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James Honeyman-Scott

James Honeyman-Scott (4 November 1956 – 16 June 1982) was an English rock guitarist, songwriter and founding member of the band the Pretenders.

With the band, Honeyman-Scott established a reputation, in the words of AllMusic, as "one of the most original and versatile guitarists of the early-'80s new wave movement." In addition to his role as lead guitarist, Honeyman-Scott co-wrote a number of songs for the band, sang back-up vocals and played keyboards on a few tracks. The song "Back on the Chain Gang" was written as a tribute to him by Chrissie Hynde.

Early years and musical influences
Honeyman-Scott, along with Pretenders bandmates Pete Farndon (bass guitar, vocals) and Martin Chambers (drums, vocals, percussion), came from Hereford. Before joining the Pretenders, Honeyman-Scott played in several bands, including a precursor to The Enid with Robert John Godfrey, the Hawks (Kelv Wilson, bass guitar & vocals; Dave Plowman, guitar; Stan Speke, drums), The Hot Band, and The Cheeks.

Fellow members in The Cheeks included Chambers and ex-Mott the Hoople keyboardist Verden Allen, Kelv Wilson (bass guitar, vocals). When Honeyman-Scott joined The Pretenders, he was supporting himself by growing vegetables as well as selling guitars in a music store in Widemarsh Street, Hereford.

Honeyman-Scott acknowledged a number of influences on his guitar-playing (Guitar Player, 1981). Early musical influences included Cream and the Allman Brothers Band. Honeyman-Scott also credited Nick Lowe and Elvis Costello with their "big jangly" Rickenbacker-influenced guitar sound. During his tenure with the Pretenders, Dave Edmunds and Billy Bremner from Rockpile were influential, as well as Nils Lofgren and Chris Spedding.

Pretenders
During the mid-1970s, Honeyman-Scott met future Pretenders bandmate Pete Farndon while the bassist was playing with Cold River Lady in Hereford (Melody Maker, 1979). In 1978, Farndon recruited Honeyman-Scott for a series of Pretenders rehearsals and recording sessions, and he officially joined the group that summer (New Musical Express, 1980). Chrissie Hynde recalled, "As soon as I heard Jimmy Scott, I knew I was getting close. Jimmy and I turned out to have a genuine musical affinity".

Honeyman-Scott's role in shaping the Pretenders' sound primarily involved adding melodic lead lines to existing songs to help tie them together. He recalled in the early days, "We did lots of rehearsing – seven days a week, all hours of the day and night. At first a lot of the licks were very heavy – like 'Up the Neck' started off as a reggae song. I said, 'Let's speed it up,' and put in that little guitar run. The melodic parts of the numbers really all started coming together by me putting in these little runs and licks. And then Chrissie started to like pop music, and that's why she started writing things like 'Kid'".

Hynde and Honeyman-Scott have both acknowledged the influence their contrasting styles had on each other (Guitar Player, 1981; Uncut, 1999). According to Honeyman-Scott, Hynde had a unique style he adjusted to in several ways: "She does quite a bit of rhythm guitar, and I don't know anybody who plays like her. It's real distinct, and I can't count her beat half the time. Instead, I just put a little guitar line over it, like the lick in 'Tattooed Love Boys'" (Guitar Player, 1981). He joked about his other strategy: "I've never told them I can't work out their time at all! They are used to me coming in a bar too late; they think that's the way I play. But it's because I've missed where she comes in! I just bluff it and hope for the best."

Hynde later summarized his influence on her playing by saying that Jimmy Scott was her "musical right-hand" and that "He really was the Pretenders sound. I don't sound like that. When I met him, I was this not-very melodic punky angry guitar player and singer and Jimmy was the melodic one. He brought out all the melody in me." (Uncut, 1999). Chambers later said, "Despite everything the original band accomplished in only two albums, Jimmy and Chrissie were just starting to figure out what they were capable of as a creative team." (Rhino Entertainment Company, 2006).

In May and June 1982, Honeyman-Scott was first in Los Angeles and then in Austin, Texas, for a short visit with his wife Peggy Sue Fender whom he had married in April 1981. While in Austin, he became involved in his first co-production effort for an album by Stephen Doster that was never released. During the sessions with Stephen Doster in Austin, Honeyman-Scott was called back to London for a band meeting on 14 June with Chrissie Hynde and Martin Chambers that resulted in the dismissal of Pete Farndon from the Pretenders, due to Farndon's increasing substance dependence.

Death
Two days after the dismissal of Pete Farndon, Honeyman-Scott was found dead in a girlfriend's apartment of heart failure caused by cocaine intolerance.

He was 25 years old at the time of his death. He was buried in the churchyard at St Peter's Church, Lyde, Herefordshire.

Legacy
Although Honeyman-Scott died young, he influenced other well-known guitarists such as Johnny Marr, who said that "most of all, the jingle-jangle came from James Honeyman-Scott of the Pretenders. He was the last important influence on my playing before I went out on my own. The first time I played 'Kid' with the Pretenders, I couldn't believe it. I've used that solo to warm up with every day for years."

Honeyman-Scott is also credited with discovering Violent Femmes, who opened for the Pretenders at the Oriental Theatre in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, while the band was on tour.

Honeyman-Scott's death profoundly affected the Pretenders' subsequent direction and longevity. Hynde later said, "One of the things that kept the band alive, ironically, was the death of Jimmy Scott. I felt I couldn't let the music die when he died. We'd worked too hard to get it where it was.... I had to finish what we'd started". At the group meeting on 14 June 1982, Honeyman-Scott suggested bringing Robbie McIntosh into the group in some capacity. After Honeyman-Scott's death, McIntosh became the group's lead guitarist for several years.

In 2005, Honeyman-Scott was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame alongside Hynde, Farndon and Chambers as a member of the Pretenders.

