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Sergei Bulgakov

Sergei Nikolayevich Bulgakov (Серге́й Никола́евич Булга́ков; 28 July 1871 – 13 July 1944) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, priest, philosopher, and economist. Orthodox writer and scholar David Bentley Hart has said that Bulgakov was "the greatest systematic theologian of the twentieth century." Father Sergei Bulgakov also served as a spiritual father and confessor to Mother Maria Skobtsova (who was canonized a saint by the Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate on 16 January 2004).

Bulgakov is best known for his teaching about Sophia the Wisdom of God, which received mixed reception; it was condemned by the Moscow Patriarchate in 1935, but without accusations of heresy.

Early life: 1871–1889
Sergei Nikolayevich Bulgakov was born on 16 July 1871 to the family of a rural Orthodox priest (Nikolai Bulgakov) in the town of Livny, Oryol Governorate, in Russia. The family produced Orthodox priests for six generations, beginning in the sixteenth century with their ancestor Bulgak, a Tatar from whom the family name derives. Metropolitan Macarius Bulgakov (1816–1882), one of the major Eastern Orthodox theologians of his days, and one of the most important Russian church historians, was a distant relative.

In 1884, Bulgakov graduated from the Livny Theological School. At the age of fourteen, Bulgakov entered the Oryol Theological Seminary. In 1888, however, Bulgakov quit the seminary after a loss of his faith. In the same year, he attempted suicide. Bulgakov later noted that his passion for priesthood waned as he grew disenchanted with Orthodoxy because his teachers were unable to answer his questions. After Bulgakov quit the seminary, he entered Yelets Classical Gymnasium to prepare for the law faculty of the Imperial Moscow University. Among his teachers there was Vasily Rozanov.

Legal Marxism: 1890–1897
In 1890, Bulgakov entered the Imperial Moscow University where he chose to study political economy and law. As he reflected years later, however, literature and philosophy were his natural inclination and he had no interest in law. Bulgakov only chose to study law because it seemed more likely to contribute to his country's redemption. After his graduation from the Law Faculty of Moscow State University in 1894, he began graduate studies at the university and taught for two years at the Moscow Commercial Institute. It was during his graduate studies when Bulgakov studied with the economist Alexander Chuprov, on whose recommendation Bulgakov was retained at the Department of Political Economy of Statistics to prepare for the professorship. Bulgakov's thought during his studies with Chuprov has generally been seen through the lens of the Marxist-Populist debate. From this perspective, he has been labeled a "legal Marxist."

In 1895, Bulgakov began teaching political economy at the Imperial Moscow Technical School. In the same year, he published a review of Karl Marx's unfinished third volume of Das Kapital, and authored an essay in 1896, "On the Regularity of Social Phenomena." In the following year, Bulgakov published a study "On Markets in Capitalist Conditions of Production." It was these writings that originally established Bulgakov as a significant representative of Marxism in Russia. During his years as a legal Marxist, he had met with Karl Kautsky, August Bebel, Victor Adler, and Georgi Plekhanov.

From Marxism to Idealism: 1898–1902
On 14 January 1898, shortly before embarking for Western Europe, Bulgakov married Yelena Tokmakova, with whom he had two sons and a daughter. Yelena was the daughter of Ivan Tokmakov, owner of the Oleiz estate in Crimea.

In 1898, Bulgakov received a scholarship for a two-year internship in Western Europe. He left for Germany, where he tested the results of his research in personal correspondence with representatives of German Social Democracy. The result of his research was a two-volume dissertation, Capitalism and Agriculture, released in 1900. The dissertation was intended to test the application of Marx's theory of capitalist societies to agriculture. Bulgakov examined the entire agricultural history of Germany, the United States, Ireland, France, and England. The thesis ended by declaring that Marx's analysis of capitalism, limited by features of the English economy, did not integrate this system with an economic theory of agriculture, and was not a realistic, universal account of capitalist society. Originally intended to be defended as a doctoral dissertation, the work did not receive the highest rating from the Academic Council of Moscow University and was defended as a master's thesis.

In 1900 Bulgakov presented his finished dissertation for examination. It was this examination that led Bulgakov to being a privatdozent at the Kiev University of St. Vladimir and Professor of Political Economy at the Kiev Polytechnic Institute in 1901. It was evident in lectures such as "Ivan Karamazov as a philosophical type" delivered in Kiev that Bulgakov had already distanced himself from Marxism. At the time of Bulgakov teaching about Dostoevsky, the counterweight to Marxism in 20th century Russia was neo-Kantianism; heavily influenced by neo-Kantianism, Bulgakov returned to idealism and believed in the significance of the historical role of the valuese of goodness and beauty. However, it was the philosophy of Vladimir Solovyov, who he began to read in 1902, that Bulgakov considered to be the highest synthesis of philosophical thought; this philosophy considered the vital principle of Christianity to be the organizing principle of social creativity. Bulgakov's idealism eventually led him back to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Bulgakov presented the individual stages of his philosophical development in his collection From Marxism to Idealism, published in Saint Petersburg in 1903.

Political turmoil: 1903–1909
Together with Pyotr Struve, Bulgakov published the journal Liberation; together, they were co-founders of the illegal political organization Union of Liberation in 1903. After the Revolution of 1905, its members formed the Constitutional Democratic (Kadet) Party, which held the most seats in the representative assemblies, the First and Second Dumas (1906–1907). Bulgakov did not join the Kadets and instead unsuccessfully attempted to form his own organization, the Union of Christian Politics, which advocated Christian socialism and collaborated with the Christian Brotherhood of Struggle.

Amidst the chaos of 1905, Bulgakov made the acquaintance of Pavel Florensky (1882–1937), with whom he would establish a long-lasting friendship. Bulgakov and Florensky were among founding members of the Vladimir Solovyov Memorial Religious-Philosophical Society, which was founded in Moscow at the end of 1905.

In 1905 Bulgakov, along with the Brotherhood of Christian Struggle, bishops, priests, and many others, supported the call for a council of the Orthodox Church in support of social reforms. In 1906, a preconciliar commission prepared six volumes of information for the council. Nicholas II thwarted the planned council, but the information would be put to use when it eventually did convene eleven years later.

In 1906, Bulgakov was editor of the Kiev newspaper Narod. After its closure, he returned from Kiev to Moscow. He taught at Moscow University as a privatdozent in the department of political economy and statistics of the Law Faculty, and was also professor at the Moscow Commercial Institute until 1918.

He was elected to the Second State Duma in 1906 as a non-partisan "Christian socialist" deputy from the Oryol Governorate. In June 1907, the Second State Duma dissolved after barely five months in session.

After the dissolution of the Second State Duma, Bulgakov lost what remaining zeal he had for direct political involvement. Another major factor in his eventual separation from the Union of Liberation was the increasingly anti-Christian direction being championed by leading representatives of left-liberal politics.

