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Ontario Highway 5

King's Highway 5, commonly referred to as Highway 5 and historically as the Dundas Highway and Governor's Road, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The east–west highway travels a distance of 12.7 km between Highway 8 at Peters Corners, north of Hamilton, and Highway 6 at Clappison's Corners. Prior to several sections being downloaded to the municipalities in which they were located, Highway5 served as bypass to Highway 2, connecting with it in both Paris and Toronto, a distance of 114.3 km.

Highway5 followed a significant piece of Dundas Street (historically also called The Governor's Road), one of two routes constructed under the orders of John Graves Simcoe during his short tenure as Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, the other being Yonge Street. The route was designated as part of the provincial highway system in 1920 and numbered as Highway5 in 1925. Initially it travelled from Toronto to Clappison's Corners before turning south and following what would later become Highway6 south through Hamilton and onwards to Jarvis. It was redirected west from Clappison's Corners to Peters Corners in 1927, and later to Paris in 1931.

Highway5 was quickly engulfed by the growing outer suburbs of Toronto in the 1950s and 1960s, which led to various portions being transferred to local jurisdiction (though still signed as connecting links) over the years. The portions within Metropolitan Toronto were transferred in 1954, followed by portions through Mississauga in 1971, 1978 and 1991. By the 1990s, the provincially-maintained route only extended as far east as Highway 403; it was shortened to its present length in 1998.

Route description
Highway5 serves as a short connector between Highway8 in the west and Highway6 in the east, and is essentially a continuation of Highway8. This configuration comes as a result of the truncation of both highways by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO). The removed sections were transferred to the jurisdiction of the City of Toronto, the City of Mississauga, Halton Region, the City of Hamilton, the County of Brant, and Oxford County on January1, 1998. Prior, Highway5 followed two segments of Dundas Street between Toronto and Paris.

The current route of Highway5 is almost entirely straight and rural. It passes immediately to the north of the Niagara Escarpment, a World Biosphere Reserve. South of the escarpment, at the western tip of Lake Ontario, is the Dundas district of Hamilton, which was once a separate town within the former Hamilton-Wentworth Region. It is 12.5 km between Peters Corners and Clappison's Corners.

Highway5 begins at a roundabout at the southern end of Highway8 and the northern end of former Highway 52 in Peters Corners. To the west, the road is now Hamilton Road5 (which the highway is now designated as beyond both ends of its remaining length through Hamilton). It proceeds westwards towards Paris. Proceeding east, it crosses a ravine, divides a large woodlot and passes through agricultural lands. It crosses Spencer Creek as it approaches Brock Road. Spencer Creek plunges over the nearby escarpment at Webster's Falls. Highway5 then passes through a rural residential area and returns to a farmland setting. It passes through the rural hamlet of Rock Chapel, and then curves to the left on its final approach to Highway6. East of Highway6, the road continues as the eastern section of Hamilton Road 5, and becomes Dundas Street.

The MTO still maintains a 1.1 km portion of Dundas Street at the Highway407 interchange in Burlington, a 400 m portion at the Highway403 interchange on the Oakville–Mississauga boundary, and a 1.9 km portion at the Highway427 interchange in Toronto.

Predecessors
Dundas Street is one of the oldest roads in Ontario, created before Confederation when the province was known as Upper Canada (a reference to being upstream from Lower Canada on the St. Lawrence River). Under the orders of the first lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, Captain Samuel Smith led 100 of the Queen's Rangers to open a road from the head of Lake Ontario (now known as Dundas) to La Tranche (later London) in early 1791. The first 32 km from the lakehead to the Grand River—where the Mohawk village that was home to Joseph Brant was located—were blazed by the rangers by October25, 1793. Another 75 km were cleared from the Grand River to the forks of the Thames River by the spring of 1794.

In 1795, Asa Danforth, the namesake of Danforth Avenue, opened a road east to the new town of York (now Toronto). These early trails "involved nothing more than clearing a corridor through the bush, leaving the bigger stumps to rot, often detouring around the really big trees." The nature of travel in this period meant that daily movement was limited to several miles, and as a result hotels and taverns were established every few miles. Several of these became the seeds of villages, such as Waterdown, Cooksville and Islington.

Designation
When the Department of Public Highways of Ontario (DPHO) began taking over the responsibility of roads in 1917, it did not assign route numbers. Highways were instead initially referred to by the major cities they connected. What would become Provincial Highway5 during the summer of 1925 was initially known as the Hamilton–Jarvis Highway and the Dundas Highway. Throughout the summer of 1920, several roads were taken over by the DPHO through Haldimand County, Wentworth County, Halton County, Peel County and York County. Within Haldimand County, the road between Jarvis and north of Caledonia was taken over (or assumed) by the province on June24, 1920. Another set of roads were assumed through Wentworth on July8, connecting with the portion in Haldimand County, through Hamilton to Clappison's Corners and east through Waterdown along Dundas Street. Within Peel, through what is now Mississauga, Dundas Street was assumed on July22. A portion within York County was assumed through Etobicoke from its western boundary as far east as the village of Islington on July29. A final segment of Dundas Street, within Halton from Waterdown to what is now Winston Churchill Boulevard, was assumed on July31. Portions of the route through Caledonia, Hagersville, Jarvis and Hamilton were not assumed by the DPHO.

Several more segments of road were assumed the following year, including two portions on the outskirts of Toronto. On March16, 3.9 km of Dundas Street, between Islington Village (at the modern corners of Dundas, Bloor and Kipling) and the Toronto city limits at Jane Street were assumed by the DPHO. On September14, another 3.7 km of road were assumed along Danforth Avenue, from Sibley Avenue to Kingston Road, via Pinegrove Avenue and Highview Avenue; Danforth Avenue did not continue east of Warden Avenue at this time, and so the DPHO constructed a new railway overpass and extended the route to Kingston Road, opening in 1925.

Within Wentworth County, the construction of the Clappison Cut through the Niagara Escarpment was underway by 1921, with the aim of bypassing the winding old route that is known today as Old Guelph Road. The new route, which travelled straight along the boundary between East and West Flamboro, was assumed on January12, 1921. The province and the City of Hamilton also constructed several new bridges across Cootes Paradise to create a new northwest entrance into Hamilton. The new entrance, connecting the Toronto–Hamilton Highway (later Highway2) with the incomplete route up the escarpment to Clappison's Corners, was ceremonially opened by the Minister of Public Works and Highways, Frank Campbell Biggs, on August23, 1922. The Clappison Cut was completed and paved in 1924.

Highway5 and Highway6 travelled concurrently from Highway8 (Main Street) in downtown Hamilton to Clappison's Corners when route numbers were assigned in 1925. Highway5 was 127.4 km long at this time. This situation was short lived however, as Highway5 was redirected west from Clappison's Corners to Peters Corners to meet Highway8 on May25, 1927. Highway6, in turn, assumed the route of Highway5 south to Jarvis. The route was extended further west in 1930, when the newly-renamed Department of Highways (DHO) assumed the road from Highway8 at Peters Corners to Highway24 west of St. George, as well as the Governor's Road between Highway24 and Highway2 at Paris. The 19.0 km road between Highway8 and Highway24, through Beverley and South Dumfries was designated on June18, while the 6.8 km section of the Governor's Road, along the boundary between South Dumfries and Brantford Township, was designated several months later on September24. These two segments were connected by a concurrency with Highway24. This brought the length of the route to 114.3 km, including the approximately 16.1 km of Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue between Jane Street and Sibley Avenue, within the Toronto city limits.

Paving and improvements
When the Hamilton–Jarvis Highway and Dundas Street were assumed by the province, they were paved from Islington village west to Summerville (near Dixie Road), but were otherwise gravel throughout. The route was paved between Mount Hope and Hamilton, between Sixteen Mile Creek and Summerville, as well as along Bloor Street from Islington village to Jane Street in 1921. New bridges were also completed over Sixteen Mile Creek and Mimico Creek. In 1923, the remainder of the route between Sixteen Mile Creek and Hamilton, including the new Clappison Cut, was paved. This was followed the next year by the construction of a water-bound macadam surface between Jarvis and Caledonia, completing the hard-surfaced road between Jarvis and Hamilton. That year also saw the completion of a new high-level bridge along Bloor Street over the Humber River, bypassing the old route along Old Mill Road and Old Mill Drive. The bridge was opened ceremoniously by then Minister of Highways—and later premier—George Stewart Henry on November21, 1924.