Discography

 * 1974 – Fall of Hyperion – Robert John Godfrey (as Jim Scott)
 * 1979 – Place Your Bets – Tommy Morrison
 * 1980 – Pretenders – Pretenders
 * 1981 – Pretenders II – Pretenders

Equipment
Honeyman-Scott used a number of guitars during his professional career, including the following:
 * Gibson ES-335 used for Pretenders debut and songs on the Robert John Godfrey album
 * Gibson Les Paul Jr. (1957 – borrowed from Mick Ralphs of Mott the Hoople)
 * Gibson Les Paul (used to record the debut album)
 * Ice Blue Gibson Firebird (used in early shows 1978)
 * Gibson Firebird (1963)
 * Gibson Firebird (Pink)
 * Travis Bean Wedge (white, as seen in the video for "Stop Your Sobbing")
 * Hamer Custom-built guitars (3, one red known as "Red One", one white with Honeyman in mother of pearl up the neck known as "Honeyman", and one Explorer prototype [currently known as the Hamer Standard])
 * Music Man Stingray
 * Rickenbacker 360/12 used during Extended Play / Pretenders II sessions
 * Zemaitis (1980) Metal Front Guitar (2)
 * Zemaitis (1980) Pearl Front Guitar
 * Zemaitis (1981) Dragon (Wedding Axe)
 * Zemaitis (1981) Scorpion Disc Front Guitar
 * Vintage National Steel Guitar (gift from Jackson Browne, 1982)

Just before joining the Pretenders, Honeyman-Scott used an Ibanez Gibson-Explorer style with an Electro-Harmonix Clone Theory pedal and Marshall amplifier in an attempt to emulate the Rickenbacker 12-string sound on songs by Elvis Costello and Nick Lowe (Guitar Player, 1981). Honeyman-Scott recorded most of his guitar parts for the Pretenders debut album using a Gibson ES-335 or Gibson Les Paul.

Honeyman-Scott owned several acoustic guitars including a Gibson Dove, Martin D-28, and a Guild 12-string. He used Marshall 100-watt amplifiers and BOSS chorus, overdrive, and compressor effects pedals.

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Michael Ronaldson

Michael John Clyde Ronaldson (born 13 February 1954) is a former Australian politician. He was a Senator for the state of Victoria representing the Liberal Party from July 2005 until February 2016, and previously served in the House of Representatives for Ballarat from 1990 to 2001. Ronaldson served as the Minister for Veterans' Affairs, the Minister Assisting the Prime Minister for the Centenary of ANZAC, and the Special Minister of State in the Abbott government from 2013 to 2015.

Background and early career
Ronaldson was born in Ballarat, Victoria and attended Ballarat College before studying law at the University of Melbourne. Admitted to the Bar, Ronaldson practised as a barrister and solicitor in Ballarat before entering politics. In 1981, Ronaldson was elected to the Ballarat City Council, where he served two terms as a councillor.

Political career
A member of the Liberal Party since 1980, Ronaldson was elected to the House of Representatives for the seat of Ballarat in 1990.

His election, along with several other Victorian MHRs first elected in March 1990, was largely a result of a protest vote swing against the Labor (John Cain) state government of the time. At his election, he held the seat with a margin of 1.9%.

His grandfather, Archibald Fisken, was the member for Ballarat from 1934 until 1937. During his time in the House of Representatives, Ronaldson served as the Shadow Minister for Youth, Sport and Recreation, Shadow Parliamentary Secretary to the Leader of the Opposition and Shadow Minister for Schools, Vocational Education and Training.

Following the election of the Howard government at the 1996 federal election, Ronaldson was appointed a Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Transport and Regional Development. After the 1998 election he was appointed Chief Government Whip.

Following his retirement from the House of Representatives at the 2001 election, Ronaldson was a consultant and member of a number of boards including Snowy Hydro Limited. He was co-chair of the Australian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial project in Ballarat where he assisted with fundraising. He served on the Administrative Committee of the Liberal Party of Australia (Victorian Division) from 2001 to 2004. Ronaldson has been a member of the Liberal Party for more than 30 years.

Senator for Victoria
At the 2004 federal election Ronaldson was elected to the Senate representing the state of Victoria, and his term began on 1 July 2005. Following the 2007 election, Ronaldson was appointed Shadow Special Minister of State under Brendan Nelson. He served as Shadow Cabinet Secretary in September 2008 until December 2009.

After the 2010 federal election Ronaldson was appointed Shadow Minister for Veterans' Affairs and Shadow Minister Assisting the Leader of the Opposition on the Centenary of ANZAC.

He assumed the portfolios as Minister for Veterans' Affairs, Minister Assisting the Prime Minister for the Centenary of ANZAC and Special Minister of State on 18 September 2013, but was replaced in the First Turnbull Ministry when Malcolm Turnbull replaced Tony Abbott as prime minister.

He announced on 18 December 2015 his intention to leave parliament before the next election, after moving from the outer ministry in the Abbott government to the backbench in the Turnbull government. He said he would formally resign from parliament once his Liberal replacement was selected. His resignation became effective on 28 February 2016, creating a casual vacancy which was filled on 9 March 2016 when James Paterson was appointed by a joint sitting of the Parliament of Victoria.

After politics
Ronaldson was appointed to the board of Australia Post in May 2016. He was board member of the Oliver Foundation from 2018, Director of the State Sports Centre Trust (Victoria) from 2020 to 2021, and chairman of the board at InnoWell Pty Ltd.

Personal life
Ronaldson has been married to Cate Ronaldson since 1983, and has three children.

He survived a bout with kidney cancer in 1996.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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User talk:David Poole

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Merovingian (t) (c) 03:38, 13 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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 * How to write a great article
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title: User talk:David Poole


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User talk:PeterBokulich

Welcome!
Hi,, Welcome  to Wikipedia! Hello, and welcome to the loony yet quite pleasing ranks of Wikipedians! My name is BorgHunter, one of very many zany Wikipedians around here, and let me be the first to welcome you here. Before getting too in-depth, you may want to read about the simplified ruleset. If you need help on how to title new articles check out the naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and the FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check the Village Pump (for Wikipedia related questions) or the Reference Desk (for general questions)! There's still more help at the Tutorial and Policy Library. Plus, don't forget to visit the Community Portal. And if you have any more questions after that, feel free to post them on my user talk page. And don't worry -- you may well have a bunch of questions after that avalanche of info I just threw at you. Yeah, Wikipedia has a bit of a culture and etiquette of its own, but you get used to it! ---

Additional tips
Here's some extra tips to help you get around in the 'pedia!
 * If you want to play around with your new Wiki skills the Sandbox is for you.
 * You can sign your name using three tildes (~). If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.
 * You may want to add yourself to the new user log.
 * You should also consider (if you have not already) creating a user page for yourself, to tell us a bit about you. Don't worry if it's small at first -- most people tend to grow their user pages over a period of time, much like Wikipedia articles. Don't expect everything to happen all at once!
 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.
 * If you're still entirely confused, or would like to get a better grasp of your wikipedia skills, and you have an IRC client (or don't mind getting one), check out the Bootcamp. It's not what it sounds like, but it is fun and can help you with your editing skills.
 * If you're bored and want to find something to do, try the Random page button in the sidebar, or check out the Open Task message in the Community Portal.

