the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay.

Method
The assay measures the oxidative degradation of the fluorescent molecule (either beta-phycoerythrin or fluorescein) after being mixed with free radical generators such as azo-initiator compounds. Azo-initiators are considered to produce the peroxyl radical by heating, which damages the fluorescent molecule, resulting in the loss of fluorescence. Antioxidants are considered to protect the fluorescent molecule from the oxidative degeneration. The degree of protection is quantified using a fluorometer. Fluorescein is currently used most as a fluorescent probe. Equipment that can automatically measure and calculate the capacity is commercially available (Biotek, Roche Diagnostics).

The fluorescent intensity decreases as the oxidative degeneration proceeds, and this intensity is typically recorded for 35 minutes after the addition of the azo-initiator (free radical generator). So far, AAPH (2,2’-azobis(2-amidino-propane) dihydrochloride) is the sole free-radical generator used. The degeneration (or decomposition) of fluorescein is measured as the presence of the antioxidant slows the fluorescence decay. Decay curves (fluorescence intensity vs. time) are recorded and the area between the two decay curves (with or without antioxidant) is calculated. Subsequently, the degree of antioxidant-mediated protection is quantified using the antioxidant trolox (a vitamin E analogue) as a standard. Different concentrations of trolox are used to make a standard curve, and test samples are compared to this. Results for test samples (foods) have been published as "trolox equivalents" or TEs.

One benefit of using the ORAC method to evaluate substances' antioxidant capacities is that it takes into account samples with and without lag phases of their antioxidant capacities. This is especially beneficial when measuring foods and supplements that contain complex ingredients with various slow- and fast-acting antioxidants, as well as ingredients with combined effects that cannot be precalculated.

Drawbacks of this method are: 1) only antioxidant activity against particular (probably mainly peroxyl) radicals is measured; however, peroxyl radical formation has never been proven; 2) the nature of the damaging reaction is not characterized; 3) there is no evidence that free radicals are involved in this reaction; and 4) there is no evidence that ORAC values have any biological significance following consumption of any food. Moreover, the relationship between ORAC values and a health benefit has not been established.

Resulting from scientific refutation of the physiological significance of ORAC, the USDA, which had been collating and publishing ORAC data for more than a decade, withdrew its web publication of ORAC values for common American foods in May 2012.

Several modified ORAC methods have been proposed. Most of them employ the same principle (i.e. measurement of AAPH-radical mediated damage of fluorescein); however, ORAC-EPR, electron paramagnetic resonance-based ORAC method directly measures the decrease of AAPH-radical level by the scavenging action of the antioxidant substance.

Regulatory guidance
In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity in vitro, so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength—the ORAC measurement.

Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins—vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E—no food compounds have been proved with antioxidant efficacy in vivo. Accordingly, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance forbidding food product labels to claim or imply an antioxidant benefit when no such physiological evidence exists. This guidance for the United States and European Union establishes it is illegal to imply potential health benefits on package labels of products with high ORAC.

Physiological context
Although research in vitro indicates polyphenols are good antioxidants and probably influence the ORAC value, antioxidant effects in vivo are probably negligible or absent. By non-antioxidant mechanisms still undefined, flavonoids and other polyphenols may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute, EFSA and the USDA, dietary polyphenols have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. Not like controlled test tube conditions, the fate of polyphenols in vivo shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically modified metabolites destined for rapid excretion.

The increase in antioxidant capacity of blood seen after the consumption of polyphenol-rich (ORAC-rich) foods is not caused directly by the polyphenols, but most likely results from increased uric acid levels derived from metabolism of flavonoids. According to Frei, "we can now follow the activity of flavonoids in the body, and one thing that is clear is that the body sees them as foreign compounds and is trying to get rid of them."

Food sources
Values are expressed as the sum of the lipid soluble (e.g. carotenoid) and water-soluble (e.g. phenolic) antioxidant fractions (i.e., “total ORAC”) reported as in micromoles trolox equivalents (TE) per 100 gram sample, and are compared to assessments of total polyphenol content in the samples.

These values are considered biologically irrelevant by the EFSA and USDA.

With nearly all vegetables, conventional boiling can reduce the ORAC value by up to 90%, while steaming retains more of the antioxidants.

Comparisons of ORAC values
The United States Department of Agriculture, previously a publisher of ORAC data, withdrew its web publication of ORAC values for common American foods in 2012 owing to absence of scientific evidence that ORAC has any biological significance.