During 1904–1909, his focus shifted to an explicitly Christian perspective. Bulgakov also changed his attitude towards the controversial Nicholas II. He believed Nicholas II was responsible for the social problems plaguing Russia. However, Bulgakov also did not appreciate the increasing radicalization of the leftists in Russia and their abandonment of Russian Orthodoxy in favor of a purely secular state; on the contrary, it caused him to uphold the positive value of governance by Nicholas II, even as he continued to detest him, accusing him of promoting the revolution and bringing about the demise of the royal family. Bulgakov continued to struggle with the meaning of political power as he wrote Unfading Light.

In the summer of 1909, Bulgakov's four-year-old son Ivan died. At the funeral, Bulgakov had a profound religious experience that is generally regarded as his final step in his journey back to Orthodoxy. Bulgakov would later contemplate the meaning of death in his later works, including Unfading Light.

Academia and journalism: 1910–1917
In 1911, Bulgakov left the Moscow University among a large group of liberal-minded university teachers in protest against the policies of the Minister of Public Education Lev Kasso. The following years were the period of Bulgakov's greatest social and journalistic activity. He participated in many endeavors that marked a religious and philosophical revival, such as the journals Novy put '  and Voprosy religii, the collections Questions of Religion, About Vladimir Solovyov, On the Religion of Leo Tolstoy, Problems of Idealism, and Milestones, the works Religion of the Vladimir Solovyov Memorial Philosophical Society, and the publishing house Put ' , where the most important works of Russian religious thought were published in 1911-1917. In his work during this period, he transitioned from lectures and articles on topics of religion and culture (the most important of which he collected in the two-volume book Two Cities, published 1911) to original philosophical developments.

In 1911, Bulgakov was elected fellow chairman of the Alexander Chuprov Society for the Development of Social Sciences and a member of the Commission on Church Law at the Moscow Law Society.

In 1913, Bulgakov defended his doctoral dissertation on political economy, Philosophy of Economics, at Moscow University, in which he put forward Christianity as a universal process, the subject of which is Sophia - the world soul, creative nature, ideal humanity. He was elected full professor of political economy at Moscow University.

In 1917, Bulgakov became a delegate of the All-Russian Congress of Clergy and Laity and a member of the All-Russian Local Council of the Orthodox Russian Church, the Religious and Educational Conference under the Cathedral Council, the Commission for Familiarization with the Financial Situation of the Council, and the VI, VII, IX, and XX Departments. He was an author of the Patriarchal Message on Accession to the Throne. From December 1917, he was a member of the Supreme Church Council of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Priesthood and October Revolution: 1917–1921
In June 1918, Bulgakov was ordained a deacon and then a priest. He quickly rose to prominence in church circles. He took part in the All-Russia Sobor of the Russian Orthodox Church that elected patriarch Tikhon of Moscow. Bulgakov rejected the October Revolution and responded to it with the dialogues At the Feast of the Gods ("На пиру богов", 1918), written in a style similar to the Three Talks of Vladimir Solovyov.

In July 1918, Bulgakov left Moscow, first going to Kiev then joining his wife and children in Koreiz in Crimea. For the next two years, he was a member of the Tauride Diocesan Council in Simferopol and a professor of political economy and theology at the Tauride University in Simferopol. In the works Philosophy of the Name (written in 1920, published in 1953) and The Tragedy of Philosophy (written in 1920, published in 1928), written at that time, he revised his view of the relationship between philosophy and dogmatics of Christianity, coming to the conclusion that Christian speculation can be expressed without distortion exclusively in the form of dogmatic theology. Dismissed from the university after the Bolsheviks came to Crimea. When the Bolsheviks captured Crimea in 1920, Bulgakov was dismissed from his teaching position at the university.

In 1921, Bulgakov became archpriest and assistant rector of the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Yalta. In September 1922, he was arrested on charges of political unreliability.

Emigration to Prague: 1922-1924
In 1922, Bulgakov was included in a list of scientific and cultural figures subject to deportation, compiled by the State Political Directorate on the initiative of Vladimir Lenin. On 30 December 1922, he was deported to Constantinople on one of the so-called philosophers' ships without the right to return to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. After a short stay in Constantinople, he arrived in Prague. In May 1923, with the blessing of Metropolitan Eulogius Georgiyevsky, he served in Prague's St. Nicholas Cathedral and took the position of professor in the department of church law and theology at the Law Faculty of the Russian Scientific Institute in Berlin.

Bulgakov involved himself in the spiritual leadership of Russian youth and participated in the ecumenical movement. He was founder and leader of the Brotherhood of St. Sophia, created with the blessing of Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow, and an organizer and participant in the congresses of the Russian Student Christian Movement (RSCM). He participated in the first congresses of the RSCM in Přerov, Czechoslovakia and Argeron, France, and continued to supervise it.

Paris: 1925-1944
In July 1925, Bulgakov moved to Paris. He was a member of the Committee for the Construction of the Sergius Metochion and an assistant to its organizer. He helped found the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute (l'Institut de Théologie Orthodoxe Saint-Serge), where he worked until his death. He taught courses on "Holy Scripture of the Old Testament" and "Dogmatic Theology".

Bulgakov became involved in the work of the ecumenical movement in 1927 at the World Christian Conference "Faith and Church Order" in Lausanne. Until the end of the 1930s, he took part in many ecumenical endeavors, becoming an influential figure and ideologue of the movement; in 1934 he made a trip to the United States. The most promising direction in the ecumenical sphere turned out to be Orthodox-Anglican dialogue with the Anglican Church. At the end of 1927 and beginning of 1928, an Anglo-Russian religious congress was held, which resulted in the establishment of the bilateral Fellowship of Saint Alban and Saint Sergius.

While living in Paris, he completed two dogmatic trilogies on Sophiology — the first, The Burning Bush (1926), The Friend of the Bridegroom (1927), Jacob’s Ladder (1929); the second, The Lamb of God, The Comforter, The Bride of the Lamb (1939). It is in The Bride of the Lamb that Bulgakov argues for apokatastasis. Bulgakov states that humankind will "ultimately be justified." He also argues in this book for a supramundane fall, saying that "empirical history begins precisely with the fall, which is its starting premise."

In 1935, after the publication of his book, Lamb of God, Bulgakov was accused of teachings contrary to Orthodox dogma by the Metropolitan Sergius I of Moscow, who recommended his exclusion from the Church until he amended his "dangerous" views. The Karlovtsy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia also joined in this condemnation. Metropolitan Evlogy set up a committee in Paris to investigate Bulgakov's orthodoxy, which reached a preliminary conclusion that his thought was free from heresy. However, an official conclusion was never reached.

In 1939, Bulgakov was diagnosed with throat cancer. He underwent surgery, after which he learned to speak without vocal cords. He served early liturgies in the chapel in the name of the Dormition of the Mother of God, and continued to lecture on dogmatic theology, carry out his pastoral care, and write. Although the outbreak of World War II limited Bulgakov, he did not stop working on new works and performing services. In 1943, he was awarded a miter.