Happy Wiki-ing.
--BorgHunter (talk) 03:38, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:PeterBokulich


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User:Rumperpumper

This is me

title: User:Rumperpumper


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Greenlee Field

Greenlee Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was one of only a few Black-built and Black-owned major league baseball fields in the United States. The field was the dream of Gus Greenlee, owner of the Pittsburgh Crawfords.

History
In 1931, construction began on Bedford Avenue between Chauncey and Duff in Pittsburgh's Hill District. The park opened on April 29, 1932, and reportedly cost $100,000.

The first game was held the next day, April 30, 1932. Future hall of famer Satchel Paige pitched to catcher Josh Gibson as City Council members, the Allegheny County commissioners and Mayor Kline watched from the stands.

Greenlee Field held seven thousand five hundred spectators and was the home field for the Crawfords throughout the Great Depression era. The Homestead Grays also played there for a time.

Located a few blocks up Bedford Avenue from Ammon Field, it was also home to the Pittsburgh Keystones. Contemporary city directories list the ballpark's address as 2501 Bedford Avenue.

During the 1938 season, Greenlee Field management prevented African Americans from obtaining jobs at the ballpark, angering the team's fans. Attendance lagged as a result. After the season ended, the Crawfords disbanded and Greenlee Field was torn down.

The Bedford Dwellings housing project was later developed on the property.

The Pittsburgh Steelers used the field for in-season practices during the 1930s.

title: Greenlee Field


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User:David Poole

David Poole is a Professor of Computer Science at the University of British Columbia, a Fellow of the American Association of Artificial Intelliegnce and is secretary for the Assocaition for Uncertainty in AI. He is the coauthor if an AI textbook, Compuational Intelligence, A Logical Approach, and is working on a second edition. His main interests are in artificial intelligence, automated decision making, reasoning under uncertainty and intelligent agents.

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Radar picket

A radar picket is a radar-equipped station, ship, submarine, aircraft, or vehicle used to increase the radar detection range around a nation or military (including naval) force to protect it from surprise attack, typically air attack, or from criminal activities such as smuggling. By definition a radar picket must be some distance removed from the anticipated targets to be capable of providing early warning. Often several detached radar units would be placed in a ring to encircle a target to provide increased cover in all directions; another approach is to position units to form a barrier line.

Radar picket units may also be equipped to direct friendly aircraft to intercept any possible enemy. In British terminology the radar picket function is called aircraft direction. A ship performing this function is termed a fighter direction ship. Airborne radar pickets are referred to as Airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) or simply airborne early warning (AEW), depending on capabilities.

In a sense radars intended to track ballistic missiles can be thought of as radar pickets (the early US Ballistic Missile Early Warning System - BMEWS was originally termed as such), but because such systems also came to be used for tracking orbital satellites and space debris the current preferred term for them is space domain awareness systems.

UK coastal radar
Chain Home or CH was the codename for the ring of coastal early warning radar stations built by the Royal Air Force (RAF) before and during World War II to detect and track aircraft. Chain Home proved decisive during the Battle of Britain in 1940. The Chain Home network was continually expanded, with over 40 stations operational by the war's end. CH was not able to detect aircraft at low altitude, and from 1939 was normally partnered with the Chain Home Low system which could detect aircraft flying at any altitude over 500 ft. Ports were covered by Chain Home Extra Low, which gave cover down to 50 ft but at shorter ranges of approximately 30 mi. In 1942 the AMES Type 7 radar began to assume the job of tracking of targets once detected, and CH moved entirely to the early warning role.

UK World War II AEW&C
In late 1944 the Fighter Interception Development Squadron carried out operational trials under Operation Vapour of a Vickers Wellington which was equipped with a modified ASV Mk VI radar set and PPI, as one of the first Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) aircraft. It operated at an altitude of 4,000 feet over the North Sea to control de Havilland Mosquito and Bristol Beaufighter night fighters intercepting Heinkel He 111 bombers flying from Dutch airbases and their V-1 flying bombs. The Wellington was fitted with a homing beacon so the night fighters could locate and keep station with it. Despite encouraging results, the operational trials ended after the Luftwaffe stopped air launches by mid January 1945.

Kammhuber Line
The Kammhuber Line was the Allied name given to the German night air defense system established in July 1940 by Colonel Josef Kammhuber. The first version of the Line consisted of a series of 'boxes' of radar stations with overlapping coverage, layered three deep from Denmark to the middle of France, each covering a zone about 32 km long (north-south) and 20 km wide (east-west). Each station consisted of a control center with a FuMG A1 Freya radar with a range of about 100 km and a directed searchlight for the night fighters. Later versions of the Line added two Würzburg-Riese radars, with a range of about 30 km. Unlike the early-warning Freya, Würzburgs were accurate (and complex) tracking radars. One Würzburg would lock onto the target as soon as the Freya picked it up, and the second Würzburg would lock onto the night fighter as soon as it entered the box, thereby allowing controllers to get continual readings of the positions of both planes.

The Line was very effective against early RAF Bomber Command tactics. However, on the night of 30/31 May 1942 in its 1,000 plane raid against Cologne, Bomber Command introduced the use of the bomber stream. The concentration of bombers through a few of the boxes resulted in the defenses being overwhelmed. In response, the Germans converted their ground radar into a radar network, which would follow the path of the British bombers, while a controller directed the night fighters into the stream. Measure and counter measure continued until October 1944, when German defenses were no longer able to respond to Germany's deteriorating situation.

Kriegsmarine
From 1943 Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine operated several radar-equipped night fighter guide ships (Nachtjagdleitschiffe), including the NJL Togo. which was equipped with a Freya radar for early warning and a Würzburg-Riese gun laying radar, plus night fighter communications equipment. From October 1943, Togo cruised the Baltic Sea under the operational control of the Luftwaffe. In March 1944, after the three great Soviet bombing raids on Helsinki, she arrived in the Gulf of Finland to provide night fighter cover for Tallinn and Helsinki.

Japanese World War II radar pickets
The Imperial Japanese Navy briefly modified two Ha-101-class submarine submarines (JAPANESE SUBMARINE Ha-103 and JAPANESE SUBMARINE Ha-105) as dedicated radar pickets in the first half of 1945, but reconverted them to an even more important role as tanker submarines in June of that year.

