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Origins of the War of 1812

The origins of the War of 1812 (1812-1815), between the United States and the British Empire and its First Nation allies, have been long debated. The War of 1812 was caused by multiple factors and ultimately led to the US declaration of war on Britain:

 * A series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France with which Britain was at war (the US contested the restrictions as illegal under international law).
 * The impressment (forced recruitment) of seamen on US vessels into the Royal Navy (the British claimed that they were British deserters).
 * The British military support for American Indians who were offering armed resistance to the expansion of the American frontier to the Northwest Territory.
 * A possible desire by the US to annex some or all of Canada.
 * Implicit but powerful was a US motivation and desire to uphold national honor in the face of what they considered to be British insults, such as the Chesapeake affair.

American expansion into the Northwest Territory (now Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and northeast Minnesota) was impeded by Indian raids. Some historians maintain that an American goal in the war was to annex some or all of Canada, a view that many Canadians still share. However, many argue that inducing the fear of such a seizure was merely an American tactic, which was designed to obtain a bargaining chip.

Some members of the British Parliament and dissident American politicians such as John Randolph of Roanoke claimed that American expansionism, rather than maritime disputes, was the primary motivation for the American declaration of war. That view has been retained by some historians.

Although the British made some concessions before the war on neutral trade, they insisted on the right to reclaim their deserting sailors. The British also had long had a goal to create a large "neutral" Indian state that would cover much of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. They made the demand as late as 1814 at the Ghent Peace Conference but had lost battles that would have validated those claims.

The war was fought in four theatres: on the oceans, where the warships and privateers of both sides preyed on each other's merchant shipping; along the Atlantic Coast of the US, which was blockaded with increasing severity by the British, who also mounted large-scale raids in the later stages of the war; on the long frontier, running along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, which separated the US from Upper Canada and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec); and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

During the war, both Americans and British launched invasions of each other's territory, all of which either failed or gained only temporary success. At the end of the war, the British held American territory in parts of Maine and some outposts in the sparsely-populated West, and the Americans held Canadian territory near Detroit. However, all territories that were occupied by either side were restored at the peace treaty to the prewar borders.

In the United States, battles such as New Orleans and Baltimore, the latter of which inspired the lyrics of the US national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, produced a sense of euphoria over a Second War of Independence against Britain and ushered in an Era of Good Feelings. The partisan animosity that had once verged on treason practically vanished.

Canada also emerged from the war with a heightened sense of national feeling and solidarity against the American invasion.

Britain, which had regarded the war as a sideshow to the Napoleonic Wars, which had raged in Europe, was less affected by the fighting, and its government and people welcomed an era of peaceful relations with the US.

British goals
The British Empire was engaged in a life-and-death war against Napoleon and could not allow the Americans to help the enemy, regardless of their lawful neutral rights to do so. As Horsman explained, "If possible, England wished to avoid war with America, but not to the extent of allowing her to hinder the British war effort against France. Moreover... a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy."

Defending British North America
According to Historian Andrew Lambert, the British had one main goal as a response to the invasion of the Canada, that was the prosecution of war against the United states and to defend British North America: "The British had no interest in fighting this war, and once it began, they had one clear goal: keep the United States from taking any part of Canada". Britain's policy was to effect the end of the war, through continuous campaigning, which would influence the people of the United states and Government policy.

Defeating Napoleon
All parties were committed to the defeat of France, which required sailors and thus impressment, as well as all-out commercial war against France, which caused the restrictions that were imposed on American merchant ships. On the question of trade with America, the British parties split. As Horsman argues, "Some restrictions on neutral commerce were essential for England in this period. That this restriction took such an extreme form after 1807 stemmed not only from the effort to defeat Napoleon, but also from the undoubted jealousy of America's commercial prosperity that existed in England. America was unfortunate in that for most of the period from 1803 to 1812 political power in England was held by a group that was pledged not only to the defeat of France, but also to a rigid maintenance of Britain's commercial supremacy." That group was weakened by Whigs friendly to the US in mid-1812, and the policies were reversed although the US had already declared war. By 1815, Britain was no longer controlled by politicians dedicated to commercial supremacy and so that cause had vanished.

The British were hindered by weakened diplomats in Washington, such as David Erskine, who were unable to represent a consistent British policy, and by communications that were so slow the Americans did not learn of the reversal of policy until they had declared war.

Americans proposed a truce based on the British ending impressment, but the latter refused because they needed those sailors. Horsman explained, "Impressment, which was the main point of contention between England and America from 1803 to 1807, was made necessary primarily because of England's great shortage of seamen for the war against Napoleon. In a similar manner the restrictions on American commerce imposed by England's Orders in Council, which were the supreme cause of complaint between 1807 and 1812, were one part of a vast commercial struggle being waged between England and France."

Creation of Indian barrier state between US and Canada
The British also had the long-standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large "neutral" Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest to be a barrier between the Western US and Canada. It would be independent of the US and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansionism and to build up their control of the fur trade.

The British continued to make that demand as late as 1814, during the Ghent Peace Conference. However, they dropped the demand since their position had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames. Also, they simply no longer considered the goal to be worth war against the US although much of the proposed buffer state had remained largely under British and Indian control throughout the war. However, Britain insisted on including the right for Indians to return to lands they had lost after 1811, which was included in clause IX, even though Britain had doubts this would be upheld by America.

American goals
There were several immediate stated causes for the American declaration of war:

 * A series of trade restrictions, the Orders in Council (1807), were introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, which was at war with Britain. The US contested those restrictions as illegal under international law.
 * The impressment (forced recruitment) of US citizens into the Royal Navy.
 * The British military support for American Indians, who were offering armed resistance to the US.
 * An unstated but powerful motivation by the US was the need that was felt to uphold national honor in the face of British insults, such as the Chesapeake affair.
 * A possible US desire to annex Canada.

British support for Indian raids
Indians based in the Northwest Territory, now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, had organized in opposition to American settlement and were being supplied with weapons by British traders in Canada. Britain was not trying to provoke a war and, at one point, cut its allocations of gunpowder to the tribes, but it was trying to build up its fur trade and friendly relations with potential military allies. Britain had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) but had the long-term goal of creating a "neutral" or buffer Indian state in the area to block further American growth. The Indian nations generally followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Since 1805, he had preached his vision of purifying his society by expelling the "Children of the Evil Spirit" (the American settlers).

According to Pratt,

There is ample proof that the British authorities did all in their power to hold or win the allegiance of the Indians of the Northwest with the expectation of using them as allies in the event of war. Indian allegiance could be held only by gifts, and to an Indian no gift was as acceptable as a lethal weapon. Guns and ammunition, tomahawks and scalping knives were dealt out with some liberality by British agents.

Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811. Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them to be permanently ended.

American expansionism
Historians have considered the idea that American expansionism was one cause of the war. The American expansion into the Northwest Territory (now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) was being blocked by Indians, which was a major cause animating the Westerners. The American historian Walter Nugent, in his history of American expansionism, argues that expansion into the Midwest "was not the only American objective, and indeed not the immediate one area but it was an objective."

Annexation
More controversial is whether an American war goal was to acquire Canadian lands, especially what is now Western Ontario, permanently or whether it was planned to seize the area temporarily as a bargaining chip. The American desire for Canada has been a staple in Canadian public opinion since the 1830s and was much discussed among historians before 1940 but has since become less popular. The idea was first developed by the Marxist historian Louis M. Hacker and refined by the diplomatic specialist Julius Pratt.

In 1925, Pratt argued that Western Americans were incited to war by the prospect of seizing Canada. Pratt's argument supported the belief of many Canadians, especially in Ontario, where fear of American expansionism was a major political element, and the notion still survives among Canadians.

In 2010, the American historian Alan Taylor examined the political dimension of the annexation issue as Congress debated whether to declare war in 1811 and 1812. The Federalist Party was strongly opposed to war and to annexation, as were the Northeastern states. The majority in Congress was held by the Democratic-Republican Party, which was split on the issue. One faction wanted the permanent expulsion of Britain and the annexation of Canada. John Randolph of Roanoke, representing Virginia, commented, "Agrarian greed not maritime right urges this war. We have heard but one word - like the whippoorwill's one monotonous tone: Canada! Canada! Canada!"

The other faction, based in the South, said that acquiring new territory in the North would give it too much power and so opposed the incorporation of Canada since its Catholic population was viewed as "unfit by faith, language and illiteracy for republican citizenship." The Senate held a series of debates and twice voted on proposals that explicitly endorsed annexation, neither of which passed. However, the second failed only because of a proviso stating that Canada could be returned to British rule after it had been annexed. War was declared with no mention of annexation, but widespread support existed among the War Hawks for it. Some Southerners supported expansionism; Tennessee Senator Felix Grundy considered it essential to acquire Canada to preserve domestic political balance and argued that annexing Canada would maintain the free state-slave state balance, which might otherwise be ended by the acquisition of Florida and the settlement of the southern areas of the new Louisiana Purchase.

Even James Monroe and Henry Clay, key officials in the government, expected to gain at least Upper Canada from a successful war.

American commanders like General William Hull and Alexander Smythe issued proclamations to Canadians and their troops that assured them that annexations would actually occur during the war. Smythe wrote to his troops that when they entered Canada, "You enter a country that is to become one with the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow-citizens."