When the portion of Highway5 west of Clappison's Corners was assumed in 1927, it was already paved as far west as the Brock Road, approximately 7 km. However, the DPHO paved the entire length between Peters Corners and Clappison's Corners in 1928. When the province assumed the remainder of the route to Paris, it began paving the highway west from Peters Corners. Paving was completed for 10 km to Troy in 1930 and 1931; another 10km were completed from Troy to Highway24 in 1932, including a railway underpass at St. George. The final 6.8 km east from Paris to Highway24 were paved in 1933.

Within Scarborough, the DHO began a project to widen Kingston Road to a dual highway in the mid 1930s, which would ultimately result in the construction of the first segment of Highway 401. This construction began at the intersection of Highway2 and Highway5 and proceeded northwest. At the intersection of the two highways, the DHO constructed a new grade-separation around the Scarborough Cenotaph beginning in 1936. the overpass, carrying eastbound traffic from Danforth Avenue onto eastbound Kingston Road, was completed in 1938, though landscaping continued into 1939. This junction remains in place today, almost unchanged since then.

As suburbanization of Toronto encroached on Toronto Township—which would become the town of Mississauga in 1968—the DHO began to widen Highway5 to four lanes across Peel and Halton in the 1960s, beginning with the section between Highway10 at Cooksville and Mississauga Road in 1961. In the late 1970s, construction began on Highway403 through Mississauga. As part of this new freeway, an interchange with Highway5 was built just east of Ninth Line, on the Oakville–Mississauga boundary. The interchange opened along with the segment of Highway403 south to the Queen Elizabeth Way at Ford Drive in mid-1981; the freeway was extended north to Erin Mills Parkway on November17th of that year.

Shift of responsibility
Following the creation of Metropolitan Toronto on April 15, 1953, the new municipality was given responsibility for most of the provincial highways that passed within its boundaries that were not already connecting links following streets urbanized prior to this time. The sections of Highway5 through Etobicoke and Scarborough were accordingly redesignated as connecting links and their maintenance given over to the new Metro government on January15, 1954. A 12.1 km portion of Highway5 from Etobicoke Creek west to Mississauga Road was made a connecting link though the recently-established Town of Mississauga on April1, 1970. Another 2.8 km, between Winston Churchill Boulevard and Mississauga Road in Mississauga, was designated a connecting link on November22, 1978. on November 27, 1991, a 1.2 km segment of Dundas Street, from the interchange with Highway403 east to Winston Churchill Boulevard, was made a connecting link through the municipal boundary area between Mississauga and Oakville, and maintenance was transferred to these municipalities. As the connecting links were technically still part of Highway5, shields continued to be posted along it and marked on the Official Ontario Road Map through Mississauga and Metropolitan Toronto up until 1998 when the highway designation was dropped altogether

As part of a series of budget cuts initiated by premier Mike Harris under his Common Sense Revolution platform in 1995, numerous highways deemed to no longer be of significance to the provincial network were downloaded to a lower level of government. As it generally served as a local arterial road through the growing suburbs of Oakville and Burlington, Highway5 was downloaded from Highway6 at Clappison's Corners to Highway403, and transferred to the Regional Municipalities of Hamilton–Wentworth and Halton on January1, 1998. On the same day, the portions of the route west of Peters Corners were transferred to Hamilton–Wentworth and the County of Brant. This removed 53.3 km from the length of the highway, leaving only the portion between Peters Corners and Clappison's Corners in the provincial highway network.

Nonetheless the MTO continues to maintain short segments of Dundas Street (former Highway 5) at interchanges with provincial freeways, including a 400 m portion at Highway403, as well as a 1.9 km portion at Highway427.

Since 1998
In July 2001, a new interchange with Highway 407 ETR was opened, connecting the extension of the toll highway with former Highway5 in Burlington.

An operational and safety review of the three intersections at Peters Corners near Hamilton was undertaken in February 2001. Studies, including an environmental assessment were conducted between 2004 and 2009, and settled upon a roundabout as the ideal replacement, with traffic signals at the two intersections with Westover Road (former Highway 52). Construction began in the spring of 2012, and the C$6.3 million roundabout was opened on September25, 2012.

title: Ontario Highway 5


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Die Bad

Die Bad is a 2000 South Korean film. It was the debut film of director Ryoo Seung-wan and starred the director and his brother Ryoo Seung-bum along with Park Sung-bin and Bae Jung-shik. The film consists of four distinct parts that were originally created as short films. The parts are connected through the main story of the protagonist Sung-bin's descent into a life of crime.

Plot
The first of the film's four parts is titled Rumble. The events start with two groups of rival teenagers hanging out in a bar, playing pool. They end up fighting and the main character Park Sung-bin accidentally kills another youth. He is thrown to prison for the next seven years.

The second part is titled Nightmare after the dreams Sung-bin still has about the man he killed. Sung-bin is trying to get back on track after being released from prison. He manages to get a job in a garage with the help of his brother, but his father still seems to loathe him for his past misdeeds. Eventually Sung-bin ends up saving a local crime boss, Kim Tae-hoon from a brutal beating and gets a job from him.

The next segment, Modern Man, intermixes fake documentary style interviews with a long fight between Kim Tae-hoon and Suk-hwan, an old friend of Sung-bin who was with him on the night that Sung-bin killed the man. Suk-hwan is now a police officer and his part of the interview tells about his job fighting crime while Kim Tae-hoon's interview segments show him speaking about his career in crime.

The last, longest segment is titled Die Bad. Sung-bin is taking control of his own group after Kim Tae-hoon is taken to prison. Sung-bin recruits a gang of youths, including Suk-hwan's brother, to serve as knife fodder in largely meaningless fights. In the end, Suk-hwan confronts and kills Sung-bin, but his brother is also killed.

American remake
A Hollywood remake is currently in development. Universal Studios bought the remake rights and in November 2008, it was announced that director Marc Forster was attached to direct. It will be produced by Foster and his producing partner Brad Simpson at their Apparatus Productions along with Vertigo Entertainment's Roy Lee and Overnight Productions' Doug Davison and Rick Schwartz.

Screenwriter Brad Ingelsby was hired to write the screenplay. Ingelsby made a name for himself in March 2008 by selling his debut spec script The Low Dweller to Relativity Media for $650,000 against $1.1 million. That project has Leonardo DiCaprio attached to produce and possibly star through his Appian Way Productions and has Ridley Scott attached to produce through his Scott Free Productions.

As of January 2011, there is currently no movement on the Die Bad remake.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Die Bad


text: User talk:24.123.240.20

title: User talk:24.123.240.20


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Music video award

Music video award or Video music award may refer to:

 * Channel O Music Video Awards, Pan-African music awards organised by South Africa-based Channel O
 * Grammy Award for Best Music Video, presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, United States
 * iHeartRadio Much Music Video Awards (MMVAs), presented by the Canadian television channel Much
 * MAD Video Music Awards, an annual awards show on MAD TV, Greece
 * Mnet Asian Music Award for Best Music Video Award, presented annually by CJ E&M Pictures
 * MTV Video Music Awards, presented by the cable channel MTV
 * Soul Train Music Award for Best Video of the Year, produced by the television show Soul Train
 * Space Shower Music Video Awards, sponsored by Space Shower TV, Japan
 * UK Music Video Awards, organized by BFI Southbank

title: Music video award


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Cleveland Memorial Shoreway

The Cleveland Memorial Shoreway, often shortened to "the Shoreway", is a limited-access freeway in Cleveland and Bratenahl, Ohio. It closely follows the shore of Lake Erie and connects the east and west sides of Cleveland via the Main Avenue Bridge over the Cuyahoga River. The entire length of the Shoreway is part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour (LECT) and all but the very eastern end of the Shoreway is part of State Route 2. The Shoreway also carries parts of Interstate 90 and State Route 283 on its eastern side, and parts of U.S. Route 6 and U.S. Route 20 on its western side. The Cleveland neighborhood of Detroit-Shoreway is named after the two roads that form the northern border, the Shoreway and Detroit Avenue.