When comparing ORAC data, care must be taken to ensure the units and food being compared are similar. Some evaluations will compare ORAC units per gram of dry weight of the intact food or its milled powder, others will evaluate ORAC units in fresh or frozen wet weight, and still others will look at ORAC units per serving. Under each evaluation, different foods can appear to have higher ORAC values. For example, although a raisin has no more antioxidant potential than the grape from which it was dried, raisins will appear to have a higher ORAC value per gram of wet weight than grapes due to their reduced water content. Likewise, the large water content in watermelon can make it appear as though this fruit is low in ORAC. Similarly, the typical quantity of food used should be considered; herbs and spices may be high in ORAC, but are applied in much smaller quantities compared to intact whole foods.

Numerous health food and beverage companies and marketers have erroneously capitalized on the ORAC rating by promoting products claimed to be "high in ORAC". As most of these ORAC values have not been independently validated or subjected to peer review for publication in scientific literature, they remain unconfirmed, are not scientifically credible, and may mislead consumers.

title: Oxygen radical absorbance capacity


text: Category:Moped manufacturers

title: Category:Moped manufacturers


text:
Hughes–Ryan Amendment

The Hughes–Ryan Amendment (Public Law 93–559 (1974)) was an amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, passed as section 32 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974. The amendment was named for its co-authors, Senator Harold E. Hughes (D–IA) and Representative Leo Ryan (D–CA). The amendment required the President of the United States to report all covert actions of the Central Intelligence Agency to one or more Congressional committees.

This amendment addressed the question of CIA and Defense Department covert actions, and prohibited the use of appropriated funds for the conduct of such an action unless and until the President issues an official "Finding" that each such operation is important to national security, and submits this Finding to the appropriate Congressional committees (a total of six committees, at the time, which grew to eight committees after the House and Senate "select committees" on intelligence were established).

The legislation was meant to ensure that the intelligence oversight committees within Congress were told of CIA actions within a reasonable time limit. Senator Hughes, in introducing the legislation in 1973, also saw it as a means of limiting major covert operations by military, intelligence, and national security agents conducted without the full knowledge of the president.

History
By the early years of the 1970s, the unpopular war in Southeast Asia and the unfolding Watergate scandal brought the era of minimal oversight to a halt. The Congress was determined to rein in the Nixon administration, and to ascertain the extent to which the nation's intelligence agencies had been involved in questionable, if not outright illegal, activities. A major stimulus for the amendment came from 1972 and 1973 hearings of the Senate Armed Services Committee on covert military operations in Cambodia, Laos, and North Vietnam in the early 1970s. The committee had found that Air Force and Navy air elements had conducted secret air strikes, and falsified after-action reports to conceal this. To Hughes and several other senators, these activities represented a secret war conducted through back-channel communications from the White House directly to field commanders in the Pacific Theater and the Vietnam War.

A series of troubling revelations appeared in the press concerning intelligence activities. On 22 December 1974, The New York Times published a lengthy article by Seymour Hersh detailing CIA operations that had been dubbed the "family jewels", including lengthy covert action programs to assassinate foreign leaders and subvert foreign governments. The article also discussed efforts by intelligence agencies to collect information on the political activities of American citizens. These revelations convinced many senators and representatives that the Congress had been too lax, trusting, and naive in carrying out its oversight responsibilities.

The first legislative response was enactment, in 1974, of the Hughes–Ryan Amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. The act, as amended, established ultimate accountability of the President for all covert action conducted by the CIA, removing any "plausible deniability" for the President regarding exposed covert actions. It also expanded the circle of "witting" persons in Congress, which made covert operations to which Congress was opposed much more likely to be exposed by leaks. Thus, the passage of the amendment created both de facto and de jure Congressional veto power on covert operations, through the ability to leak and the power of the purse, respectively.

title: Hughes–Ryan Amendment


text:
Bit manipulation

Bit manipulation is the act of algorithmically manipulating bits or other pieces of data shorter than a word. Computer programming tasks that require bit manipulation include low-level device control, error detection and correction algorithms, data compression, encryption algorithms, and optimization. For most other tasks, modern programming languages allow the programmer to work directly with abstractions instead of bits that represent those abstractions.

Source code that does bit manipulation makes use of the bitwise operations: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, and possibly other operations analogous to the boolean operators; there are also bit shifts and operations to count ones and zeros, find high and low one or zero, set, reset and test bits, extract and insert fields, mask and zero fields, gather and scatter bits to and from specified bit positions or fields. Integer arithmetic operators can also effect bit-operations in conjunction with the other operators.