Seizing Canada as bargaining chip
Historians now generally agree that an invasion and seizure of Canada was the main American military strategy once the war had begun. With British control of the oceans, there was no other way to fight against British interests actively. President James Madison believed that food supplies from Canada were essential to the British overseas empire in the West Indies and that an American seizure would be an excellent bargaining chip at the peace conference. During the war, some Americans speculated that they might as well keep all of Canada. Thomas Jefferson, for example, was now out of power but argued that the expulsion of British interests from nearby Canada would remove a long-term threat to American republicanism.

The New Zealander historian J.C.A. Stagg argued that Madison and his advisers believed that the conquest of Canada would be easy and that economic coercion would force the British to come to terms by cutting off the food supply for their highly-valuable West Indies sugar colonies. Furthermore, the possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip. Stagg suggested that frontiersmen demanded the seizure of Canada not because they wanted the land, since they had plenty of it, but because the British were thought to be arming the Indians and thus blocked settlement of the West.

As Horsman concluded, "The idea of conquering Canada had been present since at least 1807 as a means of forcing England to change her policy at sea. The conquest of Canada was primarily a means of waging war, not a reason for starting it." Hickey flatly stated, "The desire to annex Canada did not bring on the war." Brown (1964) concluded, "The purpose of the Canadian expedition was to serve negotiation not to annex Canada."

Alfred Leroy Burt, a Canadian scholar but also a professor at an American university, agreed completely by noting that Foster, the British minister to Washington, also rejected the argument that annexation of Canada was a war goal. However, Foster also rejected the possibility of a declaration of war but had dinner with several of the more prominent War Hawks and so his judgement on such matters can be questioned.

However, Stagg stated that "had the War 1812 been a successful military venture, the Madison administration would have been reluctant to have returned occupied Canadian territory to the enemy." Other authors concur, with one stating, "Expansion was not the only American objective, and indeed not the immediate one. But it was an objective."

"The American yearning to absorb Canada was long-standing.... In 1812 it became part of a grand strategy."

Another suggested, "Americans harbored 'manifest destiny' ideas of Canadian annexation throughout the nineteenth century." A third stated, "The [American] belief that the United States would one day annex Canada had a continuous existence from the early days of the War of Independence to the War of 1812 [and] was a factor of primary importance in bringing on the war."

Another stated that "acquiring Canada would satisfy America's expansionist desires"

The historian Spencer Tucker wrote, "War Hawks were eager to wage war with the British, not only to end Indian depredations in the Midwest but also to seize Canada and perhaps Spanish Florida."

Inhabitants of Ontario
Most of the inhabitants of Upper Canada (now Ontario) were Americans, but some of them were exiled United Empire Loyalists, and most of them were recent immigrants. The Loyalists were extremely hostile to American annexation, and the other settlers seem to have been uninterested and to have remained neutral during the war. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army, and some Americans believed that the many in Upper Canada would rise and greet the American invading army as liberators. The combination implied an easy conquest. Once the war began, ex-President Thomas Jefferson warned that the British presence posed a grave threat and pointed to "The infamous intrigues of Great Britain to destroy our government... and with the Indians to Tomahawk our women and children, prove that the cession of Canada, their fulcrum for these Machiavellian levers, must be a sine qua non at a treaty of peace." He predicted in late 1812 that "the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent."

Maass argued in 2015 that the expansionist theme is a myth that goes against the "relative consensus among experts that the primary U.S. objective was the repeal of British maritime restrictions." He argued the consensus among scholars to be that the US went to war "because six years of economic sanctions had failed to bring Britain to the negotiating table, and threatening the Royal Navy's Canadian supply base was their last hope." However, he also noted that many historians still published expansionism as a cause and that even those against the idea still included caveats regarding "possible expansionism underlying US motives." Maass agreed that theoretically, expansionism might have tempted Americans, but he also found that "leaders feared the domestic political consequences of doing so. Notably, what limited expansionism there was focused on sparsely populated western lands rather than the more populous eastern settlements [of Canada]."

Violations of US rights
The long wars between Britain and France (1793–1815) led to repeated complaints by the US that both powers violated American rights, as a neutral power, to trade with both sides. Furthermore, Americans complained loudly that British agents in Canada were supplying munitions to hostile Native American tribes living in US territories.

In the mid-1790s, the Royal Navy, short of manpower, began to board American merchant ships to seize American and British sailors from American vessels. Although the policy of impressment was supposed to reclaim only British subjects, the law of Britain and most other countries defined nationality by birth. However, American law allowed individuals who had been resident in the country for some time to adopt US citizenship. Therefore, many individuals were British by British law but American by American law. The confusion was compounded by the refusal of Jefferson and Madison to issue any official citizenship documents. Their position was that all persons serving on American ships were to be regarded as US citizens and so no further evidence was required. That stance was motivated by the advice of Albert Gallatin, who had calculated that half of the US deep-sea merchant seamen (9,000 men) were British subjects. Allowing the Royal Navy to reclaim those men would destroy both the US economy and the government's vital customs revenue. Any sort of accommodation would jeopardize those men and so concords such as the proposed Monroe-Pinkney Treaty (1806) between the US and Britain were rejected by Jefferson.

To fill the need for some sort of identification, US consuls provided unofficial papers. However, they relied on unverifiable declarations by the individual concerned for evidence of citizenship, and the large fees paid for the documents made them a lucrative sideline. In turn, British officers, who were short of personnel and convinced, somewhat reasonably, that the American flag was covering a large number of British deserters, tended to treat such papers with scorn. Between 1806 and 1812, about 6,000 seamen were impressed and taken against their will into the Royal Navy; 3,800 of them were later released.

Honor
A number of American contemporaries called it "the "Second War for Independence." Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun pushed a declaration of war through Congress by stressing the need to uphold American honor and independence. Speaking of his fellow Southerners, Calhoun told Congress that they
 * are not prepared for the colonial state to which again that Power [Great Britain] is endeavoring to reduce us. The manly spirit of that section of our country will not submit to be regulated by any foreign Power.

The historian Norman Risjord emphasized the central importance of honor as a cause the war. Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honor and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third-class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. That quest for honor was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honor.

The humiliating attack by HMS Leopard against USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event. Many Americans called for war, but Jefferson held back and insisted that economic warfare would prove more successful, which he initiated, especially in the form of embargoing or refusing to sell products to Britain. The policy proved a failure by not deterring the British, but it seriously damaged American industry and alienated the mercantile cities of the Northeast, which were seriously hurt.

Historians have demonstrated the powerful motive of honor to shape public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Virginia, as well as the territory of Michigan. On 3 June 1812, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, chaired by the pro-war extremist John C. Calhoun, called for a declaration of war in ringing phrases by denouncing Britain's "lust for power," "unbounded tyranny," and "mad ambition." James Roark wrote, "These were fighting words in a war that was in large measure about insult and honor." Calhoun reaped much of the credit.

In terms of honor, the conclusion of the war, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, restored the American sense of honor. The historian Lance Banning wrote:
 * National honor, the reputation of republican government, and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake.... National honor had [now] been satisfied.... Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride. They felt that they had fought a second war for independence, and had won. If little had been gained, nothing had been lost in a contest the greatest imperial power on the earth.

According to J.C.A. Stagg, a historian from New Zealand,
 * Initially, in the studies of Norman Risjord, these values were described as an outrageous sense of "national honor" provoked by the conduct of Great Britain toward the United States on the high seas, but in the work of Roger Brown, concerns about "national honor" became part of a larger commitment to "republicanism" itself—both in the institution of the ruling Jeffersonian Republican Party and in the belief that republicanism as a national creed would be in jeopardy unless Americans made another effort to vindicate the independence that had supposedly been won in 1783.

US economic motivations
The failure of Jefferson's embargo and of Madison's economic coercion, according to Horsman, "made war or absolute submission to England the only alternatives, and the latter presented more terrors to the recent colonists. The war hawks came from the West and the South, regions that had supported economic warfare and were suffering the most from British restrictions at sea. The merchants of New England earned large profits from the wartime carrying trade, in spite of the numerous captures by both France and England, but the western and southern farmers, who looked longingly at the export market, were suffering a depression that made them demand war."

Prewar incidents
This dispute came to the forefront with the Chesapeake–Leopard affair of 1807, when the British warship HMS Leopard fired on and boarded the American warship USS Chesapeake, killed three, and carried off four deserters from the Royal Navy. (Only one was a British citizen and was later hanged; the other three were American citizens and were later returned but the last two only in 1812.) The American public was outraged by the incident, and many called for war to assert American sovereignty and national honor.

The Chesapeake–Leopard affair followed closely on the similar Leander affair, which had resulted in Jefferson banning certain British warships and their captains from American ports and waters. Whether in response to that incident or the Chesapeake-Leopard affair, Jefferson banned all foreign armed vessels from American waters except for those bearing dispatches. In December 1808, an American officer expelled HMS Sandwich from Savannah, Georgia; the schooner had entered with dispatches for the British consul there.

Meanwhile, Napoleon's Continental System and the British Orders in Council established embargoes that made international trade precarious. From 1807 to 1812, about 900 American ships were seized as a result. The US responded with the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from sailing to any foreign ports and closed American ports to British ships. Jefferson's embargo was especially unpopular in New England, whose merchants preferred the indignities of impressment to the halting of overseas commerce. The discontent contributed to the calling of the Hartford Convention in 1814.