The Shoreway was originally constructed in 1936 under the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and was extended in both directions during the 1930s and 1940s, finally completed and widened in 1953. Later in the 1950s, it was connected with additional freeways. It was named in honor of the city's war veterans during World War II. Between 2014 and 2018, the West Shoreway, the portion of the Shoreway from the Cuyahoga River westward, was reconstructed and, in 2016, was named the "Governor Richard F. Celeste Shoreway"; since the reconstruction, this section is also called Edgewater Parkway.

History
The Shoreway began as a 4 mi roadway from East Ninth Street to East 55th Street built in 1930s using Works Progress Administration workers, and it served as access to the Great Lakes Exposition in 1936. It was the largest WPA project in the country. Within two years the roadway was extended to the Illuminating Company plant adjacent to Gordon Park, and it was opened for traffic in 1938, although planning delays prevented WPA from laying a second strip of pavement and building grade separations from side streets. After the completion of the Main Avenue Bridge in 1940, the highway was extended westward to Edgewater Park (since 2013 part of the Cleveland Metroparks Lakefront Reservation). The East Ninth Street interchange was also completed in 1940. The highway was extended to Bratenahl at East 140th Street in 1941. The roadway was envisioned as part of a larger system of high speed highways in the city. A West Shore Drive from Edgewater Park to Rocky River was planned, but further construction was interrupted by World War II. After the War, the previously unnamed highway became the Memorial Shoreway in honor of Cleveland's war veterans.

In 1944, the city and county planning departments and the state highway department developed a master plan for freeways throughout the area. However, the only additional freeway built was the Willow Freeway. The Memorial Shoreway permitted crosstown traffic with some stops but was incomplete between East 55th Street and East 72nd Street. In 1953 a further addition connected the sections of Shoreway and widened the original highway to make it an 8-lane, nonstop freeway. The Interstate Highway Act in 1956 provided the funding to complete much of the freeway system planned in 1944. As part of this effort, the Memorial Shoreway was joined to the new Lakeland Freeway, which by 1963 stretched eastward toward Painesville.

2010s West Shoreway rebuild
The Shoreway west of the Main Avenue Bridge was rebuilt in order to increase ease of access to Lake Erie. Preliminary construction began in 2014; the speed limit dropped to 40 mph early on in the project, then permanently to 35 mph on October 5, 2015; the project as a whole was planned for completion in 2018. The project replaced the median barrier with a landscaped median, and added a vehicular and pedestrian tunnel by Edgewater Park and a bicycle path; original plans to replace grade-separated interchanges with at-grade signalized intersections were dropped due to traffic flow concerns.

title: Cleveland Memorial Shoreway


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Wickersham Commission

The National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (also known unofficially as the Wickersham Commission) was a committee established by the U.S. president, Herbert Hoover, on May 20, 1929. Former attorney general George W. Wickersham (1858–1936) chaired the 11-member group, which was charged with investigating the causes and costs of crime, Prohibition enforcement, policing, courts and antiquated criminal procedures, and prisons, parole and probation practices, among other topics in order to improve the American criminal justice system.

During the 1928 presidential campaign Herbert Hoover supported the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (which had introduced nationwide alcohol prohibition) but he recognized that evasion of the law was widespread and that prohibition had fueled the growth of organized crime.

Membership
Commission members included Henry W. Anderson, Newton D. Baker, Ada Comstock, William Irwin Grubb, William S. Kenyon, Monte M. Lemann, Frank J. Loesch, Kenneth Mackintosh, Paul John McCormick, and Dean Roscoe Pound of the Harvard Law School. Pioneering American criminologist August Vollmer wrote portions of the report.

From 1929 to 1930, Alger Hiss worked in legal research for the general counsel of the "Wickersham Committee" (as William L. Marbury, Jr. described it in a 1935 letter, in which he sought the support of U.S. Senator George L. P. Radcliffe for the appointment of Alger Hiss to the U.S. Solicitor General's office).

Findings
The Commission focused its investigations almost entirely on the widespread violations of national alcohol prohibition to study and recommend changes to the Eighteenth Amendment and to observe police practices in the states. They observed police interrogation tactics and reported that "the inflicting of pain, physical or mental, to extract confessions or statements... is widespread throughout the country." They released a second report in 1931 that supported Prohibition but found contempt among average Americans and unworkable enforcement across the states, corruption in police ranks, local politics and problems in every community that attempted to enforce prohibition laws.

August Vollmer was the primary author of the commission's final report, commonly known as the Wickersham Report, which was released on January 7, 1931. It documented the widespread evasion of Prohibition and its negative effects on American society and recommended much more aggressive and extensive law enforcement to enforce compliance with anti-alcohol laws. The report castigated the police for their "general failure... to detect and arrest criminals guilty of the many murders, spectacular bank, payroll and other holdups and sensational robberies with guns." Monte M. Lemann was the only commission member who refused to sign the report, issuing a separate opinion, where he concluded that there was "no alternative but repeal of the [Eighteenth] Amendment."

Criticism
Franklin P. Adams, a columnist for the New York World, summarized his opinion of the commission's report with this poem: Prohibition is an awful flop. We like it. It can't stop what it's meant to stop. We like it. It's left a trail of graft and slime It don't prohibit worth a dime It's filled our land with vice and crime, Nevertheless, we're for it. In the November 1931 issue of the New Masses, graphic artist Jacob Burck published the cartoon "I-I B-b-eg Your Pardon..." depicting a mortified Wickersham, holding his Wickersham report, while he looks on as a capitalist violates liberty.

title: Wickersham Commission


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Moritz von Oswald

Moritz von Oswald (born 1962) is a German record producer and percussionist from Hamburg and based in Berlin. He is a co-founder of the production duo and record label Basic Channel. He has collaborated with Juan Atkins, Carl Craig, and Nils Petter Molvær. He also leads the Moritz von Oswald Trio, which has featured musicians such as Vladislav Delay, Tony Allen, and Laurel Halo. The Stranger called him "one of the master architects of dub techno".

Early life
Moritz von Oswald was born in 1962 in Hamburg, Germany. He is a member of the House of Bismarck and a great-great-grandson of Otto von Bismarck. His parents were Countess Mari Ann von Bismarck-Schönhausen and the Hamburg merchant Egbert von Oswald. He studied orchestral percussion at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg.

Career
In the 1980s, Moritz von Oswald was the percussionist for the German new wave band Palais Schaumburg. After that, he moved to Berlin and began creating electronic music. He worked as an in-house producer for the Berlin record label Tresor. In the early 1990s, he released collaborative projects with fellow Palais Schaumburg member Thomas Fehlmann under the monikers 2MB and 3MB.

He co-founded the record label Basic Channel with Mark Ernestus in 1993. The duo's works have been released under numerous monikers such as Basic Channel and Rhythm & Sound.

He has formed the Moritz von Oswald Trio along with Max Loderbauer and Vladislav Delay. In 2009, the trio released Vertical Ascent. It was followed by Live in New York (2010), Horizontal Structures (2011), and Fetch (2012). Subsequently, Vladislav Delay was replaced by Tony Allen. The trio released Sounding Lines in 2015.

He is also one half of the duo Borderland along with Juan Atkins. The duo released Borderland in 2013 and Transport in 2016.

Studio albums

 * 3MB Featuring Magic Juan Atkins (1992) (with Thomas Fehlmann and Juan Atkins, as 3MB Featuring Magic Juan Atkins)
 * 3MB Featuring Eddie Flashin Fowlkes (1992) (with Thomas Fehlmann and Eddie Fowlkes, as 3MB Featuring Eddie Flashin Fowlkes)
 * Technosoul (1993) (with Thomas Fehlmann and Eddie Fowlkes, as 3MB Featuring Eddie Flashin Fowlkes)
 * Recomposed (2008) (with Carl Craig)
 * Vertical Ascent (2009) (with Max Loderbauer and Vladislav Delay, as Moritz von Oswald Trio)
 * Horizontal Structures (2011) (with Max Loderbauer and Vladislav Delay, as Moritz von Oswald Trio)
 * Fetch (2012) (with Max Loderbauer and Vladislav Delay, as Moritz von Oswald Trio)
 * Borderland (2013) (with Juan Atkins, as Borderland)
 * 1/1 (2013) (with Nils Petter Molvær)
 * Sounding Lines (2015) (with Max Loderbauer and Tony Allen, as Moritz von Oswald Trio)
 * Transport (2016) (with Juan Atkins, as Borderland)
 * Moritz von Oswald & Ordo Sakhna (2017) (with Ordo Sakhna)