In occupied Paris, he wrote the work Racism and Christianity, debunking the ideology of fascism. He finished his last book, The Apocalypse of John, shortly before his death. On the night of 5-6 June 1944, he had a stroke, after which he remained unconscious for forty days. He died on 13 July 1944. He was buried in the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery in the southern suburbs of Paris.

Selected works

 * Bulgakov, Sergei (1899). A Contribution to the Question of the Capitalist Evolution of Agriculture. Published in nos. 1–3 of the magazine Nachalo in January–March 1899.

Political views
Bulgakov condemned the basic view of political economy of the early 20th century, according to which the growth of material needs is the fundamental principle of normal economic development. He viewed economic progress as a necessary condition for spiritual success, but warned against the inclination to replace universal human and cultural progress with economic progress alone. To him, moral materialism and spiritual bourgeoisness, which once destroyed the Roman civilization, were a disease of modern European society. Bulgakov viwed the inability to be satisfied with the increase in external material benefits and to come to terms with the deep-rooted forms of social untruth, the desire for universal human ideals, and the insatiable need for conscious and effective religious faith as the most characteristic and happiest features of the Russian spirit. This conviction of his was revealed in his public lectures and in his article "Carlyle and Tolstoy" (Novy Put, December 1904). Being a direct student of Vladimir Solovyov in his philosophical convictions, Bulgakov, however, was critical of his church-political and economic program.

In his extensive dissertation, the two-volume book Capitalism and Agriculture, Bulgakov questioned the effect of the law of concentration of production in agriculture, examined the advantages of small peasant farms over large ones, analyzed the reasons for the stability of family farming, and came up with a distributive version of the source of land rent. He set out to show in the history of agrarian evolution the universal applicability of Karl Marx's law of concentration of production, but came to the exact opposite conclusions. To Bulgakov, Marx's economic scheme turned out to be inconsistent with historical reality, and the positive theory of social progress associated with it was unable to nourish man's ineradicable faith in the historical justification of the good.

After unsuccessful attempts to use Kant's epistemological precepts in the interests of Marxism, Bulgakov settled on the idea that a solid justification for the guiding principles of personal and public life is possible only by developing unconditional standards in matters of the good, the truth, and beauty. To him, positive science, with its theory of progress, wanted to absorb both metaphysics and religious faith, but, leaving people in complete uncertainty regarding the future destinies of humanity, it gave them only the dogmatic theology of atheism; a mechanical understanding of the world, subordinating everything to fatal necessity, ultimately turns out to rest on faith. For Bulgakov, Marxism, as the brightest variety of the religion of progress, inspired its supporters with faith in the imminent and natural arrival of a renewed social system; it was strong not in its scientific, but in its utopian elements, and Bulgakov came to the conviction that progress is not an empirical law of historical development, but a moral task, an absolute religious obligation. Social struggle appeared to Bulgakov not as a clash of merely hostile class interests, but as the implementation and development of a moral idea. "Is" cannot justify "ought"; the ideal cannot follow from reality.

According to Bulgakov, the doctrine of class egoism and class solidarity is imprinted by the nature of superficial hedonism. From a moral point of view, parties fighting over worldly goods are quite equivalent, since they are guided not by religious enthusiasm, not by the search for the unconditional and lasting meaning of life, but by ordinary self-love. According to Bulgakov, the eudaimonic ideal of progress, as a scale for assessing historical development, leads to antimoral conclusions, to the recognition of suffering generations as only a bridge to the future bliss of their descendants.

Bulgakov's work as a priest began with journalism, articles on economic, socio-cultural, and religious-philosophical topics. Bulgakov's journalism came to the fore at critical moments: the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the beginning of the First World War in 1917. A number of significant themes of Bulgakov's thought developed almost exclusively in journalism: religion and culture, Christianity, politics and socialism, the tasks of the public, the path of the Russian intelligentsia, problems of church life, and problems of art.

Bulgakov was one of the main exponents of vekhovstvo, an ideological movement that called on the intelligentsia to "sober up" and move away from "herd morality", "utopianism", and "rabid revolutionism" in favor of the work of spiritual comprehension and a constructive social position. During the same period, he developed on his ideas of socialist Christianity, producing an analysis of the Christian attitude to economics and politics (with an apology for socialism, which was gradually declining), criticism of Marxism and bourgeois-capitalist ideology, projects for a "party of Christian politics," and responses to the issues of the day (from the standpoint of Christian liberal-conservative centrism). The theme of Russia was a special focus, and was addressed, following Dostoevsky and Solovyov, along the paths of Christian historiosophy.

Bulgakov's views changed greatly in response to the issues in Russia. At the beginning of the First World War, he wrote Slavophile articles and expressed faith in the universal calling and great future of the state. Later, in the dialogues At the Feast of the Gods and other texts of the revolutionary period, he depicted the fate of Russia as apocalyptic and alarmingly unpredictable, rejecting any recipes and forecasts. For a short time, Bulgakov believed that Catholicism rather than Orthodoxy would be able to prevent the processes of schism and disintegration that prepared the catastrophe of the nation. Later, he was engaged in the creation of Christian economic theory, and his journalism focused only on church and religious-cultural topics.

Philosophical ideas
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgakov became disillusioned with Marxism because he considered it incapable of answering the deep religious needs of the human personality and radically changing it. He returned to Christianity. In the 1905 Revolution, he wrote an article titled "Heroism and Asceticism", in which he spoke about the "two paths" for the Russian intelligentsia. Heroism was the path followed by the majority; this path is an attempt to change society by external means, replacing one class with another, and using violence and terror with complete disregard for the spiritual and moral content of one's own personality. Asceticism is a different path, which presupposes a transformation of one’s own personality. This path requires not external, but internal feat. He warned that the path of heroism would lead Russia to a bloody tragedy.

With his theology, Bulgakov, as Father Sergius, provoked accusations from the Moscow and Karlovci jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church. The conflict had both political and theological reasons. The church-political background of the conflict was expressed in the confrontation between the Karlovci (pro-monarchist) and Moscow (under severe pressure from Stalin) churches of the free Exarchate of Parishes of the Russian Tradition in Western Europe, which since 1931 was subordinate to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the field of theology, the fear of posing new theological questions made itself felt. In 1935, Bulgakov's teaching was condemned in the decrees of the Moscow Patriarchate, and in 1937, also by the foreign Council of Bishops in Karlovci. However, the commission of professors of the St. Sergius Institute and the diocesan commission (1936), convened by Metropolitan Eulogius Georgiyevsky, rejected all accusations of heresy.

title: Sergei Bulgakov


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Dangerous (Penny Ford song)

"Dangerous" is a song by Penny Ford that reached the UK Top 50 in 1985.

title: Dangerous (Penny Ford song)


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Private language argument

The private language argument argues that a language understandable by only a single individual is incoherent, and was introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his later work, especially in the Philosophical Investigations. The argument was central to philosophical discussion in the second half of the 20th century.

In the Investigations, Wittgenstein does not present his arguments in a succinct and linear fashion; instead, he describes particular uses of language, and prompts the reader to contemplate the implications of those uses. As a result, there is considerable dispute about both the nature of the argument and its implications. Indeed, it has become common to talk of private language arguments.