The Embargo Act had no effect on either Britain or France and so was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which lifted all embargoes on American shipping except for those bound for British or French ports. As that proved to be unenforceable, it was replaced in 1810 by Macon's Bill Number 2, which lifted all embargoes but offered that if France or Britain ceased its interference with American shipping, the US would reinstate an embargo on the other nation. Napoleon, seeing an opportunity to make trouble for Britain, promised to leave American ships alone, and the US reinstated the embargo with Britain and moved closer to declaring war. However, he had no intention of honoring his promise.

Exacerbating the situation, Sauk Indians, who controlled trade on the Upper Mississippi, were displeased with the US government after the 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William Henry Harrison ceded Sauk territory in Illinois and Missouri to the US. The Sauk felt the treaty to be unjust and that Quashquame had been unauthorized to sign away land and had been unaware of what he was signing. The establishment of Fort Madison in 1808 on the Mississippi had further angered the Sauk and led many, including Black Hawk, to side with the British before the war broke out. Sauk and allied Indians, including the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), were very effective fighters for the British on the Mississippi and helped to defeat Fort Madison and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien.

The Oxford historian Paul Langford looked at the decisions by the British government in 1812:
 * The British ambassador in Washington [Erskine] brought affairs almost to an accommodation, and was ultimately disappointed not by American intransigence but by one of the outstanding diplomatic blunders made by a Foreign Secretary. It was Canning who, in his most irresponsible manner and apparently out of sheer dislike of everything American, recalled the ambassador Erskine and wrecked the negotiations, a piece of most gratuitous folly. As a result, the possibility of a new embarrassment for Napoleon turned into the certainty of a much more serious one for his enemy. Though the British cabinet eventually made the necessary concessions on the score of the Orders-in-Council, in response to the pressures of industrial lobbying at home, its action came too late.... The loss of the North American markets could have been a decisive blow. As it was by the time the United States declared war, the Continental System [of Napoleon] was beginning to crack, and the danger correspondingly diminishing. Even so, the war, inconclusive though it proved in a military sense, was an irksome and expensive embarrassment which British statesman could have done much more to avert.

Declaration of war
In the US House of Representatives, a group of young Democratic-Republicans, known as the "War Hawks," came to the forefront in 1811 and were led by Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. They advocated going to war against Britain for all of the reasons listed above but concentrated on their grievances more than on territorial expansion.

On 1 June 1812, President James Madison gave a speech to the US Congress that recounted American grievances against Britain but did not specifically call for a declaration of war. After Madison's speech, the House of Representatives quickly voted (79 to 49) to declare war, and the Senate did the same by 19 to 13. The conflict formally began on 18 June 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law. It was the first time that the US had declared war on another nation, and the congressional vote was the closest-ever vote to declare war in American history. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted for the war, whose critics later referred to it as "Mr. Madison's War."

title: Origins of the War of 1812


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Operation Postage Able

Operation Postage Able was an X-class submarine-based Royal Navy operation in preparation for Overlord, the Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe.

Intelligence gathering
The success of Overlord was in part dependent on detailed topographical map information about the beaches and coastal towns along the French coast. British experience of Galipolli in the First World War, with the loss of 100,000 dead or wounded troops, meant that detail was necessary to ensure the invading army did not get stuck on the beach.

Aerial photographs helped identify likely locations but, to obtain more detailed views, the Government asked the BBC to appeal for holiday photographs and picture postcards of unspecified coastal areas of France.

However, as it was known that the beaches were in parts underpinned by ancient forests which had turned into peat bogs before becoming submerged, much more detailed information on the target beaches and their approaches was required. Local conditions such as the composition of the beaches, hidden underwater banks, German defensive obstacles, depth of water, tidal conditions etc. would all be taken into account in the planning of the project.

Pilot operation
On New Year's Eve 1943/4, under the leadership of Major Logan Scott-Bowden of the Royal Engineers, a unit set out in motor torpedo boats to survey Luc-sur-Mer. Transferring to a hydrographical survey craft, they moved closer to shore where Major Logan Scott-Bowden and Sgt Bruce Ogden-Smith swam to the beaches. Collecting samples at designated points, they were careful not to leave behind evidence of their visit, and returned to England the next morning.

On 16 January 1944, X20 planned to spend four days off the French coast. Commanded by Lt K.R. Hudspeth DSC* RANVR and Sub. Lt. B. Enzer RNVR, with the COPP (Combined Ops Pilotage Party) comprising Lt. Cdr. Nigel Willmott DSO DSC RN, and the same divers, Major Scott-Bowden and Sergeant Ogden-Smith.

During the daytime, periscope-level reconnaissance of the shoreline and echo-soundings were performed. Each night, X20 would approach the beach, and the divers would swim ashore to take soil samples, collected this time in condoms.

The divers went ashore on two nights to survey the beaches at Vierville-sur-Mer, Moulins St Laurent and Colleville-sur-Mer in what became the American Omaha. On the third night, they were due to go ashore off the Orne Estuary (Sword), but by this stage fatigue (the crew and divers had been living on little more than benzedrine tablets) and the worsening weather caused Hudspeth to shorten the operation, returning to HMS Dolphin (shore establishment) on 21 January 1944.

As a result of the operation, Hudspeth received a bar to his Distinguished Service Cross.

Outcomes
The allies built two scale models of the landing beaches, one held by the War Department in room 474 of the Metropole Hotel, London, and a duplicate in the Prime Minister's room in the Cabinet War Rooms.

At Cairnryan, just north of Stranraer, south west Scotland, a "life size" reproduction of the beaches was constructed. This allowed the planners to assess the effectiveness of the current landing techniques and the movement of men and machinery over the terrain.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Operation Postage Able


text: User talk:64.8.173.141

title: User talk:64.8.173.141


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Dinanath Ramnarine

Dinanath Ramnarine (born June 4, 1975) is a Trinidadian cricketer who retired in 2002.

He was a leg-spin bowler who retired at an early age (28 years). He has a Test bowling average of around 30, taking 45 wickets in his 12 test matches, which is better when compared to most who would have played the same number of matches. After his premature retirement, he went on to successfully lead the West Indies Players Association (WIPA) with tremendous passion and gain the respect of all by winning 15 out of 15 Arbitration matters against the WICB. Among his other major accomplishments was the signing of the first Collective Agreement between WIPA and WICB, starting the Annual Player Awards Function and establishing a development program known as the "WIPA in the Community" where as much 10,000 kids to date have participated using cricket to teach valuable life skills. He further established a personal development program for which 150 first class players benefited. Mr. Ramnarine will be forever known as the "players champion" and a no-nonsense man who stands for integrity and good governance in sports.

On 21 August 2021, he was appointed as the team advisor for Trinbago Knight Riders for the 2021 Caribbean Premier League season.

FICA
He is a board member of the Federation of International Cricketers' Associations.

title: Dinanath Ramnarine


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Central Reservation (album)

Central Reservation is the third studio album by English singer-songwriter Beth Orton, released on 9 March 1999. The album featured contributions from folk musician Terry Callier (with whom she also recorded the b-side "Lean on Me"), Dr. Robert and Ben Harper. Several tracks were also produced by Ben Watt of Everything but the Girl.

Central Reservation received critical acclaim and garnered Orton a second Mercury Music Prize nomination, and won her Best British Female at the 2000 BRIT Music Awards.

Release
Central Reservation was released on 9 March 1999 on Heavenly Records. It reached number 17 on the UK Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for eight weeks. It went to number 34 on the ARIA albums chart in Australia, number 35 on the RIANZ albums chart in New Zealand and number 110 on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States. It also went to number two on the US Heatseekers albums chart. By 2002 it had sold 244,000 copies in United States. The first single from the album was "Stolen Car", which was released on 13 March 1999 and peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart. "Central Reservation", the second single, peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart.

On 30 June 2014, British independent record label 3 Loop Music re-released Central Reservation as a 2CD Expanded Edition which included b-sides, original demos and live recordings.

Reception
Central Reservation received generally positive reviews from critics. Jason Ankeny of AllMusic gave the album a rating of 4.5 stars out of 5 and called it "stunning".

Orton won the award for British Female Solo at the 2000 BRIT Awards. The album is included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

The album is ranked number 982 in All-Time Top 1000 Albums (3rd. edition, 2000).

Track listing
Notes
 * undefined signifies remixer

Personnel

 * Music
 * Ted Barnes — acoustic guitar, bouzouki, guitar, slide guitar
 * Will Blanchard — drums
 * Terry Callier — background vocals
 * Calina de la Mare — violin
 * Dr. Robert — guitar
 * Beki Doe — violin
 * Dr. John — piano
 * David Friedman — vibraphone
 * Ali Friend — bass
 * Lascelles Gordon — percussion
 * Howard Gott — violin
 * Ruth Gottlieb — violin
 * Ben Harper — electric guitar
 * Oliver Kraus — cello
 * Henry Olsen — bass
 * Beth Orton — acoustic guitar, guitar, vocals
 * Sean Read — piano, keyboards
 * Becca Ware — viola
 * Andy Waterworth — double bass
 * Ben Watt — guitar, keyboards
 * Lucy Wilkins — violin
 * Sara Wilson — cello

 * Production
 * Andy Bradfield — mixing
 * Dr. Robert — producer, mixing
 * Beki Doe — mixing
 * Giles Hall — engineer
 * Peter Hill — assistant engineer
 * Oliver Kraus — mixing
 * Dick Meaney — engineer
 * Beth Orton — producer
 * David Roback — producer, mixing
 * Trevor Smith — engineer
 * Mark "Spike" Stent — producer
 * Victor Van Vugt — producer, engineer
 * Paul Walton — mixing assistant
 * Ben Watt — programming, noise, producer, engineer, mixing
 * John Wood — engineer
 * Tim Young — mastering
 * Design
 * Sam Harris — photography

title: Central Reservation (album)


text:
American School of Asunción

The American School of Asunción (commonly known locally as ASA) is an American private international school in Asunción, Paraguay.