Live albums

 * Live in New York (2010) (with Max Loderbauer and Vladislav Delay, as Moritz von Oswald Trio)

title: Moritz von Oswald


text: User talk:66.30.225.133

title: User talk:66.30.225.133


text:
Talk:Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs

OR tag
This is my own book review. Is that licit? I do think this book deserves an article, and I don't know where to find a non-copyrighted, peer-reviewed review (is this getting ridiculous?). --Trovatore 19:03, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

It is an important part of learning set theory. I think it deserves an article. 71.198.169.9 03:15, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Opinion-based content
I entirely removed the second paragraph of this article. It may have been a good book review, but I felt that it was completely opinion-based and therefore inappropriate for Wikipedia. Quoting from published book reviews would be a good compromise, I think. (See also the above question about WP:OR, and WP:FORUM.) Rwbogl (talk) 20:11, 7 March 2020 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Irma Grese

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Post-liberation Interview
Both Grese and Kramer were interrogated shortly after the camp's liberation by Eric Brown, who spoke fluent German, and who had been asked to do so by Glyn Hughes. His opinion of them is on his linked article page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.149.53.190 (talk) 17:35, 15 March 2018

title: Talk:Irma Grese


text:
Ex-meridian

Ex-meridian is a celestial navigation method of calculating an observer's position on Earth. The method gives the observer a position line on which the observer is situated. It is usually used when the Sun is obscured at noon, and as a result, a meridian altitude is not possible. The navigator measures the altitude of the Sun as close to noon as possible and then calculates where the position line lies.

Methodology
This method uses an assumed longitude and calculates the latitude that a position line crosses it. The position line obtained is actually part of a small circle, as opposed to great circle, where any observer can stand and the celestial object would have the same altitude in the sky. When plotting the small segment of this circle on a chart it is drawn as a straight line, the resulting tiny errors are too small to be significant.

The assumed longitude is usually obtained from the DR or Dead Reckoning position run up from a morning sight taken at around 9.00 am. This is worked out by applying the distance from that position either by log or by the estimated speed over time with the course steered. A sight is taken, that is the distance above the horizon of a heavenly object, in this case nearly always the sun, is measured with a sextant and the exact time noted in UTC. The sextant angle obtained is corrected for dip (the error caused by the observers height above the sea) and refraction to obtain the true altitude of the object above the horizon. This is then subtracted from 90° to obtain the angular distance from the position directly above, the zenith. This is referred to as the True Zenith Distance. The true zenith distance of the object is also the distance (in arc) on the Earth's surface from the observer to where that object is overhead, the geographical position of the object.

Using a nautical almanac, the declination (celestial latitude), and the Greenwich hour angle (celestial longitude) are obtained of the observed object for the time of observation. The assumed longitude is now added or subtracted to the Greenwich Hour Angle of the object to obtain the local hour angle, that is the difference in longitude between the DR position and the geographical position of the object.

With this information it is possible using the haversine formula to calculate the latitude where the position line crosses the assumed longitude. The formula is:

$$hav(MZD) = hav(TZD) - hav(LHA) cos(Lat) cos(Dec)$$

Where

$$MZD$$ = Meridian Zenith Distance

$$TZD$$ = True Zenith Distance

$$LHA$$ = Local Hour Angle

$$Lat$$ = DR Latitude

$$Dec$$ = Declination

Once the value of the Meridian Zenith Distance is obtained the algebraic sum of it with the declination of the object gives the latitude of a point where the position line crosses the meridian of DR longitude.

To draw the position line on a chart the azimuth or bearing of the heavenly object must be known. It is usually calculated but could have been observed. A line at right angles to the azimuth is drawn through the calculated position which is where the calculated latitude and the DR longitude cross. The observer is somewhere on this line.

To obtain a fix (a position) this line must be crossed with another position line either from another sight or from elsewhere. In the case of ex-meridian the position line is usually crossed with the position line obtained earlier which has been run up.

Ex-Meridian Tables
The first of these tables applies corrections to the altitude taken with the argument of Change of Altitude in one minute from Meridian Passage. Two other tables apply more corrections until the correct latitude is arrived at.

Accuracy and Versatility
The Ex-Meridian method of calculating sights is at its most accurate when the azimuth of the object is near to south or north. As the azimuth changes towards the east or west the cross of the position line with the assumed longitude becomes more and more oblique and the position obtained is therefore less accurate. For this reason it is a less versatile method of calculating sights than the intercept method which can be used for all azimuths. The tables are a quick and easy way to correct the altitude when the object is fairly low in the sky and the observer has only missed noon by a few minutes but if noon has been missed by more than that or the sun is high in the sky it is better to work out a sight by the intercept method.

title: Ex-meridian


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ariamedia

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was DELETE. — J I P | Talk 05:34, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

Ariamedia
The page reads just like a corporate "who we are" page, down to the use of personal pronouns like "we." Since it contains text as well as purely external links, I don't think it meets CSD A3. Pgengler 19:05, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete per nomination. - Pgengler 19:05, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete adcruft.--Isotope23 19:50, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Kjl 21:02, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - EurekaLott 18:53, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Caparo Industries plc v Dickman

is a leading English tort law case on the test for a duty of care. The House of Lords, following the Court of Appeal, set out a "three-fold test". In order for a duty of care to arise in negligence:

 * harm must be reasonably foreseeable as a potential result of the defendant's conduct (as established in Donoghue v Stevenson),
 * the parties must be in a relationship of proximity, and
 * it must be fair, just and reasonable to impose liability.

The final conclusion arose in the context of a negligent preparation of accounts for a company. Previous cases on negligent misstatements had fallen under the principle of Hedley Byrne v Heller. This stated that when a person makes a statement, he voluntarily assumes responsibility to the person he makes it to (or those who were in his contemplation). If the statement was made negligently, then he will be liable for any loss which results. The question in Caparo was the scope of the assumption of responsibility, and what the limits of liability ought to be.

On a preliminary issue as to whether a duty of care existed in the circumstances as alleged by the plaintiff, the plaintiff was unsuccessful at first instance but was successful in the Court of Appeal in establishing a duty of care might exist in the circumstances. Lord Justice Bingham held that as a small shareholder, Caparo was entitled to rely on the accounts. Had Caparo been a simple outside investor, with no stake in the company, it would have had no claim. But because the auditors' work is primarily intended to be for the benefit of the shareholders, and Caparo did in fact have a small stake when it saw the company accounts, its claim was good. This was overturned by the House of Lords, which unanimously held there was no duty of care.

Facts
A company called Fidelity plc, manufacturers of electrical equipment, was the target of a takeover by Caparo Industries plc. Fidelity was not doing well. In March 1984 Fidelity had issued a profit warning, which had halved its share price. In May 1984 Fidelity's directors made a preliminary announcement in its annual profits for the year up to March. This confirmed the position was bad. The share price fell again. At this point Caparo had begun buying up shares in large numbers. In June 1984 the annual accounts, which were done with the help of the accountant Dickman, were issued to the shareholders, which now included Caparo. Caparo reached a shareholding of 29.9% of the company, at which point it made a general offer for the remaining shares, as the City Code's rules on takeovers required. But once it had control, Caparo found that Fidelity's accounts were in an even worse state than had been revealed by the directors or the auditors. It sued Dickman for negligence in preparing the accounts and sought to recover its losses. This was the difference in value between the company as it had and what it would have had if the accounts had been accurate.

Court of Appeal
The majority of the Court of Appeal (Bingham LJ and Taylor LJ; O'Connor LJ dissenting) held that a duty was owed by the auditor to shareholders individually, and although it was not necessary to decide that in this case and the judgment was obiter, that a duty would not be owed to an outside investor who had no shareholding. Bingham LJ held that, for a duty owed to shareholders directly, the very purpose of publishing accounts was to inform investors so that they could make choices within a company about how to use their shares. But for outside investors, a relationship of proximity would be "tenuous" at best, and that it would certainly not be "fair, just and reasonable". O'Connor LJ, in dissent, would have held that no duty was owed at all to either group. He used the example of a shareholder and his friend both looking at an account report. He thought that if both went and invested, the friend who had no previous shareholding would certainly not have a sufficiently proximate relationship to the negligent auditor. So it would not be sensible or fair to say that the shareholder did either. Leave was given to appeal.