US Navy
Radar picket ships first came into being in the US Navy during World War II to aid in the Allied advance to Japan. The number of radar pickets was increased significantly after the first major employment of kamikaze aircraft by the Japanese in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944. Fletcher-class destroyer and Allen M. Sumner-class destroyer destroyers with SGA and SC radars were pressed into picket service with few modifications at first – the Allen M. Sumners were the first destroyers to be designed with a combat information center (CIC), which made them ideal for this use. Later, additional radars and fighter direction equipment were fitted, along with more light anti-aircraft (AA) guns for self-defense, usually sacrificing torpedo tubes to make room for the new equipment, particularly the large SP height-finding radars of the era. Deploying some distance from the force to be protected along likely directions of attack, radar pickets were the nearest ships to the Japanese airfields. Thus, they were usually the first vessels seen by incoming waves of kamikazes, and were often heavily attacked.

The radar picket system saw its ultimate development in World War II in the Battle of Okinawa. A ring of 15 radar picket stations was established around Okinawa to cover all possible approaches to the island and the attacking fleet. Initially, a typical picket station had one or two destroyers supported by two landing ships, usually landing craft support (large) (LCS(L)) or landing ship medium (rocket) (LSM(R)), for additional AA firepower. Eventually, the number of destroyers and supporting ships were doubled at the most threatened stations, and combat air patrols were provided as well. In early 1945, 26 new construction Gearing-class destroyers were ordered as radar pickets without torpedo tubes, to allow for extra radar and AA equipment, but only some of these were ready in time to serve off Okinawa. Seven destroyer escorts were also completed as radar pickets.

The radar picket mission was vital, but it was also costly to the ships performing it. Out of 101 destroyers assigned to radar picket stations, 10 were sunk and 32 were damaged by kamikaze attacks. The 88 LCS(L)s assigned to picket stations had two sunk and 11 damaged by kamikazes, while the 11 LSM(R)s had three sunk and two damaged.

The high casualties off Okinawa gave rise to the radar picket submarine, which had the option of diving when under attack. It was planned to employ converted radar picket submarines should the invasion of Japan become necessary. Two submarines (USS Grouper and USS Finback (SS-230)) received rudimentary conversions during the war with the new SR search radars and the SV search radars mounted vertically as height finders, and two others (USS Threadfin (SS-410) and USS Remora) were completed immediately after the war with the same suite, but none were used postwar in this role.

United States and Canada
During the Cold War, the Royal Canadian Air Force and the United States Air Force jointly built and operated radar picket stations to detect Soviet bombers, and the United States Navy expanded the naval radar picket concept. The wartime radar picket destroyers (DDR) were retained, and additional DDRs, destroyer escorts (DER), submarines (SSR, SSRN), and auxiliaries (AGR) were converted and built in the years 1946–1959. The naval concepts were: 1) every carrier group would have radar pickets deployed around it for early warning of the increasing threat of Soviet air-to-surface missile attack, and 2) radar pickets would form barriers off the North American coasts, thus extending the land based lines. While on station, all of these assets – other than those assigned to fleet defense – were operationally controlled by the Aerospace Defense Command and after May 1958 NORAD.

Fixed installations
During the 1950s the governments of Canada, Denmark, and the United States built three lines of fixed radar picket sites across Canada, and with the DEW Line into Alaska and Greenland. These were the Pinetree Line (1951), the Mid-Canada Line (1956), and the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line (1957). The DEW Line would be equipped with AN/FPS-19, and until 1965 AN/FPS-23 radars. There was also a line of radar sites in Alaska extending westward from the end of the DEW Line to the end of the Aleutian Islands, and a line eastward from the Greenland end of the DEW Line to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland.

There were also three oil-rig-type offshore radar stations known as "Texas Towers" off the New England coast with AN/FPS-3 (later AN/FPS-20) and AN/FPS-6 radars.

While not designed as pickets per se, coastal and interior fixed radars such as the interim Lashup Radar Network (1949), the Permanent System (1951), and Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) (1958), would function as pickets for areas removed from suspected airborne attackers.

Command cruiser Northampton
When the first supercarrier USS United States (CVA-58) was being designed in 1946, it was thought she would not be able to have an island or masts for radar or other antennas. Therefore, it was decided that a command ship was needed to escort the carrier and act not only in part as a radar picket (although from the center of the task force rather than the periphery as a true picket would), but also as the radar director of aircraft approach and landing on the carrier. The unfinished heavy cruiser USS Northampton (CLC-1) was converted under project SCB 13 into a command cruiser for this and other fleet command roles, with AN/SPS-2 (one of only two ships with this huge installation), AN/SPS-3, and AN/SPS-8 radars. The subsequent invention of the angled flight deck made it possible to install islands and radar on supercarriers, and so this role was eliminated from the Northampton conversion.

Converted and purpose-built submarines
The U.S. Navy continued to develop radar picket submarines (SSRs) after World War II under Project Migraine, and by 1953, a total of 10 new SSR conversions had been performed with SR-2 and SV-2 radars:
 * Migraine I: in 1946 submarine radar picket conversions were performed on USS Spinax (SS-489) and Requin; these were more extensive than the rudimentary conversions made a year earlier for the planned invasion of Japan. The radar equipment of these diesel submarines took the place of torpedoes in the stern torpedo rooms. The radar antennas were mounted directly on the hull above the equipment, where they suffered spray damage.
 * Migraine II (aka project SCB 12) involved raising the antennas off the hull onto masts, moving the equipment to the aft battery room (higher capacity GUPPY batteries were installed forward to compensate), and adding topside fathometers to give a limited under-ice capability. The aft torpedo tubes were removed and the compartment used for berthing and storage. USS Burrfish and Tigrone were converted, and the two Migraine I submarines were also upgraded to this standard.

 * Migraine III (aka SCB 12A) had the most extensive conversion with an added 27.5 ft compartment for an expanded CIC. The search antenna was moved to an enlarged sail located over the new compartment. Converted were Pompon, Rasher, Raton, Ray, Redfin, and Rock.

In 1956 two large, purpose-built diesel SSRs, the Sailfish-class submarine, were commissioned. These were designed under project SCB 84 for a high surface speed with the intent of scouting in advance of carrier groups, and were equipped with large BPS-2 and BPS-3 radars. However, the SSRs did not fare well in this mission. Their maximum surfaced speed of 21 knots was too slow to effectively operate with a carrier group, although it was sufficient for amphibious group operations.

It was thought that nuclear power would solve this problem. The largest, most capable, and most expensive radar picket submarine was the nuclear-powered USS Triton (SSRN-586), designed under project SCB 132 and commissioned in 1959 with the AN/SPS-26 radar (an electronically scanned radar fully adapted for submarine use and intended for Triton, BPS-10, was never completed). The longest submarine built by the United States until the Ohio-class submarine Trident missile submarines of the 1980s, Triton's two reactors - the only US submarine so powered - allowed her to exceed 30 knots on the surface.