Established in 1954, the school offers an instructional program from pre-kindergarten through grade 12. The school is a bilingual, multi-cultural educational institution incorporating U.S. and Paraguayan culture, history, language, pedagogy, and values in an educational program for United States, international, and Paraguayan students.

The school is accredited in the United States by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) and recognized in Paraguay by the Ministry of Education and Culture. ASA is also a member of the Association of American Schools in South America (AASSA) and recognized by the U.S. Office of Overseas Schools (A.O.S.). In September 2020, a new pavilion by Equipo de Arquitectura was added to the campus.

Curriculum
The school offers a college-preparatory program using a standards-based curriculum. The program emphasizes excellence in the "Three A's" (athletics, academics, and the arts) through cooperative learning, critical thinking, problem-solving, whole language, bilingualism, and cultural diversity. All students in grades 1-12 are required to study Spanish. Students can graduate with a U.S. High School Diploma and a Paraguayan Studies Diploma. Each grade level is limited to 48 students and is divided into two sections.

Sports
The school offers a sports program for various sports, including soccer, basketball, futsal, swimming, volleyball, martial arts, and track and field.

title: American School of Asunción


text:
Charles Étienne Briseux

Charles-Etienne Briseux (c. 1680-1754) was a French architect.

He was especially successful as a designer of internal decorations, mantel pieces, mirrors, doors and overdoors, ceilings, consoles, candelabra, wall panellings and other fittings, chiefly in the Louis Quinze mode. He was also an industrious writer on architectural subjects.

Works
His principal works are:
 * L'Architecture moderne (2 vols., 1728).
 * L'Art de bâtir les maisons de campagne (2 vols., 1743).
 * Traité du beau essentiel dans les arts, appliqué particulièrement à l'architecture (1752).
 * Traité des proportions harmoniques.

title: Charles Étienne Briseux


text:
Talk:A Little More Personal (Raw)

Album name
The album's name will be A LITTLE MORE PERSONAL (RAW) (official music site). an odd name 19:58, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Merging from the single articles
To quote user:FuriousFreddy: if a song article is nothing but a recounting of how the song was made, and how well it did, without explaining that it was, in some way, important and influential to the music industry, there's really no reason for it. Just write good album articles, and selected articles on the important singles and album tracks, and let's keep the encyclopedia balanced. Encyclopedias aren't supposed to be "complete"; they are supposed to provide overviews and guide users to further information on a subject if they want to go beyond the standard level. Something like a Lindsay Lohan fan wiki would be a fine place to have an article on every Lohan song, but a general-purpose encyclopedia is not. See Requests for comment/Pop music issues and Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Music/Notability and Music Guidelines/Songs. Why write dozens of short articles on singles, with no chances of actual expansion short of padding and marketing-report material (chart positions), when they can be combined into one album article? Extraordinary Machine 00:03, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

'''the song is a notable song by a notable artist and has charted in many charts, like kelly clarkson, mariah carey, britney spears so why dont you let the article be? if you do this to lindsay lohan then why not theirs?'''
 * I absolutely agree on that--hottie 13:51, 12 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree. Lillygirl 07:06, 20 May 2006

Gold certification?
Can anyone supply a citation for this reference? The 500,000 sales figure itself is dubious (I can find no reputable source) and the RIAA website does not list any certification. Absent a trusted source, I intend to remove this reference per WP:CITE. Radio Kirk   talk to me  04:40, 23 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Okay, found the source. On the other hand, there still is no reputable source for the assertion that "Fastlane" is the next single; it seems to have started at ContactMusic, which is often quite wrong. Radio  Kirk   talk to me  17:31, 23 February 2006 (UTC)

Worldwide Sales
Does anyone know what this has sold worldwide... roughly?

WP:CRYSTAL
In "Lindsay Lohan chronology" in the infobox, the next (future) spot, the reference to an undetermined future release should be deleted. Ward3001 (talk) 16:21, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

Total sales states May, 2013
but it isn't even May 2013--I assume it's a typo based on 2012. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.62.127.1 (talk) 16:37, 10 April 2013 (UTC)

 * The source states that the album has sold 305,000 copies (according to soundscan), not 2.5 million.173.59.15.69 (talk) 00:05, 20 May 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:A Little More Personal (Raw)


text: Category:Schools in Paraguay

title: Category:Schools in Paraguay


text:
Fox Feature Syndicate

Fox Feature Syndicate (also known as Fox Comics, Fox Publications, and Bruns Publications, Inc.) was a comic book publisher from early in the period known to fans and historians as the Golden Age of Comic Books. Founded by entrepreneur Victor S. Fox, it produced such titles as Blue Beetle, Fantastic Comics and Mystery Men Comics.

It is not related to the company Fox Publications (a Colorado publisher of railroad photography books), nor 20th Century Fox (formed from Fox Studios and later renamed 20th Century Studios in 2020) and its associated companies.

Background
Victor S. Fox and business associate Bob Farrell launched Fox Feature Syndicate at 480 Lexington Avenue in New York City in the late 1930s. For content, Fox contracted with comics packager Eisner & Iger, one of a handful of companies creating comic books on demand for publishers entering the field. Writer-artist Will Eisner, at Victor Fox's request for a hero to mimic the newly created hit Superman, created the superhero Wonder Man for Fox's first publication, Wonder Comics #1 (May 1939), signing his work "Willis". Eisner said in interviews throughout his later life that he had protested the derivative nature of the character and story, and that when subpoenaed after National Periodical Publications, the company that would evolve into DC Comics, sued Fox, alleging Wonder Man was an illegal copy of Superman, Eisner testified that this was so, undermining Fox's case; Eisner even depicts himself doing so in his semi-autobiographical graphic novel The Dreamer. However, a transcript of the proceeding, uncovered by comics historian Ken Quattro in 2010, indicates Eisner in fact supported Fox and claimed Wonder Man as an original Eisner creation.

After losing at trial, Victor Fox dropped Eisner and Iger, and hired his own stable of comic creators, beginning with a New York Times classified ad on December 2, 1939. Joe Simon became Fox Publications' editor.

As one of the earliest companies in the emerging field, it employed or bought the packaged material of a huge number of Golden Age greats, many at the start of their careers. Lou Fine created the superhero The Flame in Wonderworld Comics; Dick Briefer created Rex Dexter of Mars in the eponymous series. George Tuska did his first comics work here with the features "Zanzibar" (Mystery Men Comics #1, Aug. 1939) and "Tom Barry" (Wonderworld Comics #4). Fletcher Hanks wrote and drew Stardust the Super Wizard in Fantastic Comics in 1939 and 1940. Matt Baker, one of the few African-American comic book artists of the Golden Age, revamped – in more than one sense – the newly acquired Quality Comics character Phantom Lady in 1947, creating one of the most memorable and controversial examples of superhero "good girl art".

Future comics legend Jack Kirby, brought on staff here after freelancing for Eisner & Iger, wrote and drew the syndicated newspaper comic strip The Blue Beetle (starting Jan. 1940), starring a character created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkowski in Mystery Men Comics #1 (Aug. 1939). Kirby retained the house name "Charles Nicholas" for the comic strip, which lasted three months. Kirby, additionally, created and did one story each of the Fox features "Wing Turner" (Mystery Men #10, May 1940) and "Cosmic Carson" (Science Comics #4, same month).

Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a "Blue Beetle Day" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30 a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA.

Throughout the 1940s, Fox produced comics in a typically wide variety of genres, but was best known for superheroes and humor. With the post-war decline in superheroes' popularity, Fox, like other publishers, concentrated on horror and crime comics, including some of the most notorious of the latter. Following the establishment of Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s, Fox went out of business, selling the rights to the Blue Beetle to Charlton Comics.

According to Nicky Wright: "Competing well in the 'most sexy, sadistic, and violent' category, Victor Fox's Murder Incorporated and Blue Beetle are noteworthy.... When historians describe sleaze, sex, and violence as Fox's obsession, they are masters of understatement. His best artists, Jack Kamen and Matt Baker, are much revered and collected for their good girl art. Of special note is the company's breasty crime-fighter-in-bedroom-lingerie, Phantom Lady...along with the wild and scantily attired Rulah, Jungle Goddess".

Boyd Magers said of the publisher: "Never one to overlook a secondary sale, Fox often repackaged four remaindered (unsold) comics into a 25¢ Giant with a new cover, hence Hoot Gibson's Western Roundup, 132 pages dated 1950. However, since Fox always started their stories on the inside front cover (where other publishers ran an ad), these repackaged comics are always missing the first page of story content. Also, since Fox used remaindered issues, contents will vary from copy to copy of Hoot Gibson's Western Roundup".

Fox Feature Syndicate, located at 60 East 42nd Street, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization in July 1950, listing liabilities of $721,448 and assets of $932,878, which included $567,800 in uncollected accounts receivables. Central Color Press of the same address filed likewise, listing liabilities of $513,587 and assets of $603,427. Fox was listed as president of both corporations.