The "three stage" test, adopted from Sir Neil Lawson in the High Court, was elaborated by Bingham LJ (subsequently the Senior Law Lord) in his judgment at the Court of Appeal. In it he extrapolated from previously confusing cases what he thought were three main principles to be applied across the law of negligence for the duty of care:

"'It is not easy, or perhaps possible, to find a single proposition encapsulating a comprehensive rule to determine when persons are brought into a relationship which creates a duty of care upon those who make statements towards those who may act upon them and when persons are not brought into such a relationship.'"

Thus the Lord Ordinary, Lord Stewart, in Twomax Ltd v Dickson, McFarlane & Robinson 1983 SLT 98, 103. Others have spoken to similar effect. In Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd [1964] AC 465 Lord Hodson said, at p. 514: "I do not think it is possible to catalogue the special features which must be found to exist before the duty of care will arise in a given case," and Lord Devlin said, at pp. 529-530:

"'I do not think it possible to formulate with exactitude all the conditions under which the law will in a specific case imply a voluntary undertaking any more than it is possible to formulate those in which the law will imply a contract.'"

In Mutual Life and Citizens' Assurance Co Ltd v Evatt [1971] AC 793 Lord Reid and Lord Morris of Borth-y-Gest said, at p. 810: "In our judgment it is not possible to lay down hard-and-fast rules as to when a duty of care arises in this or in any other class of case where negligence is alleged." In Rowling v Takaro Properties Ltd [1988] AC 473, 501, Lord Keith of Kinkel emphasised the need for careful analysis case by case:

"'It is at this stage that it is necessary, before concluding that a duty of care should be imposed, to consider all the relevant circumstances. One of the considerations underlying certain recent decisions of the House of Lords (Governors of the Peabody Donation Fund v Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co Ltd [1985] A.C. 210 ) and of the Privy Council (Yuen Kun Yeu v Attorney-General of Hong Kong [1988] A.C. 175 ) is the fear that a too literal application of the well-known observation of Lord Wilberforce in Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1978] AC 728, 751-752, may be productive of a failure to have regard to, and to analyse and weigh, all the relevant considerations in considering whether it is appropriate that a duty of care should be imposed. Their Lordships consider that question to be of an intensely pragmatic character, well suited for gradual development but requiring most careful analysis. It is one upon which all common law jurisdictions can learn much from each other; because, apart from exceptional cases, no sensible distinction can be drawn in this respect between the various countries and the social conditions existing in them. It is incumbent upon the courts in different jurisdictions to be sensitive to each other's reactions; but what they are all searching for in others, and each of them striving to achieve, is a careful analysis and weighing of the relevant competing considerations.'"

The many decided cases on this subject, if providing no simple ready-made solution to the question whether or not a duty of care exists, do indicate the requirements to be satisfied before a duty is found.

The first is foreseeability. It is not, and could not be, in issue between these parties that reasonable foreseeability of harm is a necessary ingredient of a relationship in which a duty of care will arise: Yuen Kun Yeu v Attorney-General of Hong Kong [1988] A.C. 175, 192A. It is also common ground that reasonable foreseeability, although a necessary, is not a sufficient condition of the existence of a duty. This, as Lord Keith of Kinkel observed in Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] A.C. 53, 60B, has been said almost too frequently to require repetition.

The second requirement is more elusive. It is usually described as proximity, which means not simple physical proximity but extends to

"'such close and direct relations that the act complained of directly affects a person whom the person alleged to be bound to take care would know would be directly affected by his careless act:' Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] A.C. 562, 581, per Lord Atkin."

Sometimes the alternative expression "neighbourhood" is used, as by Lord Reid in the Hedley Byrne case [1964] A.C. 465, 483 and Lord Wilberforce in Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1978] A.C. 728 , 751H, with more conscious reference to Lord Atkin's speech in the earlier case. Sometimes, as in the Hedley Byrne case, attention is concentrated on the existence of a special relationship. Sometimes it is regarded as significant that the parties' relationship is "equivalent to contract" (see the Hedley Byrne case, at p. 529, per Lord Devlin), or falls "only just short of a direct contractual relationship" (Junior Books Ltd v Veitchi Co Ltd [1983] 1 A.C. 520, 533B, per Lord Fraser of Tullybelton), or is "as close as it could be short of actual privity of contract:" see p. 546C, per Lord Roskill. In some cases, and increasingly, reference is made to the voluntary assumption of responsibility: Muirhead v Industrial Tank Specialities Ltd [1986] Q.B. 507, 528A, per Robert Goff L.J.; Yuen Kun Yeu v Attorney-General of Hong Kong [1988] A.C. 175 , 192F, 196G; Simaan General Contracting v Pilkington Glass Ltd. (No. 2) [1988] Q.B. 758 , 781F, 784G; Greater Nottingham Co-operative Society Ltd v Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd. [1989] Q.B. 71 , 99, 106, 108. Both the analogy with contract and the assumption of responsibility have been relied upon as a test of proximity in foreign courts as well as our own: see, for example, Glanzer v Shepard (1922) 135 NE 275, 276; Ultramares Corporation v Touche (1931) 174 N.E. 441 , 446; State Street Trust Co v Ernst (1938) 15 N.E. 2d 416, 418; Scott Group Ltd v McFarlane [1978] 1 NZLR 553, 567. It may very well be that in tortious claims based on negligent misstatement these notions are particularly apposite. The content of the requirement of proximity, whatever language is used, is not, I think, capable of precise definition. The approach will vary according to the particular facts of the case, as is reflected in the varied language used. But the focus of the inquiry is on the closeness and directness of the relationship between the parties. In determining this, foreseeability must, I think, play an important part: the more obvious it is that A's act or omission will cause harm to B, the less likely a court will be to hold that the relationship of A and B is insufficiently proximate to give rise to a duty of care.

The third requirement to be met before a duty of care will be held to be owed by A to B is that the court should find it just and reasonable to impose such a duty: Governors of the Peabody Donation Fund v Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co Ltd [1985] A.C. 210, 241, per Lord Keith of Kinkel. This requirement, I think, covers very much the same ground as Lord Wilberforce's second stage test in Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1978] A.C. 728, 752A, and what in cases such as Spartan Steel & Alloys Ltd v Martin & Co. (Contractors) Ltd [1973] Q.B. 27 and McLoughlin v O'Brian [1983] 1 A.C. 410 was called policy. It was considerations of this kind which Lord Fraser of Tullybelton had in mind when he said that "some limit or control mechanism has to be imposed upon the liability of a wrongdoer towards those who have suffered economic damage in consequence of his negligence:" Candlewood Navigation Corporation Ltd v Mitsui OSK Lines Ltd [1986] AC 1, 25A. The requirement cannot, perhaps, be better put than it was by Weintraub C.J. in Goldberg v Housing Authority of the City of Newark (1962) 186 A. 2d 291, 293:

"'Whether a duty exists is ultimately a question of fairness. The inquiry involves a weighing of the relationship of the parties, the nature of the risk, and the public interest in the proposed solution.'"

If the imposition of a duty on a defendant would be for any reason oppressive, or would expose him, in Cardozo C.J.'s famous phrase in Ultramares Corporation v Touche, 174 N.E. 441, 444, "to a liability in an indeterminate amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class," that will weigh heavily, probably conclusively, against the imposition of a duty (if it has not already shown a fatal lack of proximity). On the other hand, a duty will be the more readily found if the defendant is voluntarily exercising a professional skill for reward, if the victim of his carelessness has (in the absence of a duty) no means of redress, if the duty contended for, as in McLoughlin v O'Brian [1983] 1 A.C. 410, arises naturally from a duty which already exists or if the imposition of a duty is thought to promote some socially desirable objective.

House of Lords
Lord Bridge of Harwich who delivered the leading judgment restated the so-called "Caparo test" which Bingham LJ had formulated below. His decision was, following O'Connor LJ's dissent in the Court of Appeal, that no duty was owed at all, either to existing shareholders or to future investors by a negligent auditor. The purpose of the statutory requirement for an audit of public companies under the Companies Act 1985 was the making of a report to enable shareholders to exercise their class rights in general meeting. It did not extend to the provision of information to assist shareholders in the making of decisions as to future investment in the company. He said that the principles have developed since Anns v Merton London Borough Council. Indeed, even Lord Wilberforce had subsequently recognised that foreseeability alone was not a sufficient test of proximity. It is necessary to consider the particular circumstances and relationships which exist.