Historians of philosophy see precursors of the private language argument in a variety of sources, notably in the work of Gottlob Frege and John Locke. Locke is also a prominent exponent of the view targeted by the argument, since he proposed in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the referent of a word is the idea it stands for.

Significance
The private language argument is of central importance to debates about the nature of language. One compelling theory about language is that language maps words to ideas, concepts or representations in each person's mind. On this account, the concepts in one's head are distinct from the concepts in another's head. One can match their concepts to a word in a common language, and then speak the word to another. The listener can then match the word to a concept in their mind. So the shared concepts, in effect, form a private language which one can translate into a common language and so share. This account is found for example in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and more recently in Jerry Fodor's language of thought theory.

Wittgenstein argues, in his later work, that this account of private language is inconsistent. If the idea of a private language is inconsistent, then a logical conclusion would be that all language serves a social function. This would have profound implications for other areas of philosophical and psychological study. For example, if one cannot have a private language, it might not make any sense to talk of private experiences or of private mental states.

Philosophical Investigations
The argument is found in part one of the Philosophical investigations. This part consists of a series of "remarks" numbered sequentially. The core of the argument is generally thought to be presented in §256 and onward, though the idea is first introduced in §243.

What a private language is
If someone were to behave as if they understood a language of which no one else can make sense, we might call this an example of a private language. It is not sufficient here, however, for the language to simply be one that has not yet been translated. In order to count as a private language in Wittgenstein's sense, it must be in principle incapable of translation into an ordinary language – if for example it were to describe those inner experiences supposed to be inaccessible to others. The private language being considered is not simply a language in fact understood by one person, but a language that in principle can only be understood by one person. So the last speaker of a dying language would not be speaking a private language, since the language remains in principle learnable. A private language must be unlearnable and untranslatable, and yet it must appear that the speaker is able to make sense of it.

Sensation S
Wittgenstein sets up a thought experiment in which someone is imagined to associate some recurrent sensation with a symbol by writing S in their calendar when the sensation occurs. Such a case would be a private language in the Wittgensteinian sense. Furthermore, it is presupposed that S cannot be defined using other terms, for example "the feeling I get when the manometer rises"; for to do so would be to give S a place in our public language, in which case S could not be a statement in a private language.

It might be supposed that one might use "a kind of ostensive definition" for S, by focusing on the sensation and on the symbol. Early in The Investigations, Wittgenstein attacks the usefulness of ostensive definition. He considers the example of someone pointing to two nuts while saying "This is called two". He considers how it comes about that the listener associates this with the number of items, rather than the type of nut, their colour, or even a compass direction. One conclusion of this is that to participate in an ostensive definition presupposes an understanding of the process and context involved, of the form of life. Another is that "an ostensive definition can be variously interpreted in every case".

In the case of the sensation S Wittgenstein argues that there is no criterion for the correctness of such an ostensive definition, since whatever seems right will be right, and that only means that here we can not talk about "right".' The exact reason for the rejection of private language has been contentious. One interpretation, which has been called memory scepticism, has it that one might remember the sensation wrongly, and that as a result one might misuse the term S. The other, called meaning scepticism, has it that one can never be sure of the meaning of a term defined in this way.

Memory scepticism
One common interpretation is that the possibility exists that one might misremember the sensation, and therefore one does not have any firm criterion for using S in each case. So, for example, one might focus on one particular sensation one day, and link it to the symbol S; but the next day, one would have no criteria for knowing that the sensation one has then is the same as the one one had the previous day, excepts for one's memory; and since one's memory might fail, one has no firm criteria for knowing that the sensation one has is indeed the sensation S.

However, memory scepticism has been criticized as applying to public language, also. If one person can misremember, it is entirely possible that several people can misremember. So memory scepticism could be applied with equal effect to ostensive definitions given in a public language. For example, Jim and Jenny might one day decide to call some particular tree T; but the next day both misremember which tree it was they named. If they were depending entirely on their memory, and had not written down the location of the tree, or told anyone else, then they would appear to be with the same difficulties as the individual who defined S ostensively. And so, if this is the case, the argument presented against private language would apply equally to public language.

This interpretation (and the criticism of Wittgenstein that arises from it) is based on a complete misreading, however, because Wittgenstein's argument has nothing to do with the fallibility of human memory, but rather concerns the intelligibility of remembering something for which there is no external criterion of correctness. It is not that we will not, in fact, remember the sensation correctly, but rather that it makes no sense to talk about our memory being either correct or incorrect in this case. The point, as Diego Marconi puts it, is not so much that private language is "a game at which we can't win, it is a game we can't lose".

Wittgenstein makes this clear in section 258: "A definition surely serves to establish the meaning of a sign.—Well, that is done precisely by the concentrating of my attention; for in this way I impress on myself the connexion between the sign and the sensation.—But "I impress it on myself" can only mean: this process brings it about that I remember the connexion right in the future. But in the present case, I have no criterion of correctness." This absence of any criterion of correctness is not a problem because it makes it more difficult for the private linguist to remember his sensation correctly; it is a problem because it undermines the intelligibility of such a concept as remembering the sensation, whether correctly or incorrectly.

Wittgenstein explains this unintelligibility with a series of analogies. For example, in section 265 he observes the pointlessness of a dictionary that exists only in the imagination. Since the idea of a dictionary is to justify the translation of one word by another, and thus constitute the reference of justification for such a translation, all this is lost the moment we talk of a dictionary in the imagination; for “justification consists in appealing to something independent". Hence, to appeal to a private ostensive definition as the standard or correct use of a term would be "as if someone were to buy several copies of the morning paper to assure himself that what it said was true."

Meaning scepticism
Another interpretation, found for example in the account presented by Anthony Kenny has it that the problem with a private ostensive definition is not just that it might be misremembered, but that such a definition cannot lead to a meaningful statement.

Let us first consider a case of ostensive definition in a public language. Jim and Jenny might one day decide to call some particular tree T; but the next day misremember which tree it was they named. In this ordinary language case, it makes sense to ask questions such as "is this the tree we named T yesterday?" and make statements such as "This is not the tree we named T yesterday". So one can appeal to other parts of the form of life, perhaps arguing: "this is the only Oak in the forest; T was an oak; therefore this is T".

An everyday ostensive definition is embedded in a public language, and so in the form of life in which that language occurs. Participation in a public form of life enables correction to occur. That is, in the case of a public language there are other ways to check the use of a term that has been ostensively defined. We can justify our use of the new name T by making the ostensive definition more or less explicit.

But this is not the case with S. Recall that because S is part of a private language, it is not possible to provide an explicit definition of S. The only possible definition is the private, ostensive one of associating S with that feeling. But this is the very thing being questioned. "Imagine someone saying: 'But I know how tall I am!' and laying his hand on top of his head to prove it."