Early life and career background
Fox Publications founder Victor Fox was born Samuel Victor Joseph Fox on July 3, 1893, in Nottinghamshire, England, the fourth of six children born to Russian emigres Joseph and Bessie Fox. He had older sisters Annie (b. July 1884), Rosie (b. September 1885), Fanny E. (b. April 1892), and younger sisters Etta G. (b. March 1898) and Marrion (b. May 1900). The family relocated to the United States in March 1898, and within two years were living in Fall River, Massachusetts. By 1917, patriarch Joseph, a storekeeper, moved the family to New York City, where he opened a women's clothing business; the family lived at 555 West 151st Street.

U.S. Attorney Charles H. Tuttle in 1929 arrested several individuals including a Victor S. Fox for illegal "boiler-room" stock-trading. Reports of Fox's September 4 arraignment said his Allied Capital Corporation had offices at 49 Broadway and 331 Madison Avenue, and that Fox also had "desk room" at 230 Park Avenue as Fox Motor and Bank Stock, Inc., and as American Common Stocks, Inc. His hearing was set for September 18. Another individual, J.A. Sachs, was named in the same warrant. A report the following month gave the latter's name as John A. Sacks and identified him as president of Allied Capital and Fox as a director; the two were temporarily enjoined from continuing sales of securities. On November 27, Fox and three other individuals connected with Allied Capital — Fred H. Hallen, I. Lloyd Zimmer, and William McManus — were indicted on charges of mail fraud. In 1944, an individual named Victor S. Fox, identified as a former partner of the Cornwall Shipbuilding Company, testified in the prosecution of U.S. Army Captain Joseph Gould who was convicted for conspiracy to accept bribes to award $1,000,000 worth of army contracts to the Cornwall Shipbuilding Company.

It is unclear if the individual(s) in these accounts may be future comics publisher Victor Fox. However, a 1946 New York Times real-estate article identifies "Victor S. Fox" as a "magazine publisher" who purchased for occupancy a five-story residential building at 59 E. 82nd Street. In October 1947, a syndicate headed by Fox and also including Central Color Press of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, purchased Potsdam Paper Mill, Inc., of Potsdam, New York, in order to have what one report called "a completely integrated operation".

Comics publisher
Historian Jon Berk has written that Fox was an accountant/bookkeeper at the publishing firm that would become DC Comics, where he was privy to sales figures that convinced him to launch his own comic book company. Fellow historian Gerard Jones, writing in his book Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book, was unable to find documentation of this, and Christopher Irving wrote that Fox learned about DC's success while with another magazine distributed by Independent News, DC's distributor.

Artist Jack "King" Kirby said of the employer who gave him his start drawing superhero comics: "Victor Fox was a character. He'd look up at the ceiling with a big cigar, this little fellow, very broad, going back and forth with his hands behind his back saying, 'I'm the King of Comics! I'm the King of Comics!' and we would watch him and, of course, smile a little because he was a genuine type".

Writer/artist Joe Simon commented on Fox: "He was an accountant for DC Comics. He was doing the sales figures and he liked what he saw. So, he moved downstairs and started his own company.... I happened to get a job; I went over to Fox and became editor there, which was just an impossible job, because ... there were no artists, no writers, no editors, no letterers – nothing there. Everything came out of the Eisner and Iger shop. ... He was a very strange character. He had kind of a British accent; he was like 5'2", told us he was a former ballroom dancer. He was very loud, menacing, and really a scary little guy. He used to say, 'I'm the King of the Comics. I'm the King of the Comics. I'm the King of the Comics'. We couldn't stop him".

Fox characters

 * The Banshee
 * Bird Man
 * The Blackbird
 * Black Fury and Kid Fury
 * Black Lion
 * Blue Beetle (later sold to Charlton Comics, who later sold to DC Comics)
 * The Bouncer
 * Bronze Man
 * Captain Savage
 * Captain V
 * Dagar, the Desert Hawk
 * The Dart & Ace, the Bat Boy
 * Dynamite Thor
 * The Eagle & Buddy (Steven Woods, who as an adult takes on the name Blue Eagle)
 * Electro (later known as Dynamo)
 * The Flame and Flame-Girl
 * The Gorilla with the Human Brain
 * Green Mask and Domino
 * Illuso
 * The Jaguar/Jaguar Man
 * Jo-Jo, Congo King
 * Lunar the Moon Man
 * The Lynx
 * Marga the Panther Woman
 * Miss X
 * The Moth/Mothman
 * Nightbird
 * Phantom Lady (obtained from Quality Comics via Iger Studios)
 * The Purple Tigress
 * Rani-Bey
 * The Rapier
 * The Raven
 * Rex Dexter of Mars
 * Rulah, Jungle Goddess
 * Samson
 * Spider Queen (later appeared in Marvel Comics's Invaders series)
 * Stardust the Super Wizard
 * Tangi
 * Tegra, Jungle Empress
 * Thor
 * The Topper
 * Tumbler
 * U.S. Jones
 * Wonder Man
 * The Wraith
 * Yarko the Great, Master Magician
 * Zago, Jungle Prince
 * Zanzibar the Magician

title: Fox Feature Syndicate


text:
2004 Asia Cup

The eighth edition of cricket's Asia Cup (also called Indian Oil Asia Cup) was held in Sri Lanka after a gap of 4 years. Sri Lanka beat India in the final to win the cup. The 4 test playing Asian nations participated in the tournament along with, for the first time, leading Asian associate nations, the UAE and Hong Kong.

title: 2004 Asia Cup


text:
Category:Education in Paraguay

This category collects all articles about education in Paraguay. Please use the respective subcategories.

title: Category:Education in Paraguay


text:
Central Semitic languages

Central Semitic languages are one of the three groups of West Semitic languages, alongside Modern South Arabian languages and Ethiopian Semitic languages.

Central Semitic can itself be further divided into two groups: Arabic and Northwest Semitic. Northwest Semitic languages largely fall into the Canaanite languages (such as Phoenician and Hebrew) and Aramaic.

Overview
Distinctive features of Central Semitic languages include the following:
 * An innovative negation marker *bal, of uncertain origin.
 * The generalization of t as the suffix conjugation past tense marker, levelling an earlier alternation between *k in the first person and *t in the second person.
 * A new prefix conjugation for the non-past tense, of the form ya-qtulu, replacing the inherited ya-qattal form (they are schematic verbal forms, as if derived from an example triconsonantal root q-t-l).
 * Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants, which were previously articulated as ejective.

Different classification systems disagree on the precise structure of the group. The most common approach divides it into Arabic and Northwest Semitic, while SIL Ethnologue has South Central Semitic (including Arabic and Hebrew) vs. Aramaic.

The main distinction between Arabic and the Northwest Semitic languages is the presence of broken plurals in the former. The majority of Arabic nouns (apart from participles) form plurals in this manner, whereas virtually all nouns in the Northwest Semitic languages form their plurals with a suffix. For example, the Arabic بَيْت bayt ("house") becomes بُيُوت buyūt ("houses"); the Hebrew בַּיִת bayit ("house") becomes בָּתִּים bāttīm ("houses").

title: Central Semitic languages


text: Category:Wikipedians by alma mater: University of East Anglia


text:
User:Bushytails/Drafts/Strap-on dildo

A strap-on dildo is a dildo designed to be worn (usually in a harness) by one partner and used to penetrate another partner either vaginally or anally, used by both heterosexual and homosexual couples. For a woman, a strap-on can be used to anally penetrate a man (pegging), or used vaginally or anally for lesbian intercourse. For a man, a strap-on can be used in cases of erectile dysfunction or for double penetration with a woman. A wide variety of harnesses and dildos are available, with different ways of fitting the wearer, attaching the dildos, stimulating the wearer or the receiver, and all with different features, advantages, and drawbacks for both users.

Types of strap-on harnesses
The first part of a strap-on setup is the harness, which connects the dildo to the wearer's body, usually in a position similar to that of a male's genitals. A good harness should be both sturdy yet comfortable, and often is designed to provide stimulation for the wearer. Many different types of harnesses are available, with different features and drawbacks, and which harness is best is often a matter of taste, as there is no one "right" answer. Some dildos do not need a harness or are built onto one; for these, please see the sections on dildo types and dildo attachment methods.

2-strap

A 2-strap harness, in its most basic form, is similar to a g-string. One strap goes around the wearer's waist, like a belt, while the other goes between his/her legs and connects to the other strap in the middle at the lower back. While these are simple, many people find them uncomfortable (due to the strap against the anus and other areas), and they sometimes do not hold the dildo very firmly, causing it to sag, flop, or twist.

3-strap

3-strap harnesses also have one strap around the wearer's waist, but instead of one strap between the legs, have two straps, one around each thigh, rejoining the first strap near the front. This design leaves the genitals and anus uncovered, and attaches the dildo much more firmly, giving the wearer more control. However, not all people find this design comfortable, and sometimes they are hard to make fit properly or tend to slip.

'''2 straps or 3? 3 straps or 4?'''

A variation on these designs, usually on harnesses which mount the dildo substantially lower (on or near the vaginal opening) rather than higher up, has a continual waistband that is not part of the dildo mount or backing, with a V-shaped pair of straps in the front, and either the single strap between the legs or the two straps around the thighs. The former of these is called a 3-strap, and the latter a 4-strap, however most of the aspects of their design and use (such as a strap over the anus, etc) are the same as 2-strap and 3-strap harnesses, respectively.