Lord Bridge then proceeded to analyse the particular facts of the case based upon principles of proximity and relationship. He referred approvingly to the dissenting judgment of Lord Justice Denning (as he then was) in Candler v Crane, Christmas & Co [1951] 2 KB 164 where Denning LJ held that the relationship must be one where the accountant or auditor preparing the accounts was aware of the particular person and purpose for which the accounts being prepared would be used. There could not be a duty owed in respect of "liability in an indeterminate amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class" (Ultramares Corp v Touche, per Cardozo C.J New York Court of Appeals). Applying those principles, the defendants owed no duty of care to potential investors in the company who might acquire shares in the company on the basis of the audited accounts.

Lord Bridge concluded by answering the specific question of whether auditors should be liable to individual shareholders in tort, beyond a claim brought by a company. He referred to the Companies Act 1985 sections on auditors, and continued.

No doubt these provisions establish a relationship between the auditors and the shareholders of a company on which the shareholder is entitled to rely for the protection of his interest. But the crucial question concerns the extent of the shareholder's interest which the auditor has a duty to protect. The shareholders of a company have a collective interest in the company's proper management and in so far as a negligent failure of the auditor to report accurately on the state of the company's finances deprives the shareholders of the opportunity to exercise their powers in general meeting to call the directors to book and to ensure that errors in management are corrected, the shareholders ought to be entitled to a remedy. But in practice no problem arises in this regard since the interest of the shareholders in the proper management of the company's affairs is indistinguishable from the interest of the company itself and any loss suffered by the shareholders, e.g. by the negligent failure of the auditor to discover and expose a misappropriation of funds by a director of the company, will be recouped by a claim against the auditors in the name of the company, not by individual shareholders.

I find it difficult to visualise a situation arising in the real world in which the individual shareholder could claim to have sustained a loss in respect of his existing shareholding referable to the negligence of the auditor which could not be recouped by the company. But on this part of the case your Lordships were much pressed with the argument that such a loss might occur by a negligent undervaluation of the company's assets in the auditor's report relied on by the individual shareholder in deciding to sell his shares at an undervalue. The argument then runs thus. The shareholder, qua shareholder, is entitled to rely on the auditor's report as the basis of his investment decision to sell his existing shareholding. If he sells at an undervalue he is entitled to recover the loss from the auditor. There can be no distinction in law between the shareholder's investment decision to sell the shares he has or to buy additional shares. It follows, therefore, that the scope of the duty of care owed to him by the auditor extends to cover any loss sustained consequent on the purchase of additional shares in reliance on the auditor's negligent report.

I believe this argument to be fallacious. Assuming without deciding that a claim by a shareholder to recover a loss suffered by selling his shares at an undervalue attributable to an undervaluation of the company's assets in the auditor's report could be sustained at all, it would not be by reason of any reliance by the shareholder on the auditor's report in deciding to sell; the loss would be referable to the depreciatory effect of the report on the market value of the shares before ever the decision of the shareholder to sell was taken. A claim to recoup a loss alleged to flow from the purchase of overvalued shares, on the other hand, can only be sustained on the basis of the purchaser's reliance on the report. The specious equation of “investment decisions” to sell or to buy as giving rise to parallel claims thus appears to me to be untenable. Moreover, the loss in the case of the sale would be of a loss of part of the value of the shareholder's existing holding, which, assuming a duty of care owed to individual shareholders, it might sensibly lie within the scope of the auditor's duty to protect. A loss, on the other hand, resulting from the purchase of additional shares would result from a wholly independent transaction having no connection with the existing shareholding.

I believe it is this last distinction which is of critical importance and which demonstrates the unsoundness of the conclusion reached by the majority of the Court of Appeal. It is never sufficient to ask simply whether A owes B a duty of care. It is always necessary to determine the scope of the duty by reference to the kind of damage from which A must take care to save B harmless. “The question is always whether the defendant was under a duty to avoid or prevent that damage, but the actual nature of the damage suffered is relevant to the existence and extent of any duty to avoid or prevent it:” see Sutherland Shire Council v. Heyman, 60 A.L.R. 1, 48, per Brennan J. Assuming for the purpose of the argument that the relationship between the auditor of a company and individual shareholders is of sufficient proximity to give rise to a duty of care, I do not understand how the scope of that duty can possibly extend beyond the protection of any individual shareholder from losses in the value of the shares which he holds. As a purchaser of additional shares in reliance on the auditor's report, he stands in no different position from any other investing member of the public to whom the auditor owes no duty.

Lord Oliver and Lord Jauncey, Lord Roskill and Lord Ackner agreed.

Significance
The judgment overturned the decision of a judge at first instance in JEB Fasteners Ltd v Marks Bloom & Co. Caparo and its extent were further discussed in Her Majesty's Commissioners of Customs and Excise v Barclays Bank Plc and Moore Stephens v Stone Rolls Ltd.

The three-stage test given in Caparo is used to deal with novel issues of duty of care. The first test—reasonable foreseeability—is judged objectively and seeks to exclude liability that a reasonable person could not foresee. It draws on previous case law including Donoghue and Hedley Byrne. The use of reasonable foreseeability as a criteria in the establishing a duty of care is a very general one and is a different type of inquiry than the level of foreseeability used in determining elsewhere in negligence—breach and remoteness, specifically.

While it has been described as "uncertain" and "slippery" by some later judges (and as being an unhelpful circular definition by critical scholars), the proximity criteria identified in Caparo has been interpreted to include proximity in terms of geography, time, the relationship between parties, and causal proximity. The level of proximity has been significant in cases involving failure by to control a third party (along with public policy factors) such as Dorset Yacht Co Ltd v Home Office, as well as in cases of pure psychiatric injury to secondary victims (such as the Hillsborough cases including Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police).

The third part of the test in Caparo—whether the extension of liability is "fair, just and reasonable" (commonly known as policy considerations)—has been of relevance in a variety of contexts including controversial "wrongful conception" claims, and cases regarding the extent of liability that should be imposed on emergency services. Policy factors are inherently fact specific, but they have included concerns about "opening the floodgates", as well as the desire to avoid medical professionals and emergency services becoming overly cautious and defensive in their practices.

In other jurisdictions

 * In New Zealand, Caparo stands in disagreement with a decision of the New Zealand Court of Appeal in Scott Group Ltd v McFarlane. In both of these cases a duty of care was found in substantially similar circumstances.
 * In Australia, Caparo was followed in Esanda Finance Corporation Ltd v Peat Marwick Hungerfords. Caparo is also noted for the comments made as to the analysis of Brennan J of the Australian High Court in Council of the Shire of Sutherland v Heyman espousing the proposition that the law should develop novel categories of negligence 'incrementally and by analogy with established categories'. That observation was subsequently rejected in Sullivan v Moody, in which the High Court stated, at [49] that the “three-stage test…in Caparo…does not represent the law in Australia.”
 * In Canada, Caparo was followed in Hercules Managements Ltd. v. Ernst & Young. Cooper v Hobart is sometimes acknowledged to be the Canadian equivalent of Caparo.

title: Caparo Industries plc v Dickman


text:
User talk:169.204.230.194

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title: User talk:169.204.230.194


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Talk:California State Route 25

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title: Talk:California State Route 25


text:
California State Route 28

State Route 28 (SR 28) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that travels along the northern shore of Lake Tahoe, starting at Route 89 in Tahoe City and ending at the Nevada state border, whereupon it becomes Nevada State Route 28.

Route description
The route begins at SR 89 in Tahoe City and heads eastward. It then intersects SR 267 in Kings Beach and continues to its terminus at Nevada State Route 28 at the Nevada state line. Route 28 is one of only three state routes that keep the same number in Nevada, along with Route 88 and Route 266.

SR 28 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, but is not part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 28 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation.

title: California State Route 28


text:
Battery charger

A battery charger, recharger, or simply charger, is a device that stores energy in an electric battery by running current through it. The charging protocol—how much voltage, current, for how long and what to do when charging is complete—depends on the size and type of the battery being charged. Some battery types have high tolerance for overcharging after the battery has been fully charged and can be recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type.