Bit manipulation, in some cases, can obviate or reduce the need to loop over a data structure and can give manyfold speed-ups, as bit manipulations are processed in parallel.

Terminology
Bit twiddling, bit fiddling, bit bashing, and bit gymnastics are often used interchangeably with bit manipulation, but sometimes exclusively refer to clever or non-obvious ways or uses of bit manipulation, or tedious or challenging low-level device control data manipulation tasks.

The term bit twiddling dates from early computing hardware, where computer operators would make adjustments by tweaking or twiddling computer controls. As computer programming languages evolved, programmers adopted the term to mean any handling of data that involved bit-level computation.

Bitwise operation
A bitwise operation operates on one or more bit patterns or binary numerals at the level of their individual bits. It is a fast, primitive action directly supported by the central processing unit (CPU), and is used to manipulate values for comparisons and calculations.

On most processors, the majority of bitwise operations are single cycle - substantially faster than division and multiplication and branches. While modern processors usually perform some arithmetic and logical operations just as fast as bitwise operations due to their longer instruction pipelines and other architectural design choices, bitwise operations do commonly use less power because of the reduced use of resources.

Example of bit manipulation
To determine if a number is a power of two, conceptually we may repeatedly do integer divide by two until the number won't divide by 2 evenly; if the only factor left is 1, the original number was a power of 2. Using bit and logical operators, there is a simple expression which will return true (1) or false (0):

The second half uses the fact that powers of two have one and only one bit set in their binary representation: x        == 0...0 1 0...0 x-1      == 0...001...1 x & (x-1) == 0...000...0

If the number is neither zero nor a power of two, it will have '1' in more than one place: x        == 0... 1 ...0 1 0...0 x-1      == 0... 1 ...001...1 x & (x-1) == 0... 1 ...000...0

If inline assembly language code is used, then an instruction (popcnt) that counts the number of 1's or 0's in the operand might be available; an operand with exactly one '1' bit is a power of 2. However, such an instruction may have greater latency than the bitwise method above.

Bit manipulation operations
Processors typically provide only a subset of the useful bit operators. Programming languages don't directly support most bit operations, so idioms must be used to code them. The 'C' programming language, for example provides only bit-wise AND(&), OR(|), XOR(^) and NOT(~). Fortran provides AND(.and.), OR (.or.), XOR (.neqv.) and EQV(.eqv.). Algol provides syntactic bitfield extract and insert. When languages provide bit operations that don't directly map to hardware instructions, compilers must synthesize the operation from available operators.

An especially useful bit operation is count leading zeros used to find the high set bit of a machine word, though it may have different names on various architectures. There's no simple programming language idiom, so it must be provided by a compiler intrinsic or system library routine. Without that operator, it is very expensive (see Find first set) to do any operations with regard to the high bit of a word, due to the asymmetric carry-propagate of arithmetic operations. Fortunately, most cpu architectures have provided that since the middle 1980s. An accompanying operation count ones, also called POPCOUNT, which counts the number of set bits in a machine word, is also usually provided as a hardware operator. Simpler bit operations like bit set, reset, test and toggle are often provided as hardware operators, but are easily simulated if they aren't - for example (SET R0, 1; LSHFT R0, i; OR x, R0) sets bit i in operand x.

Some of the more useful and complex bit operations that must be coded as idioms in the programming language and synthesized by compilers include:

Some arithmetic operations can be reduced to simpler operations and bit operations: Multiply by 9 for example, is copy operand, shift up by 3 (multiply by 8), and add to original operand.
 * clear from specified bit position up (leave lower part of word)
 * clear from specified bit position down (leave upper part of word)
 * mask from low bit down (clear lower word)
 * mask from high bit up (clear lower word)
 * bitfield extract
 * bitfield insert
 * bitfield scatter/gather operations which distribute contiguous portions of a bitfield over a machine word, or gather disparate bitfields in the word into a contiguous portion of a bitfield (see recent Intel PEXT/PDEP operators). Used by cryptography and video encoding.
 * matrix inversion
 * reduce multiply by constant to sequence of shift-add
 * reduce division by constant to sequence of shift-subtract

Masking
A mask is data that is used for bitwise operations, particularly in a bit field.