Corsets and other clothing items

Strap-on harnesses built into various clothing items are available, most often as a corset or other item of lingerie. Some are designed to be worn underneath normal clothing for quick use (if done with the dildo in place, either to give the appearance of a penis or to be able to quickly initiate intercourse, this is sometimes called packing), while others take advantage of the additional strength and sturdiness an item of clothing can provide over a few straps, or just to integrate the strap-on into an erotic outfit.

Thigh, Chin, and other locations

Harnesses are not limited to the crotch, and indeed many types are available for other body parts. A popular one is a thigh harness, which attaches a dildo to the wearer's thigh (or other part of the legs or arms, though this is much less common), allowing for many unique positions, as penetration is no longer limited to what could be done with a penis. Another unusual design attaches a dildo to the chin of the wearer, allowing vaginal penetration while performing cunnilingus.

Furniture, beach balls, and other objects

Harnesses are available to attach dildos to just about any household object, allowing for many creative uses. A dildo could be attached to a chair, bed, or any other item of furniture, and penetrate someone during other activities, with or without a partner. Another item, while not technically a harness, but worth mentioning, is an inflatable ball, usually 9 to 18 inches diameter, made of sturdy rubber designed to support the weight of one or two people, with an attachment for a dildo on it. This allows many unique positions, such as double penetration for a woman by laying face down on the ball for vaginal penetration while her partner penetrates her anally doggy style, which is much more effective than a solid object due to the "bounce" of the ball. These inflatable balls are also quite popular for solo use.

Dildo types
The most noticeable feature of any strap-on setup is the dildo used. A wide variety of dildos are available, and while the choices may be limited by the type of harness in use, generally one can chose from several common types. This section discusses the shape and features of the penetrating end of the dildo, not of the entire dildo or how it's attached, which can be found in the section on dildo attachment methods for the double dildo and strapless dildo.

Standard

The "standard" dildo has a non-tapered or slightly tapered shaft, and often has an enlarged head, similar to a penis. The shaft may be slightly curved, but if it is strongly curved, it is often classified as a g-spot/prostate dildo as well. This type is by far the most popular, both for vaginal and anal use, although some beginners prefer a probe type dildo. Depending on the type of harness the dildo is meant for, it may have molded testicles as part of the base, which many people say gives more pleasure and helps keep the dildo from "bottoming out." Standard dildos are the most common by a large margin, and are available in virtually any length and width, material, texture, etc.

Probe

A probe dildo is often highly tapered, and many resemble a cone in overall shape, or may have a narrow diameter its entire length, although ones resembling an elongated butt plug are also common, their defining feature being a bulb in the middle which tapers down again towards the harness before flaring wider. These dildos are often advertised as being for beginners, especially newcomers to pegging, who may find a narrow, tapered dildo easier to start with if they've never had anal penetration before. Many people find that once they're familiar with the activity, the probe dildos are woefully inadequate and unsatisfying, and purchase a standard dildo to use with their harness. Due to this, many kits are available that include both a probe dildo and a standard dildo, so you don't need to purchase the second dildo at a later date.

G-spot / prostate

Dildos designed for g-spot or prostate stimulation often have a sharp upwards curve at the head, or gradual but still strong curvature the entire length. When used in many sexual positions, the curve causes strong pressure against the g-spot in women or the prostate in men, which can be extremely pleasurable. Some men report that strong prostate stimulation is important for an anal orgasm, while others report it as a distraction rather than a help. When using one of these dildos for the first time, care should be taken at first to make sure it's comfortable for the receiver, as the strong bend can be difficult to insert or control. For many positions, such as doggy style, the curved tip should point downwards, as otherwise it points in the wrong direction for either g-spot or prostate stimulation.

Bulbs, ripples, and other shapes

For added stimulation, many dildos for harness use are manufactured with bulbs along their length, or having ripples, bumps, or other shapes on the surface to increase the stimulation given to the receiver. A bulbous dildo causes repeated expansion of the vaginal opening when used for vaginal penetration or of the anus when used for anal penetration, and causes a unique pulsating effect and additional stimulation. Ripples along the length of the dildo increase friction and cause a washboard effect, which some people find increases their pleasure, while others find tend to cause numbness. Individual bumps or a water droplet texture on the shaft also causes extra stimulation, and often avoids the washboard effect of evenly spaced ripples. Some dildos modeled to be realistic penises contain very heavy vein textures on the surface, causing a similar effect.

Rotating, clitoral stimulating, and other features

Some dildos, especially recent ones, may have rotating beads along the shaft, a wiggling shaft, vibrating ticklers or other clitoral stimulation devices, or other features to give more pleasure to the user. While their effectiveness is a matter of opinion, they are becoming increasingly popular. An inexpensive design is basically a standard rabbit vibrator designed for harness use (often the exact same toy with a slightly different base), while more expensive dildos are designed from the ground-up for harness use and are usually superior. Rotating beads provide extra stimulation of the vulva and vaginal opening when used for vaginal penetration or stimulation of the anus when used for anal penetration, while the various clitoral stimulation devices are generally intended only for vaginal intercourse. These dildos are often bulky or heavy, and like all other vibrators need a power source (usually batteries in a pack that clips onto the harness or slips into a pocket on it), but can provide additional stimulation for those who desire it.

Double penetration

Double penetration dildos are generally two dildos molded onto a common base, designed for simultaneous vaginal and anal penetration, not to be confused with a man using a strap-on along with his penis for double penetration, which is discussed below. A typical double-penetration dildo has a longer, thicker main shaft for vaginal penetration, and a shorter, thinner, often more curved shaft for anal penetration, although while rare, dildos with the anal shaft being equally as large as the vaginal shaft are available for women who find a larger anal dildo more satisfying. These dildos tend to greatly limit the possible positions they're used in, as the angle has to be right for both vaginal and anal penetration when thrusting, however they can provide a unique experience for couples to try.

Inflatable, enema nozzle, and other exotics

Many specialty dildos are available, such as ones that expand when an attached inflator bulb is squeezed, ejaculate warm water on demand by compressing a reservoir, or function as enema nozzles, allowing an enema to be given while using the strap-on for anal intercourse. Inflatable dildos generally expand in girth when inflated (they usually come with a simple hand-squeeze inflater bulb), allowing the dildo to keep expanding during intercourse as the receiver slowly stretches, giving a unique completely filled feeling which is hard to obtain using normal dildos. Ejaculating dildos contain a squeeze bulb or other reservoir, which when filled with hot water beforehand, allows the wearer to "come" into the receiver at the right moment. Enema nozzle dildos contain tubing connections, and when used for anal penetration (most often with silicone lube, as water soluble lube would quickly break down when combined with an enema) allow the receiver to receive an enema during the intercourse. This is generally described as a rather unique experience, and while it's not a very popular activity, is reported to be extremely pleasurable by some people, and some BDSM mistresses specialize in offering this service. A relatively new product in this field is dildos with electrodes for erotic electrostimulation, further increasing the range of sensations the receiver can experience.

Penis extensions and dildos for erectile dysfunction

Hollow dildos are often sold as penis extensions, but the most common use is for men with erectile dysfunction. The penis is inserted into the hollow inside of the dildo, then the harness is put on, allowing the man to penetrate his partner with the dildo, the thrusting of which is transferred to his penis.

Pleasure for the wearer
The primary attachment of a strap-on setup is for the receiver, but with nothing else, the wearer doesn't have much sensation other than pushing against his/her partner. To help with this, most decent quality harnesses also provide stimulation for the wearer, in a wide variety of ways.

Internal plugs

Many of the "professional" harnesses have one or two plugs (vaginal, anal, or both) on the inside of the harness, to penetrate the wearer. These plugs (may be shaped either like small dildos, the standard butt plug shape, or a combination/hybrid thereof) are usually firmly attached to the harness, and provide stimulation to the wearer as he/she thrusts with the main dildo. Harnesses made for men usually only come with the anal plug, while ones for women come with both plugs, which most women report provides the most pleasure using one.

While a plug can be used in combination with most any harness, just by inserting the plugs before putting on the harness, all the harness tends to do is push the plugs in, and not move them as to provide stimulation when the wearer thrusts. Depending on the type of harness, different ways are used to properly attach plugs to the harness. A common type consists of an opening or rubber ring with a cloth or leather back, similar to what might be used to hold the main dildo to the front of the harness, but positioned over the anus, vagina, or ones for both. A dildo/plug with a wide base is inserted through the ring, then when the harness is put on, the material pulls tight against it, holding it firm. For vac-u-lock harnesses, one or two additional vac-u-lock plugs are mounted on the inside of the harness, allowing any vac-u-lock attachment to be used. Most vac-u-lock harnesses that have the connectors for internal plugs come with two plug-shaped vac-u-lock attachments, a smaller one for anal use and a larger one for vaginal use. Like other types of harnesses, both plugs may be used at once, and often are separately adjustable on the strap to fit the wearer's body.

Vibrators

Another means of providing stimulation to the wearer is a vibrating egg, "clit blaster", vibrating gell pads or whiskers, or other device mounted on the inside of the strapon. These are most always intended for use by women, as the external vibrator is rarely positioned well nor provides stimulation to males. These devices provide external stimulation to the clitoris, vulva, and other parts of the vaginal opening, but do not provide any penetrative stimulation or anal stimulation.