List of radar picket submarines

Destroyer escort conversions
The 26 wartime Gearing-class DDRs were supplemented by nine additional conversions during the early 1950s. The seven wartime DERs were not considered worth modernizing and were relegated to secondary roles, so 36 additional DER conversions were performed in 1951 through 1958:

 * Six diesel-powered Edsall-class destroyer escort DEs were converted into DERs in 1951 and 1952 under project SCB 46: converted were Fessenden, Harveson, Joyce, Kirkpatrick, Otterstetter, and Strickland.
 * Two DEs which were unfinished at the end of World War II, USS Vandivier and Wagner, were completed as DERs in 1954 under SCB 46A. As John C. Butler-class destroyer escort DEs they had steam powerplants and so lacked the endurance of their diesel half sisters. This was an experiment intended to validate the conversion should the design be required for any future mobilization. These two ships would be the first DERs to be retired, in 1960.
 * Another 28 Edsall-class DEs would be converted into DERs from 1954 through 1957 under SCB 46B.

The DERs were used in 1955–1965 to form two Barrier Forces known as BarLant and BarPac, which extended the DEW Line from Argentia, Newfoundland to the Azores in the Atlantic, and from Adak, Alaska to Midway in the Pacific.

Converted merchant ships

From 1955 to 1965 the United States Navy employed Guardian class radar picket ships (converted under project SCB 126 from the former boxed aircraft transport version of the Liberty ship) to create barrier lines off the East and West Coasts. They were equipped with AN/SPS-8 (later AN/SPS-30 on some ships), AN/SPS-12, and AN/SPS-17 radars (the last was specially designed for these ships). Eight were homeported at Treasure Island, California and eight at Davisville, Rhode Island. The hull classification symbol of the ships was initially YAGR, changed to AGR in 1958 (this change moved the ships from the naval yard and district craft category to the naval auxiliary category). The standard crew consisted of 13 officers, 8 chief petty officers, and 125 enlisted.

Picket stations were about 400 – off each coast and provided an overlapping radar or electronic barrier against approaching aircraft. Typical station duty was about 30–45 days out and 15 days in port. While on station, each ship stayed within a specific radius of its assigned picket station, reporting and tracking all aircraft contacts. Each ship carried qualified air controllers to direct intercept aircraft sent out to engage contacts. While on station additional duties such as search and rescue, weather reporting, fishery studies, and other miscellaneous duties were assigned.

Replacement by aircraft
The U.S. Navy began to develop airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft in the last years of World War II under Project Cadillac. The first U.S. AEW aircraft were the 1945 carrier based Grumman TBM-3W Avenger under Project Cadillac I, followed by the 1948 Douglas AD-3W, −4W, and −5W Skyraider and the 1950 Grumman AF-2W Guardian (not to be confused with the AGR ships of the same name); though the Skyraiders and Guardians were built in large numbers, none were very successful as they were too small to function as a full CIC, and all were used more often in the anti-submarine warfare (ASW) role. All of these aircraft used the AN/APS-20 radar. While the 1957 carrier-compatible Sikorsky HR2S-1W helicopter with the AN/APS-20E or AN/APS-32 radar (sources differ) had room for a full CIC it also failed, largely due to excessive vibration, slow speed, and cost.

Another 1945 development was the land based Boeing PB-1W, a naval B-17 variant modified under Project Cadillac II to carry the AN/APS-20 radar and a full CIC; this aircraft entered service too late for combat but was used for further development of the AEW concept.

Far more successful was the land based Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, which was introduced in 1954 in both Air Force and Navy service as pickets and in other roles with the AN/APS-20 and AN/APS-45 radars, respectively under and atop the aircraft. As pickets the Air Force EC-121s provided radar coverage by flying "Contiguous Barrier" orbits 300 miles offshore, between the coasts and the AGR Guardian picket lines. The Navy version (designated PO-1W, then WV-1, −2, and −3 before 1962) flew over the more distant BarLant and BarPac DER lines. They would later be re-equipped with AN/APS-95 and AN/APS-103 radars. Their main deficiency was lack of endurance, which made them unsuitable for naval fleet coverage.

Perhaps the most successful airborne radar pickets were the nine Goodyear ZPG-2W and ZPG-3W blimps: the −2W blimps were equipped with the AN/APS-20 and AN/APS-69 radars in an arrangement similar to the EC-121s, while the −3W blimps (the largest ever built) had the large AN/APS-70 radar placed inside their gas envelopes. Starting in 1955 they successfully combined airborne early warning radar surveillance and long endurance in all possible roles, but they were fragile, too slow to quickly reach stations far from base, and expensive (their overhead costs also increased after the ASW blimps were retired, having become technically obsolete due to the introduction of higher performance nuclear submarines). They were retired in 1962.

The introduction of the Grumman WF-2 Tracer (later the E-1 Tracer) carrier-based airborne early warning aircraft in 1958 with the AN/APS-82 radar followed by the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye with the AN/APS-120 radar in 1964 doomed the surface and submarine radar pickets as carrier escorts (later E-2 models would see the APS-120 replaced in succession with the APS-125, −139, −145, and AN/APY-9 radar). Airborne radar had now evolved to the point where it could warn of an incoming attack more efficiently than a surface ship. In 1961 the DDRs and SSRs were withdrawn. All but six DDRs received ASW conversions under the FRAM I and FRAM II programs and were redesignated as DDs; the remaining six were somewhat modernized under FRAM II and retained in the DDR role. The SSRs were converted to other roles (the Sailfish class was converted to an attack submarine design under project SCB 242), or scrapped. Triton was left without a mission. She was too large to function as an attack submarine; some alternatives were considered, including serving as an underwater national command post, but she eventually became the first US nuclear submarine to be decommissioned, in 1969.

Replacement by OTH radar
By 1965, the development of over-the-horizon radar (OTH) made the barrier forces obsolete, and the DERs and the AGR Guardians were retired. The EC-121s would be allocated to other roles. OTH radar also played a small part in the retirement of the obsolete Pinetree Line, Mid-Canada Line, and the AN/FPS-23 radars of the DEW Line.

PIRAZ during Vietnam
The final use of the radar picket concept by the US Navy was in the Vietnam War. The Gulf of Tonkin Positive Identification Radar Advisory Zone (PIRAZ) guided missile cruisers (and destroyer leaders aka frigates which would later be redesignated as cruisers in 1975) provided significant air control and air defense in that war.