Using a mask, multiple bits in a Byte, nibble, word (etc.) can be set either on, off or inverted from on to off (or vice versa) in a single bitwise operation. More comprehensive applications of masking, when applied conditionally to operations, are termed predication.

title: Bit manipulation


text:
Munger division

Munger division is an administrative geographical unit of Bihar state of India. Munger is the administrative headquarters of the division. The division consists of Munger district, Lakhisarai District, Jamui district, Khagaria district, and Sheikhpura district. Earlier all these districts were part of Munger (earlier known as Monghyr) district.

title: Munger division


text:
Talk:Run-time type information

Merging with datatype

 * I vote to keep the entry separate. I believe that the theme allows for a more comprehensive text, and if it is merged, it would probably remain as it is.

I too oppose
 * oppose Nereocystis 14:54, 7 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose too, it'd be hidden if it were merged, makes more sense on its own. EAi 16:38, 27 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose —R. Koot 20:12, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

Code example
Provided code example won't compile with g++ (4.0.2). Compilation produces "source type is not polymorphic" error. Adding virtual destructor to the base class solves the problem.--Iwasz 21:59, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * It compiles fine as of today with a recent g++ and clang++. Mlkj (talk) 22:34, 31 December 2015 (UTC)

Only objects/classes?
Currently, the article states:
 * In programming, RTTI [...] means keeping information about an object's data type in memory at runtime

Isn't it more correct to say: as runtime information can be kept for simple data types such as integers, too? --Abdull (talk) 12:04, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * In programming, RTTI [...] means keeping information about an entity's data type in memory at runtime
 * The variable article says variable has as synonyms object and identifier. Yet, I think there is the possibility of confusion with OOP objects. --Abdull (talk) 12:09, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

Why is this identified as a C++ thing?
Delphi has had RTTI since the very beginning, and it's integrated into the language and used throughout the runtime, unlike C++ where it was bolted on after the fact and is a special option that has to be enabled. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.46.35.146 (talk) 21:14, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

I concur. Run-time type information (in the non-Proper Noun sense) is a feature that is available in all reflective languages, of which there are MANY. The term "Reflection" is virtually identical in meaning to RTTI but is much more accepted academically. Either this article should be merged with Reflection (computer programming), or it should document the other languages such as Delphi and D Programming Language that also refer specifically to "RTTI" as a proper noun, or perhaps this page should just be expunged as it is currently just a piece of technical information specific to C++, which makes it completely irrelevant to encyclopedia readers. --118.90.128.222 (talk) 11:53, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

 * If RTTI is use also in other languages than C++, there should be parallel code examples wherever C++ code appears. Sae1962 (talk) 08:29, 26 January 2011 (UTC)

The funny thing is that RTTI in other languages (Delphi, C#) is way better integrated and yet this article gives an impression that this is a C++ thing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.43.121.62 (talk) 11:40, 9 October 2018 (UTC)

The whole article describes RTTI as a C++ feature, then out of nowhere, for a single sentence it mentions Java cast besides dynamic_cast. This is very confusing for someone not familiar with the topic. --A Tejesember (talk) 17:56, 18 July 2019 (UTC)
 * The article used to be more general in its wording. This was changed by an anonymous editor in 2008, I think (see ). – Tea2min (talk) 10:53, 19 July 2019 (UTC)

Ada also has run-time typing information: Ada Core OOP4.31.13.17 (talk) 18:41, 12 July 2021 (UTC)

I will try to make this article more general. I think RTTI deserves an article, the issue is that, as it stands today, it's too focused on C++. BernardoSulzbach (talk) 16:38, 13 July 2021 (UTC)

RTTI in C++ is only available for polymorphic types
Run-time type information in C++ is only available for polymorphic types. Please see [expr.dynamic.cast] and [expr.typeid] in the C++20 standard. For example, an attempt to down-cast a pointer to an instance of a non-polymorphic class  down to a pointer to an instance of a non-polymorphic cass   derived from   is ill-formed: class A {}; class B : public A {}; int main {       A* a = new B;        B* b = dynamic_cast(a); // ill-formed! } An up-cast would compile and would work as expected, using only static information.

Similarly, [expr.typeid] says: "When typeid is applied to an expression other than a glvalue of a polymorphic class type, the result refers to a std::type_info object representing the static type of the expression." I.e., it does compile, but the result does not (and in fact cannot) represent the dynamic type of the expression. – Tea2min (talk) 19:03, 14 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Thank you, and sorry for the undue revert. You are correct that actual RTTI will only be available for polymorphic types, regardless of typeid being defined or not. BernardoSulzbach (talk) 20:06, 14 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Run-time type information