Simple chargers of this type must be manually disconnected at the end of the charge cycle. Other battery types use a timer to cut off when charging should be complete. Other battery types cannot withstand over-charging, becoming damaged (reduced capacity, reduced lifetime), over heating or even exploding. The charger may have temperature or voltage sensing circuits and a microprocessor controller to safely adjust the charging current and voltage, determine the state of charge, and cut off at the end of charge. Chargers may elevate the output voltage proportionally with current to compensate for impedance in the wires.

A trickle charger provides a relatively small amount of current, only enough to counteract self-discharge of a battery that is idle for a long time. Some battery types cannot tolerate trickle charging; attempts to do so may result in damage. Lithium-ion batteries cannot handle indefinite trickle charging. Slow battery chargers may take several hours to complete a charge. High-rate chargers may restore most capacity much faster, but high rate chargers can be more than some battery types can tolerate. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from any abusive use. Electric vehicles ideally need high-rate chargers. For public access, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electric cars.

C-rate
Charge and discharge rates are often given as C or C-rate, which is a measure of the rate at which a battery is charged or discharged relative to its capacity. The C-rate is defined as the charge or discharge current divided by the battery's capacity to store an electrical charge. While rarely stated explicitly, the unit of the C-rate is h−1, equivalent to stating the battery's capacity to store an electrical charge in unit hour times current in the same unit as the charge or discharge current. The C-rate is never negative, so whether it describes a charging or discharging process depends on the context.

For example, for a battery with a capacity of 500 mAh, a discharge rate of 5000 mA (i.e., 5 A) corresponds to a C-rate of 10C, meaning that such a current can discharge 10 such batteries in one hour. Likewise, for the same battery a charge current of 250 mA corresponds to a C-rate of C/2, meaning that this current will increase the state of charge of this battery by 50% in one hour.

Running current through batteries generates internal heat, roughly proportional to the current involved (a battery's current state of charge, condition / history, etc. are also factors). If the charging process is endothermic (which in the case for Ni-Cd batteries, whereas charging nickel-metal hydride batteries is exothermic) the charging process initially cools the battery, but as it reaches full charge, the cooling effect stops and the cell heats up. Detecting a temperature rise of 10 C-change is one way of determining when to stop charging. Battery cells which have been built to allow higher C-rates than usual must make provision for increased heating.

But high C-ratings are attractive to end users because such batteries can be charged more quickly, and produce higher current output in use. High C-rates typically require the charger to carefully monitor battery parameters such as terminal voltage and temperature to prevent overcharging and so damage to the cells. Such high charging rates are possible only with some battery types. Others will be damaged or possibly overheat or catch fire. Some batteries may even explode. For example, an automobile SLI (starting, lighting, ignition) lead-acid battery carries several risks of explosion. A newer type of charger is known as a solid-state charger. This overcomes the limitations of liquid batteries.

Simple charger
A simple charger works by supplying a constant DC or pulsed DC power source to a battery being charged. A simple charger typically does not alter its output based on charging time or the charge on the battery. This simplicity means that a simple charger is inexpensive, but there are tradeoffs. Typically, a carefully designed simple charger takes longer to charge a battery because it is set to use a lower (i.e., safer) charging rate. Even so, many batteries left on a simple charger for too long will be weakened or destroyed due to over-charging. These chargers also vary in that they can supply either a constant voltage or a constant current, to the battery.

Simple AC-powered battery chargers usually have much higher ripple current and ripple voltage than other kinds of battery chargers because they are inexpensively designed and built. Generally, when the ripple current is within a battery's manufacturer recommended level, the ripple voltage will also be well within the recommended level. The maximum ripple current for a typical 12V 100Ah VRLA battery is 5 amperes. As long as the ripple current is not excessive (more than 3 to 4 times the level recommended by the battery manufacturer), the expected life of a ripple-charged VRLA battery will be within 3% of the life of a constant DC-charged battery.

Fast charger
Fast chargers make use of control circuitry to rapidly charge the batteries without damaging any of the cells in the battery. The control circuitry can be built into the battery (generally for each cell) or in the external charging unit, or split between both. Most such chargers have a cooling fan to help keep the temperature of the cells at safe levels. Most fast chargers are also capable of acting as standard overnight chargers if used with standard NiMH cells that do not have the special control circuitry.

Three stage charger
To accelerate the charging time and provide continuous charging, an intelligent charger attempts to detect the state of charge and condition of the battery and applies a 3-stage charging scheme. The following description assumes a sealed lead acid traction battery at 25°C (77°F). The first stage is referred to as "bulk absorption"; the charging current will be held high and constant and is limited by the capacity of the charger. When the voltage on the battery reaches its outgassing voltage (2.22 volts per cell) the charger switches to the second stage and the voltage is held constant (2.40 volts per cell). The delivered current will decline at the maintained voltage, and when the current reaches less than 0.005C the charger enters its third stage and the charger output will be held constant at 2.25 volts per cell. In the third stage, the charging current is very small 0.005C and at this voltage the battery can be maintained at full charge and compensate for self-discharge.

Induction-powered charger
Inductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge batteries. A charging station sends electromagnetic energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries. This is achieved without the need for metal contacts between the charger and the battery. Inductive battery chargers are commonly used in electric toothbrushes and other devices used in bathrooms. Because there are no open electrical contacts, there is no risk of electrocution. Nowadays it is being used to charge wireless phones.

Smart charger
A smart charger can respond to the condition of a battery and modify its charging parameters accordingly, whereas "dumb" chargers apply a steady voltage, possibly through a fixed resistance. It should not be confused with a smart battery that contains a computer chip and communicates digitally with a smart charger about battery condition. A smart battery requires a smart charger. Some smart chargers can also charge "dumb" batteries, which lack any internal electronics.

The output current of a smart charger depends upon the battery's state. An intelligent charger may monitor the battery's voltage, temperature or charge time to determine the optimum charge current or terminate charging. For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage of the battery increases slowly during the charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage decreases because of increasing temperature, which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers are often labeled as a ΔV, "delta-V", or sometimes "delta peak" charger, indicating that they monitor voltage change.

This can cause even an intelligent charger not to sense that the batteries are already fully charged, and continue charging, the result of which may be overcharging. Many intelligent chargers employ a variety of cut-off systems to prevent overcharging. A typical smart charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours to top off the battery to its full capacity.

Motion-powered charger
Several companies have begun making devices that charge batteries using energy from human motion, such as walking. An example, made by Tremont Electric, consists of a magnet held between two springs that can charge a battery as the device is moved up and down. Such products have not yet achieved significant commercial success.

A pedal-powered charger for mobile phones fitted into desks has been created for installation in public spaces, such as airports, railway stations and universities. They have been installed in a number of countries on several continents.

Pulse charger
Some chargers use pulse technology, in which a series of electrical pulses is fed to the battery. The DC pulses have a strictly controlled rise time, pulse width, pulse repetition rate (frequency) and amplitude. This technology works with any size and type of battery, including automotive and valve-regulated ones. With pulse charging, high instantaneous voltages are applied without overheating the battery. In a lead–acid battery, this breaks down lead-sulfate crystals, thus greatly extending the battery service life.

Several kinds of pulse chargers are patented,  while others are open source hardware. Some chargers use pulses to check the current battery state when the charger is first connected, then use constant current charging during fast charge, then use pulse mode to trickle charge it. Some chargers use "negative pulse charging", also called "reflex charging" or "burp charging". These chargers use both positive and brief negative current pulses. There is no significant evidence that negative pulse charging is more effective than ordinary pulse charging.

Solar charger
Solar chargers convert light energy into low voltage DC current. They are generally portable, but can also be fixed mounted. Fixed mount solar chargers are also known as solar panels. These are often connected to the electrical grid via control and interface circuits, whereas portable solar chargers are used off-grid (i.e. cars, boats, or RVs).

Although portable solar chargers obtain energy only from the sun, they can charge in low light like at sunset. Portable solar chargers are often used for trickle charging, though some can completely recharge batteries.

Timer-based charger
The output of a timer charger is terminated after a predetermined time interval. Timer chargers were the most common type for high-capacity Ni-Cd cells in the late 1990s to charge low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells. Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger time is set for those batteries specifically. If batteries of lower capacity are charged, then they would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were timer-charged, they would not reach full capacity. Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully discharged would result in over-charging.