A recurrent theme in Wittgenstein's work is that for some term or utterance to have a sense, it must be conceivable that it be doubted. For Wittgenstein, tautologies do not have sense, do not say anything, and so do not admit of doubt. But furthermore, if any other sort of utterance does not admit of doubt, it must be senseless. Rush Rhees, in his notes on lectures given by Wittgenstein, while discussing the reality of physical objects, has him say:

"We get something similar when we write a tautology like 'p → p'. We formulate such expressions to get something in which there is no doubt – even though the sense has vanished with the doubt."

As Kenny put it, "Even to think falsely that something is S, I must know the meaning of S; and this is what Wittgenstein argues is impossible in the private language." Because there is no way to check the meaning (or use) of S apart from that private ostensive act of definition, it is not possible to know what S means. The sense has vanished with the doubt.

Wittgenstein uses the further analogy of the left hand giving the right hand money. The physical act might take place, but the transaction could not count as a gift. Similarly, one might say S while focusing on a sensation, but no act of naming has occurred.

The beetle-in-a-box
The beetle-in-a-box is a famous thought experiment that Wittgenstein introduces in the context of his investigation of pains.

Pains occupy a distinct and vital place in the philosophy of mind for several reasons. One is that pains seem to collapse the appearance/reality distinction. If an object appears to be red it might not be so in reality, but if one seems to oneself to be in pain, it must be so: there can be no case here of seeming at all. At the same time, one cannot feel another person's pain, but only infer it from their behavior and their reports of it.

If we accept pains as special qualia known absolutely but exclusively by the solitary minds that perceive them, this may be taken to ground a Cartesian view of the self and consciousness. Our consciousness, of pains anyway, would seem unassailable. Against this, one might acknowledge the absolute fact of one's own pain, but claim skepticism about the existence of anyone else's pains. Alternatively, one might take a behaviorist line and claim that our pains are merely neurological stimulations accompanied by a disposition to behave.

Wittgenstein invites readers to imagine a community in which the individuals each have a box containing a "beetle". "No one can look into anyone else's box, and everyone says he knows what a beetle is only by looking at his beetle."

If the "beetle" had a use in the language of these people, it could not be as the name of something – because it is entirely possible that each person had something completely different in their box, or even that the thing in the box constantly changed, or that each box was in fact empty. The content of the box is irrelevant to whatever language game it is used in.

By analogy, it does not matter that one cannot experience another's subjective sensations. Unless talk of such subjective experience is learned through public experience the actual content is irrelevant; all we can discuss is what is available in our public language.

By offering the "beetle" as an analogy to pains, Wittgenstein suggests that the case of pains is not really amenable to the uses philosophers would make of it. "That is to say: if we construe the grammar of the expression of sensation on the model of 'object and designation', the object drops out of consideration as irrelevant."

Following a rule
It is common to describe language use in terms of the rules that one follows, and Wittgenstein considers rules in some detail. He famously suggests that any act can be made out to follow from a given rule. He does this in setting up a dilemma: "This was our paradox: no course of action could be determined by a rule, because every course of action can be made out to accord with the rule. The answer was: if everything can be made out to accord with the rule, then it can also be made out to conflict with it. And there would be neither accord nor conflict here." One can give an explanation of why one followed a particular rule in a particular case. But any explanation for rule following behaviour cannot be given in terms of following a rule, without involving circularity. One can say something like "She did X because of the rule R" but if you say "She followed R because of the rule R1" one can then ask "but why did she follow rule R1?" and so potentially become involved in a regression. Explanation must have an end. His conclusion: "What this shows is that there is a way of grasping a rule which is not an interpretation, but which is exhibited in what we call 'obeying the rule' and 'going against it' in actual cases."

So following a rule is a practice. And furthermore, since one can think one is following a rule and yet be mistaken, thinking one is following a rule is not the same as following it. Therefore, following a rule cannot be a private activity.

Kripke's interpretation
In 1982 Saul Kripke published a new and innovative account of the argument in his book Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language. Kripke takes the paradox discussed in §201 to be the central problem of the Philosophical Investigations. He develops the paradox into a Grue-like problem, arguing that it similarly results in skepticism, but about meaning rather than about induction. He supposes a new form of addition, which he calls quus, which is identical with plus in all cases except those in which either of the numbers to be added is greater than 57, thus:

"$\text{x quus y}= \begin{cases} \text{x + y} & \text{for }x,y <57 \\[12pt] 5 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} $"

He then asks if anyone could know that previously when they thought he had meant plus, he had not meant quus. He claims that his argument shows that "Each new application we make is a leap in the dark; any present intention could be interpreted to accord with anything we may choose to do. So there can be neither accord nor conflict."

Kripke's account is considered by some commentators to be unfaithful to Wittgenstein, and as a result has been referred to as "Kripkenstein". Even Kripke himself suspected that many aspects of the account were inconsistent with Wittgenstein's original intent, leading him to urge that the book "should be thought of as expounding neither 'Wittgenstein's' argument nor 'Kripke's': rather Wittgenstein's argument as it struck Kripke, as it presented a problem for him."

title: Private language argument


text:
Quadrumana

Quadrumana is an outdated taxonomic division within the primates. The division of "Quadrumana" from "Bimana" was an attempt at distinguishing Homo sapiens from the rest of the great apes. For a century, modern science has considered humans as part of the great apes.

Quadrumana is Latin for "four-handed ones", which was a term used for Lemurs, monkeys and apes since their feet are prehensile and similar to hands. It was not clear at the time that Tarsiers belonged as well in this group, as sister of the monkeys (incl. apes). A similar term, quadrumanous, is used to describe locomotion involving both using feet and using hands to grasp at branches. Bimana is Latin for "two-handed ones".

The division was proposed by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History (1779) and taken up by other naturalists, most notably Georges Cuvier. Some elevated the distinction to the level of an order.

However, the many affinities between humans and other primates – and especially the great apes – made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. In 1863, however, Thomas Henry Huxley in his Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature demonstrated that the higher apes might fairly be included in Bimana. Charles Darwin wrote, in The Descent of Man (1871):

The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.

title: Quadrumana


text:
Cardaillac

Cardaillac (Cardalhac) is a commune in the Lot department in south-western France.

It is located 9 km northwest of Figeac.

The village is located on the edge of the Limargue—a rich agricultural region—and Ségala, a poor rye-and chestnut-producing region. It has a rich medieval history and has been officially listed as one of the "most beautiful French villages".

A stronghold was built on a rocky promontory above Cardaillac from 1064 at the orders of Hugo, Lord of Cardaillac. Today only three towers remain, dating from the thirteenth century. In 1188 it was attacked by Richard the Lionheart soon before his accession to the throne.

On 11 May 1944, three youths were executed by the "Das Reich" division, which subsequently massacred the population of Oradour-sur-Glane.

title: Cardaillac


text:
Emmitt Thomas

Emmitt Earl Thomas (born June 3, 1943) is an American former professional football player and coach in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at the now defunct Bishop College. He played professionally as a cornerback for the Kansas City Chiefs of the NFL. He owns the Chiefs all-time interception record with 58, which places him ninth on pro football's all-time list. Thomas was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame after being nominated by the Seniors Committee.