British coastal radar
In the 1950s the Chain Home sites were either retired or converted into the ROTOR network, and then into the Linesman/Mediator network starting in the mid-1960s.

British aircraft direction ships
The British Royal Navy constructed or converted two types of dedicated aircraft direction ships in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Four World War II Battle-class destroyers and four Weapon-class destroyers were converted 1959–1962 as Fast Air Detection Escorts to accompany fast carrier groups. Also, four Type 61 Salisbury-class frigates were commissioned 1957–1960 to accompany slow carrier or amphibious groups. However, the aircraft direction function was short-lived. With the mid-1960s decision to phase out the fast carriers, the Battle-class ships were placed in reserve 1966–1968 and were scrapped or converted to non-combat roles by 1974. The Salisbury class were relegated to non-combat roles or sold by the end of 1978.

British AEW
The Royal Navy began to operate the AEW version of the Douglas Skyraider in 1951. A more capable aircraft was desired, and the Fairey Gannet AEW.3 was the winner of a competition to replace the Skyraiders. Using the same AN/APS-20 radar as the Skyraiders, the Gannets entered service in 1960 and remained until the last full deck carrier was retired in 1978.

In anticipation of the retirement of the Gannets, in 1972 the RAF converted 12 Avro Shackleton maritime patrol aircraft to an AEW configuration by adding the AN/APS-20 radar to the underside of the aircraft; the last of these were retired in 1991.

Soviet radar picket ships
Twenty T43-class minesweepers were converted to Project 254 KVN-50-class radar picket ships between 1955 and 1959. Modifications involved replacing the aft gun turret with a Pegmantit 8 (NATO reporting name: "Knife Rest-A") or MP-500 radar (NATO: "Big Net") radar. Most were retired during the 1970s or relegated to training duties, with the last withdrawn in 1987.

Fourteen further T43-class minesweepers were converted to Project 258 KVN-6-class radar picket ships between 1973 and 1977 with Kaktus radars. Some were later modified to Project 258M ships with Rubka (NATO: "Strut Curve") radars.

Three T58-class minesweepers were converted to radar picket ships between 1975 and 1977 by replacing the aft 57 mm gun turret with a Pegmantit 10 (NATO: "Knife Rest-B") radar.

Three other projects were cancelled before conversions were made.
 * Project 959 – further conversions the T58-class minesweeper with upgraded radar
 * Project 962 – a fourth cruiser type following on from the Kresta I-class cruiser, Kresta II-class cruiser and Kara-class cruiser designs
 * Project 996 - conversion of a Sovremennyy-class destroyer

Soviet radar picket submarines
Four Project 640 submarines were converted as radar picket boats between 1959 and 1963 by fitting Project 613 submarines with "Boat Sail" radar in an enlarged conning tower. These were known to NATO as "Whiskey Canvas Bag" submarines from the canvas coverings often put over the radar when NATO aircraft approached. While the US radar picket submarines were intended for fleet defense, the Project 640 boats were intended to provide warning of air attacks on Soviet coastal territory.

Soviet AEW
In 1958 the Soviet Union began development of an aircraft intended to act as an airborne early warning (AEW) radar picket in the far north along the Arctic coast, so that the expense of land stations could be avoided. The result, the Tupolev Tu-126 (NATO: "Moss"), entered service in 1965, but the Liana (NATO: "Flat Jack") radar was ineffective in tracking low flying targets over land, and suffered from reflections from the aircraft's propellers.

The Beriev A-50 "Mainstay" replaced the Tu-126. It first flew in 1978.

In 1979 the development of the Yakovlev Yak-44 was begun; this aircraft would have performed the AEW role aboard later Soviet aircraft carriers. It was similar in layout to the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and it would have carried a NPO Vega pulse-doppler radar in a rotodome. The project was cancelled in 1993.

Post-1980 fixed installations
In North America SAGE was replaced with the Joint Surveillance System in 1980-1983, and the DEW line was replaced with the North Warning System in 1988-1993. .

In Britain the Linesman/Mediator network would be replaced with the Improved United Kingdom Air Defence Ground Environment in the 1990s.

Airborne early warning and control systems

Airborne early warning and control systems (AEW&C, aka AWACS in the U.S.) were developed to replace the AEW radar pickets of the 1960s. These aircraft have capabilities far beyond their predecessors. They can perform complex command and control of a battlespace in air engagements by directing fighter and attack aircraft strikes. AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets and frequently perform BMC2 (battle management command and control) functions. They are still capable of performing radar picket duties, though they are seldom used in this role.

China is developing the Xi'an KJ-600 carrier borne AEW&C; first flight was on 29 August 2020.

Tethered aerostats
Beginning in 1980 the United States installed a barrier line of tethered aerostats to detect low flying aircraft over Cuba and the U.S.-Mexican border, known as the Tethered Aerostat Radar System.

Israel developed a similar system, the EL/M-2083, which it sold to India and Singapore.

A similar system, JLENS, was developed starting in 1998 by the United States for tracking cruise missiles and other threats, but was cancelled in 2017.

Long endurance unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
Proposals have been made to install similar radars on long-endurance UAVs, although there are conflicts between radar power requirements and UAV endurance.

title: Radar picket


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Precursors of film

Precursors of film are concepts and devices that have much in common with the later art and techniques of cinema.

Precursors of film are often referred to as precinema, or 'pre-cinema'. Terms like these are disliked by several historians, partly because they seem to devalue the individual qualities of these media by presenting them as a small step in the development of a later invention. For instance: the flip book, zoetrope and phenakistiscope are very tactile devices that allow study and play by manipulating the motion by hand, while the projected image in cinema is intangible. Such devices as the zoetrope were not replaced by cinema: they were still used after the breakthrough of film. Furthermore, many early media examples are also part of a tradition that not only shaped cinema, but also home video, video games, computer-generated imagery, virtual reality and much more. The study of early media devices is also part of a wider and less teleological approach called media archaeology.

Many of the devices that can be interpreted as precursors of film are also referred to as "philosophical toys", or "optical toys". Unlike film and cinema, viewing these moving images always involves brevity and repetition.

Theatre
In the early days of film the word "photoplay" was quite commonly used for motion pictures. This illustrates how a movie can be thought of as a photographed play. Much of the production for a live-action movie is similar to that of a theatre play, with very similar contributions by actors, a theatre director/film director, producers, a set designer, lighting designer, costume designer, composer, etc. Much terminology later used in film theory and film criticism was already applied for theatre, such as mise en scene. Some forms of theatre, such as cantastoria, also utilize sequentially ordered pictures in a way that anticipates cinema.