Open crotch / crotchless

Some harnesses intentionally leave the genital area and anus open (either intentionally with an opening in the material or by the design simply not having any straps that would cover it), which allows any toy to be used for the stimulation of the wearer, or even for the wearer to be penetrated while wearing the strapon. This can often be useful when the partners wish to switch rolls during their play, as the strapon can be put on before hand without interfering or needing to be taken off for play to continue. This type of harness is ill-suited for using toys, however, as the harness would not touch the toys, both preventing them from falling out while thrusting and not providing movement to them from the harness.

Double-ended attachments

While a double dildo obviously would provide stimulation to the wearer as well, the standard straight dildo is very poorly suited for harness use. To overcome this, many dildos are available for harness use that have an offset in the middle, with the main attachment and a smaller vaginal attachment for the wearer having a flat vertical section between them. This way, the main attachment is at a good angle and position for thrusting, while its movement is transmitted directly to the vaginal plug and clitoris of the wearer.

A special example of this is the Feeldoe, which has an egg shaped bulb designed to be inserted into the vagina or anus of the wearer. Due to the shape of the dildo, thrusting on the main dildo translates to lateral movement of the plug, providing great stimulation to the wearer. Additionally, the shape of the plug allows it to be used without a harness in many instances.

Nibs, bumps, or other clitoral stimulators

Some harnesses and dildos provide raised bumps or other features designed to rub against the clitoris of a female wearer, either attached to the inside of the harness, or on the back of the base of the dildo. Harnesses that work with such dildos have to have an open back, where the base of the dildo presses directly against the woman's body. As high-quality harnesses usually have padding or other means of attaching the dildo to the harness than a simple opening, these features are usually only seen on low-quality, inexpensive dildos. They provide only limited stimulation, and while better than nothing, are usually considered inferior to other types.

Dildo attachment methods
The principle feature of any strap-on setup is the attachment -- the dildo used to penetrate the other partner. While there's a huge array of different dildos available, most are attached to the harness in one of several ways. All methods have tradeoffs, and many couples will have different harnesses depending on which type of dildo they want to use.

Ring / Wide base

The most common means of holding the dildo to the harness is to have an opening or ring in the harness through which a wide-based dildo is inserted. Inexpensive harnesses tend to just have a round hole in the fabric or leather, while more expensive ones will use a steel or rubber ring. The advantage of this method is that dildos which fit are widely available and inexpensive, and even many dildos not meant for harness use will work in one of these harnesses, such as most dildos with testicles. The major disadvantage is the dildo is often held loosely (especially on cheap harnesses) and tends to flop downwards, and the dildo often can rotate in the harness, making it difficult or impossible to use g-spot or other shaped dildos.

Vac-u-lock

Used primarily by Doc Johnson, Vac-u-lock dildos have a rippled hollow in their base, which fits onto a matching plug on the harness or other toy. The advantage of this design is the dildo is firmly attached and can not easily rotate, and does not tend to flop downwards or slip like ring harnesses, as well as there being a wide variety of other devices the dildos can be attached to, such as handles and inflatable balls. The disadvantage is the relatively low availability and high cost of compatible attachments. A number of brands have non-compatible clones of the vac-u-lock system, but dildos and accessories for them are virtually unavailable.

Strapless (Feeldoe)

A recent design is a strapless strap-on, designed to hold itself in a woman's vagina with an egg-shaped bulb, and does not require the use of a harness. This differs from a double dildo, in which both ends are symmetrical, as a double dildo can not hold itself in place in one partner while penetrating the other partner. The advantages of this design is that it can be used without any preparation, making using it much more spontaneous, that it provides deep internal thrusting to both partners, and that it can be more comfortable than having to wear a possibly bulky harness. However, it has the disadvantage that it may require strong muscles to use, and it may take practice to be comfortable with one.

Double dildos

A double dildo can be used with or without a harness, although most provide no means of using them with a harness. A double dildo, as its name implies, is a dildo in which both ends are designed for insertion, and often is 18 inches or more long. While special ones meant for use with a harness do exist, a normal double dildo is straight, is rarely at a comfortable angle for intercourse, and jabs into the cervix of a woman using one. However, double dildos can be used for a variety of creative positions for which a harness would be awkward, such as both partners in doggy style positions or sitting facing each other.

One-piece latex

Some harnesses and dildos are made of a single piece of molded latex, with the dildo permanently built into the front. These are often inexpensive, shoddy products, although higher quality ones are available. The advantages are simple use and an appearance some people find erotic, but this is often outweighed by the inability to use a different dildo, the often weak, floppy nature of the dildo, the inability to adjust to a given person for a comfortable fit, and their relatively short lifespan.

Straps directly attached to the dildo

Some very cheap "strap-on dildos" have straps or attachments for straps directly molded into the material of the dildo. This design is very flimsy, and is only used on the cheapest of cheap products. They are essentially useless for the traditional purpose of a strap-on dildo (one partner penetrating another using a dildo in a position similar to a penis), but can be strapped around chairs and other objects for a variety of interesting activities.

Materials
Harnesses are available in many different materials, and the choice of which to use depends greatly on individual preference.

Leather

Leather is generally considered the best material, and most professional harnesses use it. It is comfortable, adjusts to the wearer's body, soft, and fits well, but still is strong and not prone to stretching during use. Leather may be slightly harder to clean and require a bit more work to take care of than other materials, however this is usually only a problem with very heavily used harnesses.

Synthetics (Nylon, synthetic leather, foam)

Nylon webbing and soft foam-like synthetic leather are also common, and while not as comfortable as leather, are often much more affordable and may be more durable than leather, as well as being easier to clean and not needing any maintenance.

Cloth

Cloth is used mostly for clothing harnesses such as corsets and other lingerie, although is occasionally used by extremely inexpensive harnesses, which are often uncomfortable or useless. Construction of lingerie harnesses is similar to most normal items of clothing, although they may use substantially thicker material to give the strength needed to support a dildo firmly.

Plastics

Some harnesses are made with soft plastic, such as flexible vinyl. These are often available in unique colors, such as completely transparent, which is not possible with other materials. The downside is they're possibly less comfortable than other materials, and may be difficult to make fit well, however they tend to be very easy to clean and reasonably rugged.

Latex, rubber, and PVC

Latex harnesses usually cover the entire area, rather than just using straps. They tend to be medium-priced, and have a limited lifespan, especially if used with oil-based lubricants. Latex can require much care, such as special cleaners or shiners to keep it from turning dry and dusty. Latex harnesses may or may not have the dildo(s) molded as part of the harness, and in either case, they tend to be floppy due to the flexibility of the latex. Similar harnesses are also available made of rubber or PVC, and are similar to latex harnesses, although PVC tends to be much less flexible and elastic.

Positions
While just about any sexual position that can be done with a penis can be done with a strap-on (and then some), there's a few in particular that should be mentioned.

Doggy style

Doggy style is popular, as it's simple, easy, and allows deep thrusting. The receptive partner kneels down with his or her face against the bed (or other surface), and is penetrated from behind. This position works well for both vaginal and anal penetration, and allows deep, smooth strokes, however it sometimes stimulates the prostate less than other positions during pegging.

Missionary

The missionary position is also popular, and allows both partners to cuddle, see each other, kiss, or other activities during intercourse. When used for anal penetration, a pillow or other object (specially made foam cushions are available for this purpose, but their effectiveness over a pillow or two is debatable) placed under the buttocks of the receiver will elevate the anus to a comfortable position and angle.

Bent over

Usually used for pegging, the man stands or kneels while leaning forwards, supported by the bed, chair, wall, or other object. Similar to doggy style, he is then penetrated from behind. This position angles the dildo such that it typically strokes firmly across his prostate, and for some men can lead to an anal orgasm much more effectively.

For other sex positions, please see the list of sex positions, and substitute the strap-on for the penis when appropriate.

Common uses
Even more than the different types of harnesses and dildos, there's different ways to make use of a strap-on setup. Generally ways of using them can be divided into several broad categories, however there's infinite variations.

Pegging

Pegging is when a woman uses a strap-on dildo to penetrate her partner anally, usually a man. While this practice is not commonly mentioned due to the various taboos many cultures have against receptive male anal sex, and statistics are hard to come by, many people believe it is the most common use of strap-ons, and often manufacturers use images of a woman with a strapon and a male on the advertising or packaging for strap-on dildos and harnesses.

Pegging can be done for a variety of reasons, but probably the most common is that it allows a heterosexual male to receive anal pleasure. Pegging is typically reported as extremely pleasurable for both partners, and many men have an anal orgasm from it. Many people, such as Dan Savage, believe all men should try pegging at least once, as it may introduce them to a new enjoyable activity to use as part of their lovemaking.

When pegging, even more than for other forms of anal sex, proper selection and quantity of lube is extremely important. Many dildos do not "hold" lube as well as a penis would, and a thicker or better adhering lube will likely perform much better.

A number of how-to videos about pegging have been made, for couples interested in trying it but not sure where to start, however most people feel a few minutes of experimenting to be plenty to learn the basic "ins and outs" of pegging.

Lesbian sex

Lesbian intercourse is what comes to mind when most people think of strapons, and certainly is one of their more common uses. Penetrative sex (either vaginal or anal) can be extremely pleasurable, and a strap-on allows women to enjoy this sensation with the woman they love.

Erectile dysfunction

Men with erectile dysfunction may use a strap-on to help satisfy their partners, either by using one with a hollow dildo, or by having their penis hang beneath the dildo.