Thomas became a coach after his playing career. He won Super Bowl IV as a player with the Chiefs and Super Bowl XXII and Super Bowl XXVI as an assistant coach with the Washington Redskins.

Playing career
Thomas made the Chiefs team as an undrafted free agent from Bishop College in Dallas; he was an AFL All-Star in 1968 and made the NFL's AFC-NFC Pro Bowl four times (1971, 1972, 1974, 1975) after the Chiefs joined the NFL in the 1970 AFL-NFL Merger. He was also selected All-Pro three times. In the 1969 season, he led all pro football with 9 interceptions, which he returned for 146 yards and a touchdown, helping his team win the AFL Championship and the fourth and last AFL-NFL World Championship Game, which the Chiefs won 23-7 over the NFL champion Vikings. Thomas recorded an interception in the Kansas City victory. In 1974, he led the NFL in interceptions (12), return yards (214), and return touchdowns (2).

Thomas retired from playing after 13 seasons; he finished his pro football career with 58 interceptions, which he returned for 937 yards and five touchdowns. He also recovered four fumbles, gained 64 yards returning punts, and returned 29 kickoffs for 673 yards. He played in 181 career games, tying for the fifth-most in club annals, and his 58 interceptions are a franchise record.

Thomas was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2008. He was officially inducted at the Enshrinement Ceremony where his bust, sculpted by Scott Myers, was unveiled on August 2, 2008.

Coaching career
Thomas has been an assistant coach in the NFL since 1981. Before being named interim head coach of the Atlanta Falcons on December 12, 2007 after the resignation of Bobby Petrino, Thomas was the Falcons' Senior Defensive Assistant/Secondary Coach. After Petrino's sudden departure left the team in shambles, Thomas attempted to unite the Atlanta locker room, and was able to lead the Falcons to a season-ending victory over the Seattle Seahawks. On January 24, 2008, new Falcons head coach Mike Smith announced that Thomas would remain on staff as assistant head coach. Thomas was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame along with Darrell Green and Art Monk, two players he coached during Super Bowl runs with the Washington Redskins. On January 13, 2010, his contract expired and was not renewed by the Falcons.

On February 1, 2010, he was hired as the secondary coach of the Kansas City Chiefs. On February 12, 2019, Thomas announced his retirement from coaching.

Head coaching record
* Interim head coach.

Personal life
Thomas resides in Kansas City, Missouri. He married Jacqueline Heafley in 1983, and they remained married until her death on August 21, 2017. He has one son, Derek, and one daughter, Dedra, from a previous marriage with ex-wife Dianne Thomas. Derek now resides in Las Vegas, Nevada, doing numerous coaching jobs. Dedra Thomas is currently a legal nurse consultant in Angleton, TX. Thomas has a total of eight grandkids: Keydron, Keynan, Kierrah, Kyandria, Bailey, Samantha, Jade and Shane.

title: Emmitt Thomas


text:
User talk:Acheronovich

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! , SqueakBox 19:51, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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title: User talk:Acheronovich


text:
User talk:Mailyn

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! , SqueakBox 19:51, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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India related links
All the best! Enjoy your stay on Wikipedia!! --Gurubrahma 06:09, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Aishwarya picture
Hi Mailyn, ads are not allowed as it would look like wikipedia is promoting that brand. Even magazine covers are allowed only as fair use; see WP:FU for more. looks like you are learning the ropes here fast, keep it going. Regards, --Gurubrahma 12:38, 7 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Hi Mailyn, just saw ur last 2 msgs. It is okay by me but someone may object that the previous cover was better and may revert your edit. It is always better to get a public domain or free image to blunt criticism. --Gurubrahma 13:01, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

"Better" is in perception. Typically, ppl may say there is already an existing magazine cover, why change it? I suggest you may be better off working on free pics or magazine covers of other actresses instead of duplicating work. people's preferences are also diff - some may want to see her profile, some her face etc. enough for today ;) --Gurubrahma 13:30, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Re:Carlos Ponce
First of all Mailyn, I love your name! Second of all I saw the logic in your reasoning (Damn, I hate it when I'm wrong}. However, the "Cat-Cuban people" was eliminated because he already appears in the cats of Cuban singers and actors and therefore would be rebundent.  I have to check and see if Barbara Bermudo's parents were Cuban since I wrote both articles but, I'll do that later.  Anyway, keep up the good work, I have a good feeling about you.  If I can be of any help in the future, feel free to drop me a line.  Tony the Marine 22:57, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

Brain Teasers:
Hi, just sending out a friendly notice stating that I have now got brain teasers on my user page. Will post new questions one day after the older ones have been answered. Thanks, Spawn Man 06:15, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Re; Cuban categories
Hi Mailyn, how's your mom and pets? You know I answered your message about five days ago. I started to wonder if you received it and when I checked I found out that I forgot to click the "save" button. If you ever have a question or you simply want to talk, feel free to drop me a line, that's what Wiki-friends are for.

In regard to your question about: Category:Cuban-American vs Category:Cuban-American_entertainers. I won't redirect them because, while the first Cat includes everybody, the second is more specific as to the field of the person. I imagine that there must be a Category: Cuban-American politican and so on. Now, if there also exsists a "List of Cuban-American" then, I recomend that either the "Cat Cuban-Americans" or the "List of Cuban-Americans" be deleted to avoid repetition.

Thank you for the Barbara Bermudo information and remember you have a friend in me Tony the Marine 01:20, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Friendly Chat
Mailyn my friend, I will not forget to push the "save" button.

I checked the "Catgory:Cuban people" and it is exactly the same as the "List of Cubans". Another thing, there is also a "Category:Cuban people by occupation" which is a good thing. In my opinion the "Cat Cuban people" isn't necessary. What should or could be done is go to the articles and delete the "Category Cuban people". If the article does not have the a Category which places that person in a specific field, then it should be done.

In regard to the introductions of an article especially if the perosn is born in another country of whatever descent and works in Hollywood, I will give two examples of my articles:

"Henry Darrow (born Enrique Tomas Delgado, Jr. on September 15, 1933 in New York City) is an actor who is best remembered for his role of "Manolito" in the popular 1960's television western series called "The High Chaparral".

Henry is the first born son of Gloria and Enrique Delgado Sr., who migrated to New York from Puerto Rico in the early 1930's. When Henry was 8 years old, he participated in a school play where he acted as a woodcutter. As a child, this acting experience was all he needed to convince him that's all he'll ever want to be. His parents were very supportive and always encouraged him to pursue his dreams."

and

"Joaquin (pronounced "Wah KEEN") Rafael Phoenix (born October 28, 1974 in San Juan, Puerto Rico), also known as Leaf Phoenix, is an actor in the USA. He often plays supporting roles as conflicted, insecure characters, and often with a dark side.