Early motion picture shows were often screened in existing theatre venues and accompanied by live narration, music, and sound effects, thus combining the new medium with theatrical traditions.

Many early films by Edison's company, Max Skladanowsky and other pioneers, consisted of popular vaudeville acts performed in front of a camera instead of an audience. The famous movie pioneer Georges Méliès was a theatre owner and illusionist who treated film as a means to create spectacles that were even more impressive than stage shows, with lavish stage designs and special effects. The popular féerie theatre shows had often featured stage machinery for special effects (such as smoke, moving props, changeable set pieces) and magic tricks, but film allowed new tricks that were impossible to perform live on stage.

A few years after the introduction of cinema, movies started to deviate more and more from live performances when filmmakers became creative with the unique possibilities that the medium provided: editing, close-ups, camera movements and special effects.

The theatre form of puppetry has often been performed in front of cameras to create (children's) television shows, and is featured in some theatrical movies. It also spawned stop motion films, with puppets that seem to move all by themselves.

Shadow play

The earliest projection of images was most likely done in primitive shadowgraphy dating back to prehistory. It evolved into more refined forms of shadow puppetry, mostly with flat jointed cut-out figures which are held between a source of light and a translucent screen. The shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. Plato seemed to hint at shadow puppetry in his Allegory of the Cave (circa 380 BCE) but no other signs of shadow play in ancient Greece are known and Plato's idea was clearly a hypothetical allegory. Shadow puppetry was possibly developed in India around 200 BCE, but also has a long history in Indonesia (records relating to Wayang since 840 CE), Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, China (records since around 1000 CE) and Nepal. It later spread to the Ottoman empire and seems not to have reached Europe before the 17th century. It became very popular in France at the end of the 18th century. Around the time cinema was developed, several theaters in Montmartre showed elaborate "Ombres Chinoises" shows that were very successful. The famous Le Chat noir produced 45 different shows between 1885 and 1896.

Camera obscura
Projection of images can occur naturally when rays of light pass through a small hole and produce an inverted image on a surface in a dark area behind the hole. This phenomenon is known as camera obscura or pinhole image. Its oldest known recorded description is found in Chinese Mohist writings dated to circa 400 BCE. However, people have probably witnessed and made use of occurrences of the phenomenon since prehistoric times. It has been suggested that distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave paintings were possibly based on distortions seen in pinhole images formed through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in temple worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura or proto magic lantern projections. In Arab and European science the camera obscura was used in darkened rooms since circa 1000 CE to study light and especially sun eclipses.

Very occasionally the camera obscura was thought of as an instrument for live projections of performances to entertain an audience inside a darkened room. Purportedly Arnaldus de Villa Nova did so at the end of the 13th century.

The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a darkened room to project clearer images has been dated back to 1550.

Giambattista della Porta's very popular and influential Magia Naturalis helped popularize the camera obscura. In the 1558 first edition of the book series, Della Porta advised to use a convex mirror to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. The 1589 second edition added a "lenticular crystal" or biconvex lens to the setup. In this edition, Della Porta also described a way to scare people at night by projecting a scary image lit by torches in one room onto a white sheet or other surface in the dark nascent room. In a more elaborate daytime use of the camera obscura Della Porta proposed to project hunting scenes, banquets, battles, plays, or anything desired on white sheets. Trees, forests, rivers, mountains "that are really so, or made by Art, of Wood, or some other matter" could be arranged on a plain in the sunshine on the other side of the camera obscura wall. Little children and animals (for instance handmade deer, wild boars, rhinos, elephants, and lions) could perform in this set. "Then, by degrees, they must appear, as coming out of their dens, upon the Plain: The Hunter he must come with his hunting Pole, Nets, Arrows, and other necessaries, that may represent hunting: Let there be Horns, Cornets, Trumpets sounded: those that are in the Chamber shall see Trees, Animals, Hunters Faces, and all the rest so plainly, that they cannot tell whether they be true or delusions: Swords drawn will glister in at the hole, that they will make people almost afraid." Della Porta claimed to have shown such spectacles often to his friends. They admired it very much and could hardly be convinced by Della Porta's explanations that what they had seen was really an optical trick. Although there seem to be few records of the camera obscura being used for such elaborate spectacles, the scarier kind of "magic" was probably more or less commonplace by the start of the seventeenth century, mainly with actors portraying the devil, demons, witches or ghosts.

In 1572, the oldest known suggestion for the camera to become mobile was described as a lightweight wooden hut to be carried around on two wooden poles. More practical solutions followed in the 17th century in the shape of tents and eventually as portable wooden boxes with a viewing pane and a mirror to get an upright image. The camera obscura became increasingly popular as a drawing and painting aid for artists.

The box type camera obscura was eventually turned into the photographic camera by capturing the projected image with plates or sheets that were treated with light-sensitive chemicals.

Magic lantern and other image projectors
The "trotting horse lamp" [走馬燈] has been known in China since before 1000 CE. It is a lantern which on the inside has cut-out silhouettes attached to a shaft with a paper vane impeller on top, rotated by heated air rising from a lamp. The silhouettes are projected on the thin paper sides of the lantern and appear to chase each other. Some versions showed more motion with the heads, feet or hands of figures connected with fine iron wire to an extra inner layer and triggered by a transversely connected iron wire. The lamp would typically show images of horses and horse-riders.

Several scholars and inventors, like Giovanni Fontana (circa 1420), Leonardo da Vinci (circa 1515) and Cornelis Drebbel (1608) possibly had early image projectors before the invention of the Magic Lantern. Athanasius Kircher's 1645 first edition of Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae included a description of his forerunner to the magic lantern: the "Steganographic Mirror". This was a primitive projection system with a focusing lens and text or pictures painted on a concave mirror reflecting sunlight, mostly intended for long distance communication. Kircher also suggested projecting shadow puppets and living flies from the surface of the mirror. The book was widely distributed and may have offered some inspiration for Christiaan Huygens' invention of the magic lantern in 1659.

Moving images were possibly projected with the magic lantern since its invention; Christiaan Huygens' 1659 sketches for slides show a skeleton taking his skull off his neck and placing it back. Techniques to add motion to the painted glass slides were described since circa 1700. These usually involved parts (for instance limbs) painted on one or more extra pieces of glass moved by hand or small mechanisms across a stationary slide which showed the rest of the picture.