Double penetration

Some women find simultaneous vaginal and anal penetration to be enjoyable, and aside from using a double-penetration dildo discussed previously, can experience this with a male partner using a strapon. A harness is selected that allows the man's penis to extend under the dildo of the harness, and depending on the position selected, the man's penis and the dildo can be used to penetrate both vaginally and anally at once.

Transsexual intercourse

Some transsexuals may use a strap-on to provide the function of a penis, for example a female->male as he was not originally born with one. This is an option for people who do not wish to undergo surgery, for any one of many reasons. Strap-ons may also be used my male->female transsexuals, as one may not want to use her penis.

Other

Many people, using a strap-on for any of the above purposes, often like to either suck or have a partner suck a strap-on, performing fellatio on it. The reasons given vary, but mostly have to do with power or role reversal, however, this activity is less common than simple penetrative sex. Mention should be made of the tactic of having a man wear the strap-on dildo to penetrate a woman for purposes of humiliation, not associated with ED.

The uses for a strap-on is limited only by the imagination of the user, and virtually all positions "normal" sex can be had in can also be done with a strapon, plus with thigh, furniture, ride-on ball, etc harnesses, many more that can't be done normally. Two people can simultaneously penetrate each other, for example, or virtually any idea that that can be thought of. Non-traditional harnesses can also be used for masturbation, such as the rider balls or a dildo attached to a household object. The best practice is to try everything and see what's fun!

title: User:Bushytails/Drafts/Strap-on dildo


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Antigenes (general)

Antigenes (Ἀντιγένης; died 316 BC) served as an officer under Philip II of Macedon and continued his service, rising to the rank of general, under Alexander the Great. He was a commander of the Argyraspides, or Silver Shields.

Antigenes had uncertain origins but he is said to have been born sometime in 380 possibly in Pella or Pallene. He was noted for his bravery in battle but according to an account by Plutarch, he was a slave to pleasure and vice. In 331, he came second in a contest of bravery and was promoted as a chiliarch of the Silver Shields and in command of 1,000 hypaspists.

Antigenes lost his eye in a battle. It was hit by an arrow and was said to have fought on while the arrow was lodged to his face until the battle was won. Plutarch provided several unflattering accounts, which included the claim that he attempted to enroll himself among the sick during Alexander’s campaign in order to return to his wife Telesippa. He also cited an incident when the general attempted to defraud Alexander, when he was paying the debts of his veteran soldiers at Susa. The general presented a false witness to put himself on the debtor’s list so he can obtain the money. When the fraud was discovered, he was relieved of his command. Alexander pardoned him to prevent him from committing suicide.

After the death of Alexander in 323 he obtained the satrapy of Susiana, taking over from the temporary rule of Peucestas. He was one of the commanders of the Argyraspides and, with his troops, took the side of Eumenes. On the defeat of Eumenes in 316, Antigenes fell into the hands of his enemy Antigonus I Monophthalmus, who had him burnt alive in a pit. Antigenes was executed in this particularly cruel manner because of his Silver Shields' exceptional performance against Antigonus' infantry during the Second War of the Diadochi.

title: Antigenes (general)


text:
User:William Idol

Idol, William, (Professor of genetics at Rolland Universtiy, MA) Ph.d in Political Science and Animalia sciences.

Contrary to Popular Belief, the Avian Bird Flu is not as severe as everyone thinks. In Fact, Avian Influenza is a complete and utter myth. Bird Flu is a complete falacy produced by certain governments, specifically Eastern Asian countries. Proof exists that this flu was thought up durring a secret meeting of Embassadors. By starting this "disease", they completely put the world's focus on themselves. China's gains are massive. By recognizing that this "disease" exists, one would be fanning the flames of communism, turning China into the world super-power that it is already been feared of becoming.

title: User:William Idol


text:
Cedar Creek (Barnegat Bay)

Cedar Creek is an 18.9 mi tributary of Barnegat Bay in Ocean County in the southern New Jersey Pine Barrens in the United States.

title: Cedar Creek (Barnegat Bay)


text:
Parks and open spaces in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames

The Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames is located along a stretch of the River Thames where the Hogsmill River joins the former at the town of Kingston. The Borough contains over 30 parks, 24 playgrounds, sports grounds and open spaces. There are also over 20 allotments sites which are either self-managed or run by the local council. An assessment conducted in 2006 identified 165 ha of park and 340 ha of other open spaces in the borough.

Much of the borough's Thames river frontage is open and accessible to the public. To the north of the town centre Canbury Gardens extends to the Lower Ham Road beyond which the Dysart open space, Royal Park Gate recreation ground and the adjacent Hawker Centre sports ground form a continuation of Ham Lands in the neighbouring London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. To the south of the town centre Queens Promenade provides open river frontage as far as Surbiton. Pedestrian access to the course of the Hogsmill River leads from its mouth at the Thames, south of the town centre, to the Hogsmill River Park and beyond.

Other open spaces include the western half of Beverley Park and the University of London Athletic Ground and the BBC Sports Ground, Motspur Park.

Historically, the southern tip of Richmond Park fell within the borough boundaries but it was incorporated into Richmond upon Thames in 1994.

The local authority's approach to managing its parks and open spaces are set out in its Green Spaces strategy, 2015–2021.

The main parks and open spaces managed by Kingston upon Thames Borough Council are:


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Contra: Legacy of War

Contra: Legacy of War is a 3D action game produced by Konami and developed by Appaloosa Interactive that was originally released in 1996 for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn. It is a follow-up to Contra: Hard Corps, and was the first of two games in the Contra series that were externally developed by Appaloosa; the second game, C: The Contra Adventure, was released in 1998. Legacy of War marks the series' shift to three-dimensional graphics and gameplay, the game was released packaged with a pair of 3D anaglyph glasses, which enables the player to view the 3D effects incorporated into the game's graphics. Legacy of War bears the distinction for being the first console game in the series to retain both the Contra title and human characters during its release in Europe and Australia (where the console series has been known as Probotector from the first NES game until Contra: Hard Corps). The game was scheduled to be released in Japan as well, but was cancelled.

Story
Colonel Bassad, a dictator of a small country, has become a threat and is amassing an army of soldiers, robots, and alien mutants. Bassad has allied himself with an unknown alien entity for his bid to world domination. Ray Poward (returning from Hard Corps) is deployed to thwart Bassad's scheme along with three of the newest members of the Hard Corps team: Tasha, a female mercenary; CD-288, a robot; and Bubba, an alien. After making the way to Bassad's Mountain Stronghold, the team defeats him in his armored pod, but is dragged into his mind for a final battle. With Bassad defeated, they are teleported to the alien entity, which turns out to be a small living planet. With it destroyed, the team is drifted in space, and a surviving small alien bug is seen hiding.

Gameplay
Each character plays exactly the same except for the type of weapons they wield and their movement speed. All characters start with a machine gun and flamethrower, but the remaining two slots are for character-specific weaponry. The game plays from an isometric angle. Since the game takes place in three dimensions, enemies come from all angles. Ducking and strafing have been added to the player's abilities, as well as an auto-aiming feature to help attack airborne enemies. Jumping has been slightly changed as the characters no longer do tightly curled somersault jumps (a feature in every previous game since the arcade version of the original Contra). The player's progress can be saved to a memory card.

Development
The game was first unveiled at the 1996 Electronic Entertainment Expo, during which Konami distributed 3-D glasses to attendees so that they could see the 3-D effect. This somewhat backfired, as journalists in attendance at the show reported that the 3-D feature was a "gimmick" and did not improve the game's visuals.

With the game 80% complete, Electronic Gaming Monthly reported that Randy Severin, senior product manager at Konami, was unhappy with the present state of the game, believing that some of the levels were too bright and colorful, and some of the bosses not menacing enough. The following month they received a near complete version which featured numerous adjustments to the color palette, speed, enemy AI, and graphics.

Like most 32-bit action games, Contra: Legacy of War uses environments built of texture-mapped polygons.

Reception
Reviews of Legacy of War differed in how they compared the game to previous installments in the series. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot advised, "for those looking for a real game of Contra, break out the SNES and have at it", and said the game would have been better if it were not saddled with the Contra name and the unrealistically high expectations that come with it. GamePro's The Gun Nut said it fails to live up to the standards set by the series, and even to less prestigious action games such as Loaded. However, Major Mike of GamePro said "Legacy has fast blasting action, the trademark of any Contra game", and a reviewer for Next Generation opined, "While it's no 32-bit breakthrough product, this latest in the series embodies everything that makes a Contra game enjoyable." He elaborated that the game made an appreciable step into the 3D generation, while retaining the same weapons, power-ups, and pacing of past Contra games. Critics agreed that the graphics are solid with some impressive highlights, though The Gun Nut and Major Mike criticized some of the visual aesthetics. Most reviews made no mention of the optional stereoscopic 3D feature, but Gerstmann specifically commented that it was unimpressive. Next Generation and Gerstmann praised the game's variety of weapons, enemies, and terrain, while Major Mike and The Gun Nut said the imprecise jumps, slowdown, and large numbers of enemies make the game frustratingly difficult.

Jeremy Parish and Sam Kennedy in their Contra retrospective for 1up.com wrote "the gameplay was clunky and the graphics were drab compared to the crisp visuals of the 16-bit games".

Contra: Legacy of War was rereleased on PlayStation without the 3D glasses on December 8, 1998.

title: Contra: Legacy of War


text: Talk:Reymert, Arizona

title: Talk:Reymert, Arizona