His Irish-Spanish father, John Bottom, and Bronx-born Jewish mother, Arlyn Dunitz, joined the Children of God cult and became missionaries, traveling throughout South America and adopting the surname "Phoenix". Joaquin, who was born in Puerto Rico, lived in the island until he was six years old. After leaving the cult and returning to the United States, they encouraged their children (Joaquin was the third of five) to develop their creative instincts. Since his siblings had nature-related names – "River", "Rain" (or "Rainbow"), "Liberty Butterfly", and "Summer" – Joaquin changed his name to "Leaf"."

In the first case you have a person born in the U.S. of Puerto Rican descent. In the second case you have a person born in Puerto Rico of "American" descent. One is Puerto Rican by descent and the other by birth, but in the small introduction I didn't go into that, instead when I started the early childhood paragraph I mentioned those facts. Nicole Kidman is Australian by birth of American descent, there's no denying that.

Tell me what you think, Tony the Marine 03:47, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Hello Mailyn
Hi and thanks for the "Happy Birthday" but..., it isn't my birthday yet (smile), thats what I like about you, you're a person ahead of your time. My birthday will be on March 9, 2006.

O.K., lets take a look at the introduction and opening paragraph of the Yul Brynner article.

Yul Brynner (July 7, 1915 – October 10, 1985) was a Russian Hollywood actor.

Born Yul Borisovich Bryner in Vladivostok, Russia he appeared in many movies and stage productions in the United States. His mother, Marousia Blagоvidova, was the daughter of a Russian doctor of Jewish heritage (who had converted to Christianity) and his father, Boris Bryner, was an engineer and inventor of Swiss and Mongolian ancestry. He was named Yul after his paternal grandfather, Jules Bryner.

I would rewrite it this way:

Yul Brynner (born Yul Borisovich Bryner (July 7,-October 10, 1985) in Vladivostok, Russia), was a renowned actor in the United States.

Brynner was born in Vladivostok, Rissia. His mother, Marousia Blagоvidova, was the daughter of a Russian doctor of Jewish heritage (who had converted to Christianity) and his father, Boris Bryner, was an engineer and inventor of Swiss and Mongolian ancestry. He was named Yul after his paternal grandfather, Jules Bryner.

The introductory short sentence gives an idea of what the article is about and the reader can decide if he/she will continue to read it. The opening paragraph should start to indulge into the person or subjects early beginning.

The Cats.

You don't have delete the "Category: Cuban people" per se. This is what you do. Let's say you go to the article of Cesar Romero. You "click" edit and look for: "Category Cuban people|Romero, Cesar" and just erase it from the page. In your edit tag you just state that the Cat was rebundent because there already exsists a "List of Cubans". That's all. You don't have to be an Administrator to do it and I would really love it if you would think about doing it yourself because your edit count and contributions will soar and if someday I or somebody else nominates you for Admin. that will really count.

I would like you to add your birthdate to the list. You can add the following to your user page:

 List of Wikipedian birthdays July 29, 2024.

Anna Vissi
Hi, don't worry you're never a bother.

O.K. I took a look at the article and its edit history. I don't think the person has any bad intentions towards the article since the user added images. I think that the person does not understand Wiki policy. I suggest the following, go to the "talk page" of the article and the persons "talk page" and explain your position. If the person answers back try to work it out. Remember, never loss your "cool" or get into a heated discussion because this may backfire on you in the future if someday you're nominated for Admin. Normally things turn out O.K., however, if you can't reach an agreement and the person continues to constently revert then let me know. , Your friend Tony the Marine 02:58, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Friendly Chat
Hi Mailyn, just dropping a line to find out how you been doing? I haven't heard from you for awhile. Tony the Marine 04:44, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

Mario Cimarro
You have to realize that he is Mexican because he is a Mexican citizen, not because he "lives in Mexico". I have added "Mexican actor" and clarified that he is because he is a citizen of Mexico. The article specifies as well that he is a Mexican citizen. Bios specify nationality based on citizenship, not place of birth. --Vizcarra 21:13, 8 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Ok... mhm... I've explained to you three times now, that he is Mexican because he is a Mexican citizen. Not because he "lives in Mexico". I am not sure, but I don't think he lives in Mexico anymore. When you become a citizen of that country your nationality changes. It is not a matter of changing your residence. --Vizcarra 21:37, 8 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't think you need to spend much time working on this article to make it "clear" that he is Cuban. I mean, being born in Havana, Cuba takes care of that issue. Maybe inputting more information on his biography would be more beneficial to improve the article. It is still a stub. --Vizcarra 22:25, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Friendly Chat
I receieved your message and I looked over the articles. I'm glad that you and Vizcarra have reached some kind of agreement. I looked at the article again and they seem fine. Look Mailyn, I know that sometimes you might get discouraged, everbody does, but don't let things get to you. I have a lot of faith in you because I believe that you have a lot to offer to Wiki and that this project needs people like you. your friend Tony the Marine 05:26, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Happy Holidays

''' O.K. Mailyn, so you don't believe in Santa, but I still want to wish you and your loved ones all the happiness in the world and the best new year ever. Your friend, Tony the Marine 04:56, 18 December 2005 (UTC)'''

Image copyright problem with Image:Blackspitz.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Blackspitz.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikipedia are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

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Same problem with Image:Kleinspitz.jpg
Same problem applies to Image:Kleinspitz.jpg. Elf | Talk 18:26, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Same problem with Image:Whitespitz.jpg
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Image:BBasu Cineblitz cover.jpg listed for deletion
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Image Tagging Image:Tarkan Dudu pressphoto.jpg
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Image copyright problem with Image:FBalk magazine.jpg
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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Yamla 01:14, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:MVeronica officialwebsite.jpg
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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Abu Badali 15:37, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:JGabriel albumcover.jpg)
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Orphaned fair use image (Image:MDellanos Peoplecover.jpg)
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The image was in the article Myrka Dellanos. Kevin 12:39, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:EPena magazinecover.jpg)
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Image:CEvora LaMadrasta promo.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:CEvora LaMadrasta promo.jpg. I notice the 'image' page specifies that the image is being used under fair use, but its use in Wikipedia articles fails our first fair use criterion in that it illustrates a subject for which a freely licensed image could reasonably be found or created. If you believe this image is not replaceable, please:
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Image:TRojo website.jpg
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 * Also Image:TRojo Ondineposter.jpg. --RobthTalk 03:06, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:Tei firstjourney.jpg)
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Unspecified source for Image:AAlonso_publicitystill.jpg
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Disputed fair use rationale for Image:AArambula albumcover.jpg
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Disputed fair use rationale for Image:IvyQueen albumcover.jpg
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Disputed fair use rationale for Image:KSlater bookcover.jpg
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Orphaned non-free image (Image:AArambula albumcover.jpg)
 Thanks for uploading Image:AArambula albumcover.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

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Image source problem with Image:MFoo-press.gif
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Orphaned non-free media (Image:MFoo-press.gif)
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Image copyright problem with Image:DDMaria albumcover.jpg
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CfD nomination of Category:Dominican Republic beauty queens
I have nominated dominican republic beauty queens for renaming to dominican republic beauty pageant winners. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at the discussion page. Thank you.  Mbinebri  talk ← 16:41, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free image File:ADiab albumcover.jpg
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Speedy deletion nomination of Xiomara Alfaro