Trickle charger
A trickle charger is typically low-current (usually between 5–1,500 mA). They are generally used to charge small capacity batteries (2–30 Ah). They are also used to maintain larger capacity batteries (> 30 Ah) in cars and boats. In larger applications, the current of the battery charger is only sufficient to provide trickle current. Depending on the technology of the trickle charger, it can be left connected to the battery indefinitely. Some battery types are not suitable for trickle charging. For instance, most Li-ion batteries cannot be safely trickle charged and can cause a fire or explosion.

Universal battery charger–analyzer
The most sophisticated chargers are used in critical applications (e.g. military or aviation batteries). These heavy-duty automatic "intelligent charging" systems can be programmed with complex charging cycles specified by the battery manufacturer. The best are universal (i.e. can charge all battery types), and include automatic capacity testing and analyzing functions.

USB-based charger

Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides five-volt power, it is possible to use a USB cable to connect a device to a power supply. Products based on this approach include chargers for cellular phones, portable digital audio players, and tablet computers. They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices or uncontrolled, simple chargers. Another type of USB charger called "USB (rechargeable) battery" is fitted into the case of standard batteries (1.5 V AA, C, D, and 9 V block) together with a Li-ion rechargeable battery, voltage converter, and USB connector.

DC-DC charger
Used to charge one battery with another battery of the same voltage.

Applications
Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a battery, it may not have voltage regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output; it is cheaper to make them that way. Battery chargers equipped with both voltage regulation and filtering are sometimes termed battery eliminators.

Battery charger for vehicles
There are two main types of chargers used for vehicles:
 * To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter battery, where a modular charger is used; typically an 3-stage charger.
 * To recharge an electric vehicle (EV) battery pack; see Charging station.

Chargers for car batteries come in varying ratings. Chargers that are rated up to two amperes may be used to maintain charge on parked vehicle batteries or for small batteries on garden tractors or similar equipment. A motorist may keep a charger rated a few amperes to ten or fifteen amperes for maintenance of automobile batteries or to recharge a vehicle battery that has accidentally discharged. Service stations and commercial garages will have a large charger to fully charge a battery in an hour or two; often these chargers can briefly source the hundreds of amperes required to crank an internal combustion engine starter.

Electric vehicle batteries
Electric vehicle battery chargers (ECS) come in a variety of brands and characteristics. These chargers vary from 1 kW to 7.5 kW maximum charge rate. Some use algorithm charge curves, others use constant voltage, constant current. Some are programmable by the end user through a CAN port, some have dials for maximum voltage and amperage, some are preset to specified battery pack voltage, ampere-hour and chemistry. Prices range from $400 to $4,500. A 10-ampere-hour battery could take 15 hours to reach a fully charged state from a fully discharged condition with a 1-ampere charger as it would require roughly 1.5 times the battery's capacity. Public EV charging stations provide 6 kW (host power of 208 to 240 V AC off a 40-ampere circuit). 6 kW will recharge an EV roughly six times faster than 1 kW overnight charging. Rapid charging results in even faster recharge times and is limited only by available AC power, battery type, and the type of charging system.

Onboard EV chargers (change AC power to DC power to recharge the EV's pack) can be:
 * Isolated: they make no physical connection between the A/C electrical mains and the batteries being charged. These typically employ some form of inductive connection between the grid and a charging vehicle. Some isolated chargers may be used in parallel. This allows for an increased charge current and reduced charging times. The battery has a maximum current rating that cannot be exceeded
 * Non-isolated: the battery charger has a direct electrical connection to the A/C outlet's wiring. Non-isolated chargers cannot be used in parallel.

Power-factor correction (PFC) chargers can more closely approach the maximum current the plug can deliver, shortening charging time.

Charge stations
Project Better Place was deploying a network of charging stations and subsidizing vehicle battery costs through leases and credits until filing for bankruptcy in May 2013.

Induction-powered charging
Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have developed an electric transport system, called Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV), where the vehicles get their power needs from cables underneath the surface of the road via inductive charging, a power source is placed underneath the road surface and power is wirelessly picked up on the vehicle itself.

Mobile phone charger

Most mobile phone chargers are not really chargers, only power adapters that provide a power source for the charging circuitry which is almost always contained within the mobile phone. Older ones are notoriously diverse, having a wide variety of DC connector-styles and voltages, most of which are not compatible with other manufacturers' phones or even different models of phones from a single manufacturer.

Some higher-end models feature multiple ports are equipped with a display which indicates output current. Some support communication protocols for charging parameters such as Qualcomm Quick Charge or MediaTek Pump Express. Chargers for 12 V automobile auxiliary power outlets may support input voltages of up to 24 or 32 V DC to ensure compatibility, and are sometimes equipped with a display to monitor current or the voltage of the vehicle's electrical system.

China, the European Union, and other countries are making a national standard on mobile phone chargers using the USB standard. In June 2009, 10 of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed a Memorandum of Understanding to develop specifications for and support a microUSB-equipped common external power supply (EPS) for all data-enabled mobile phones sold in the EU. On October 22, 2009, the International Telecommunication Union announced that microUSB would be the standard for a universal charger for mobile handsets.

Stationary battery plants
Telecommunications, electric power, and computer uninterruptible power supply facilities may have very large standby battery banks (installed in battery rooms) to maintain critical loads for several hours during interruptions of primary grid power. Such chargers are permanently installed and equipped with temperature compensation, supervisory alarms for various system faults, and often redundant independent power supplies and redundant rectifier systems.

Chargers for stationary battery plants may have adequate voltage regulation and filtration and sufficient current capacity to allow the battery to be disconnected for maintenance, while the charger supplies the direct current (DC) system load. The capacity of the charger is specified to maintain the system load and recharge a completely discharged battery within, say, 8 hours or other intervals.

Prolonging battery life
A properly designed charger can allow batteries to reach their full cycle life. Excess charging current, lengthy overcharging, or cell reversal in a multiple cell pack cause damage to cells and limit the life expectancy of a battery.

Most modern cell phones, laptop and tablet computers, and most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of full discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40–50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures.

Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to the cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ion cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an "electronic fuse" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.

Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc. have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are simply replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to "float charge" the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be used to achieve the best results.

title: Battery charger


text:
Nightshade (disambiguation)

Nightshade is the common name for plants in the genus Solanum, and more generally for related plants in the family Solanaceae.

Nightshade(s) or Night Shade(s) may also refer to:

Other plants

 * Enchanter's nightshade, any of the plants in the genus Circaea, in the willowherb family Onagraceae

Fictional entities

 * Nightshade (DC Comics), a comic book superheroine published by DC Comics
 * Nightshade (Dungeons & Dragons), a type of monster in Dungeons & Dragons
 * Nightshade (Marvel Comics), also known as Dr. Nightshade and Deadly Nightshade, a comic book super-villain in the Marvel Universe
 * James "Jim" Nightshade, a character from the novel Something Wicked This Way Comes
 * A character in the Magic Kingdom of Landover stories by Terry Brooks
 * A character from the animated television program C.O.P.S.

Literature

 * Nightshade (Butler novel), a 1989 science fiction novel by Jack Butler
 * Nightshade (Gatiss novel), a 1992 Doctor Who novel by Mark Gatiss
 * Nightshades: Thirteen Journeys Into Shadow, an anthology of dark fantasy/horror short stories by Tanith Lee
 * Night Shade, a 1976 book by Dorothy Daniels and illustrated by Hector Garrido
 * Night Shade: Gothic Tales by Women, a 1999 novel edited by Victoria Brownworth & Judith Redding, which earned them Lambda Literary Awards
 * "Night Shades", a short story in Donna Andrews' Meg Langslow series
 * Nightshade (Horowitz novel), the thirteenth book in the Alex Rider series by Anthony Horowitz

Music

 * Night Shade (album), a 2014 album by Lanie Lane
 * Night Shades, a 2011 album by Cobra Starship
 * "Nightshade", a song by Mike Oldfield from the 2005 album Light + Shade

Video games

 * Nightshade (1985 video game), a video game by Ultimate Play The Game
 * Nightshade (1992 video game), a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System
 * Nightshade (2003 video game), a video game for the PlayStation 2

Other art, entertainment, and media

 * Night Shade, a 1997 film by Fred Olen Ray
 * Night Shade, a work choreographed by Ulysses Dove

Other uses

 * Night Shade Books, an American publisher
 * Nightshade (astronomy software)
 * Judy Simpson, nicknamed "Nightshade" in the UK TV show Gladiators

title: Nightshade (disambiguation)