A tag has been placed on Xiomara Alfaro requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a band or musician, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, contest the deletion by clicking on the button labelled "Click here to contest this speedy deletion," which appears inside of the speedy deletion tag (if no such tag exists, the page is no longer a speedy delete candidate). Doing so will take you to the talk page where you will find a pre-formatted place for you to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. You can also visit the the page's talk page directly to give your reasons, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the page meets the criterion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the page that would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, you can contact one of these administrators to request that the administrator userfy the page or email a copy to you. Epeefleche (talk) 00:26, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

Category:Spanish bagpipe players
Category:Spanish bagpipe players, which you created, has been nominated for possible deletion, merging, or renaming. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. --BDD (talk) 22:43, 20 May 2014 (UTC)

Chronology of Lists
I saw you contributed the discography and filmography to Vicente Fernandez' article. An extremely large majority of articles and lists (that I have come across) have lists showing older entries at the top and newer entries at the bottom. The lists your contributed are in the opposite order. I don't know if it's been brought to your attention. Since I want to avoid an edit war, I would like your thoughts on reversing the order of the lists on this article (and subsequent discography page) and any other articles you contribute to. The order of entries in lists is addressed in the https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lists_of_works. Ivansevil (talk) 16:39, 14 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mailyn


text:
Bimane

Bimane is a heterocyclic chemical compound. Bimane forms the core of a class of fluorescent dyes known as bimane dyes.

title: Bimane


text: Category:Kazakhstani people by occupation


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sandy's Rocket 2

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was} delete. -R. fiend 06:50, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Sandy's Rocket 2
A description of a "phony episode" of SpongeBob SquarePants. Bunchofgrapes (talk) 19:52, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * If by "phony episode" is meant "non-notable fan-fiction" then Delete. Thue | talk 20:38, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Talk:United States Secretary of the Air Force

Untitled
Peter Geren is now the Acting Secretary

Shouldn't this be "Secretary of the United States Air Force" or just "Secretary of the Air Force"? Paul 03:07, 20 December 2005 (UTC)
 * His title is "Secretary of the Air Force", but since wikipedia is not limited to the United States, I think, that for clarification, "United States" should be part of the article. Perhaps "Secretary of the United States Air Force" might be better. --rogerd 04:47, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

"Served under" categorization
Since the Secertary of the Air Force falls under the Secretary of Defense, the former directly serves the latter. Thus should we list the Secretary of Defense at the time under "Served under" rather than the President? The military revovles around reporting to your direct superior, even though the President is more widely known and of course the Commander in Chief. Minutiaman 22:43, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Why not "Administration(s) served under" instead?RicJac (talk) 20:19, 11 March 2010 (UTC)

Is the USAF and the Department of Air Force the same?
Please see Talk:United States Air Force if you are interested in this matter - whether there should be two articles or one. -- John Broughton (♫♫) 02:29, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

Clarification needed
This sentence: "The Secretary of the Air Force is appointed from civilian life by the President" may be misconstrued as the appointment is for life. I'm pretty sure this is not the case, thus it should be clarified. I don't know enough about the topic to make the changes, though. GregCovey (talk) 19:33, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

Heather Wilson
Wilson will start sometime after May 10, 2017. She steps down effective May 10, 2017 from South Dakota Mines. Please don't change until then. Corkythe hornetfan  (ping me) 21:23, 9 May 2017 (UTC)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Confabulator

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete. -R. fiend 06:48, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Confabulator
Transwiki dicdef to wiktionary.--Isotope23 19:52, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Talk:Michael L. Dominguez

Untitled
Peter Geren is not the Acting Secretary

title: Talk:Michael L. Dominguez


text:
Talk:Norristown High Speed Line

Untitled
On the route map on the right sidebar--but not the table of stations in the article--"County Line" links to the wrong County Line Station. Specifically, it links to the defunct SEPTA Regional Rail station of that name, rather than County Line (SEPTA NHSL station). I don't know how to edit the map, but if someone does, they should fix this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 18.252.6.166 (talk) 09:21, 25 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Fixed Amphipolis (talk) 17:02, 4 October 2011 (UTC)

Requested merge with P&W
Oppose. While there is significant overlap in the two topics, there are enough distinctions to keep the articles separate, most notably the Strafford Branch of the P&W, which would be inappropriate to only include on the NHSL page. To emphasize the historical link, have a see also link to the P&W at the beginning of the History section of the NHSL article. --CComMack 19:53, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The Strafford Branch is the only difference between the original system and the NHSL. Otherwise it was just a continuous process of change, with a name change along the way. --SPUI (talk) 13:00, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Oppose agree with CComMack. --Boothy443 | comhrá 20:02, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Oppose, agree with CComMack. 213.84.146.74 21:45, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

Oppose, agree with CComMack. Spikebrennan 17:30, 25 October 2005 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was page moved, per request. GTBacchus(talk) 03:03, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

SEPTA Route 100 → Norristown High Speed Line — SEPTA used to refer to this line as "Route 100" with "Norristown High Speed Line" as a nickname, but now the SEPTA website and schedules officially refer to it as the "Norristown High Speed Line". – Dream out loud (talk) 00:00, 12 September 2009 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Norristown High Speed Line. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090725060047/http://www.philly.com:80/inquirer/home_region/20090722_SEPTA_seeks_input_on_Regional_Rail_name_changes.html to http://www.philly.com/inquirer/home_region/20090722_SEPTA_seeks_input_on_Regional_Rail_name_changes.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 23:03, 6 January 2016 (UTC)

FRA Railroad Status
While the line resembles a rapid transit line, it is legally an interurban railroad under the jurisdiction of the FRA. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.5.122.1 (talk) 20:45, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Norristown High Speed Line


text: Category:Experimental mathematics

title: Category:Experimental mathematics


text:
Dorsal root of spinal nerve

The dorsal root of spinal nerve (or posterior root of spinal nerve or sensory root) is one of two "roots" which emerge from the spinal cord. It emerges directly from the spinal cord, and travels to the dorsal root ganglion. Nerve fibres with the ventral root then combine to form a spinal nerve. The dorsal root transmits sensory information, forming the afferent sensory root of a spinal nerve.

Structure
The root emerges from the posterior part of the spinal cord and travels to the dorsal root ganglion. The dorsal root ganglia contain the pseudo-unipolar cell bodies of the nerve fibres which travel from the ganglia through the root into the spinal cord.

The lateral division of the dorsal root contains lightly myelinated and unmyelinated fibres of small diameter. These carry pain and temperature sensation. These fibers cross through the anterior white commissure to form the anterolateral system in the lateral funiculus.

The medial division of the dorsal root contains myelinated fibres of larger diameter. These transmit information of discriminative touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception originating from spinal levels C2 through S5. These fibers are pushed in towards the posterior median sulcus to form the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus of the posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway. If the dorsal root of a spinal nerve were severed, it would lead to numbness in certain areas of the body.

title: Dorsal root of spinal nerve