In 1770 Edmé-Gilles Guyot detailed how to project a magic lantern image on smoke to create a transparent, shimmering image of a hovering ghost. This technique was used in the phantasmagoria shows that became very popular in several parts of Europe between 1790 and the 1830s. Other techniques were developed to produce convincing ghost experiences. The lantern was handheld to move the projection across the screen (which was usually an almost invisible transparent screen behind which the lanternist operated hidden in the dark). A ghost could seem to approach the audience or grow larger by moving the lantern towards the screen, sometimes with the lantern on a trolley on rails, just like a tracking shot in films. Multiple lanterns not only could make ghosts move independently, but were also occasionally used for superimposition in the composition of complicated scenes. By experimenting with superimposition dissolving views were invented and became a separate popular magic lantern show, especially in England in the 1830s and 1840s. Dissolving views typically showed a landscape changing from a winter version to a spring or summer variation by slowly diminishing the light from one version while introducing the aligned projection of the other slide. Another use of dissolving views, projected with a triple lantern, showed a sleeping figure while images of dreams were superimposed above its head and dissolved from one scene to another. This is similar to the use of a dissolve in film.

Between the 1840s and 1870s several abstract magic lantern effects were developed. This included the chromatrope which projected dazzling colorful geometrical patterns by rotating two painted glass discs in opposite directions.

Occasionally small jointed shadow puppets had been used in phantasmagoria shows. Magic lantern slides with jointed figures set in motion by levers, thin rods, or cams and worm wheels were also produced commercially and patented in 1891. A popular version of these "Fantoccini slides" had a somersaulting monkey with arms attached to mechanism that made it tumble with dangling feet. Named after the Italian word for animated puppets, like marionettes or jumping jacks.

Raree show
Peep shows or "raree shows" were viewed through a hole in a box (sometimes fitted with a lens or magnifying glass) and were very popular in Europe from the 17th to 19th century. The view inside could be an exhibition of any kind of pictures, objects, puppets or other curiosities. It was quite common that a showman would provide dramatic narration, while occasionally pulling a string or operate another type of simple mechanism to change backgrounds, move figures around, or introduce new elements. Leon Battista Alberti is thought to have created the earliest impressive peep show boxes around 1437. His painted pictures may have been lit from behind with special effects as seen in later examples, for instance to change the appearance of a scene from day to night. Around 1800 more elaborate variations with lighting effects were exhibited in small theatres.

The raree shows can be regarded as a precursor of toy theaters, dioramas, Chinese fireworks, dissolving views, the stereoscope and the kinetoscope.

Stroboscopic principle
Several possible examples of very early sequential images can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, on a 5,200-year old pottery bowl found in Iran, in an Egyptian mural approximately 4000 years old (found in the tomb of Khnumhotep at the Beni Hassan cemetery) and several other examples. However, it is very unlikely that these could be viewed in motion before the invention of stroboscopic animation in the 1830s.

In 1825, the thaumatrope used a stroboscopic effect that made the brain combine incomplete pictures on either side of a twirling cardboard disc into one logical image. The effect was incorrectly attributed to a so-called "persistence of vision", or "retinal persistence". The technology of the thaumatrope can also be used to display very simple and repetitive animation when each side of the card depicts one of two phases of an action. However, this option was only recognized much later.

Joseph Plateau experimented with spinning discs since the mid-1820s, mainly in attempts to measure the duration of impressions of different colours. Along the way, in 1828, he had discovered a type of abstract animation by counter-rotating lines or slits in discs (in 1829 he further developed aspects of this principle into a first prototype of what would become the anorthoscope).

In 1830, Michael Faraday published a paper about several illusions that occur in rotating cogwheels and toothed discs, coincidentally repeating some of Plateau's findings. A note added to the paper discussed a disc that in addition to the teeth in the circumference had a different amount of holes regularly spaced across a circular zone closer to the center of the disc, representing the cogs of a smaller wheel. When looking into a mirror through the spaces in between the teeth, the holes appeared to be moving across the disc (or vice versa if looking through the holes).

By November or December 1832, Plateau had experimentally managed to further develop Faraday's rotating cogs illusion into a new optical illusion that could represent any conceivable action depicted on the sections of a spinning disc (viewed in a mirror through slits in the disc). In January 1833, Plateau published a paper that introduced the principle of stroboscopic animation with a device that became known as the phenakistiscope.

Several months after the publication of Plateau's paper, Simon Stampfer patented the very similar stroboscopische Scheiben ("stroboscopic discs") in Austria. Stampfer mentioned several possible variations, including a cylinder (similar to the later zoetrope) as well as a long, looped strip of paper or canvas stretched around two parallel rollers (somewhat similar to film) and a theater-like frame (much like the later praxinoscope theatre).

The stroboscopic disc was followed by other animation toys, such as the zoetrope (1866), the flip book (1868) and the praxinoscope (1877), before its basic principle became the foundation for the apparent motion in film technology.

Early projection of stroboscopic animation (since 1843)
In a private letter to Faraday from early 1833, Plateau suggested that the principle of his illusion could be further developed for use in phantasmagoria shows. Not much later, Plateau published his invention in England, initially as the Phantasmascope and later as the Fantascope, clearly referring to phantasmagoria. Stampfer also suggested using the stroboscopic principle with "transparencies". It seemed a simple and logical next step, but in practice it turned out to be relatively complicated. Apart from mica and glass there were hardly any transparent materials that could be used and it took years before mechanisms were developed that enabled fluent animation to be projected.

In 1843, T.W. Naylor (an experimenter from Newcastle about whom little else is known) published details and an illustration of his plan for a "Phantasmagoria for the projection of moving figures" (by then, the word "phantasmagoria" was often used for a type of magic lanterns). It would use an Argand lamp or Drummond light to project sequential images from a rotating glass disk. A shutter disk would be mounted on the same axis as the picture disk to have its holes coincide with pictures when turned with a hand-crank. Naylor suggested tracing the pictures from readily available printed phenakisticopes, colouring them with translucent colours mixed with oil-varnish and covering the remaining portion of the disk with thick black paint. Nothing else has been found regarding Naylor's machine, so it remains uncertain whether it was ever even constructed.

On 15 January 1847, Austrian magician Ludwig Döbler debuted his Phantaskop at the Josephstadt Theatre in Vienna. On the front, the patented apparatus had 12 lenses with different pictures. Two lenses inside the machine were cranked around to direct limelight through each consecutive image. The eight scenes, mostly depicting circus or vaudeville acts, were designed by Mr. Geyling. He took the show to several other European cities until the spring of 1848. The multi-part optical entertainment could also feature dissolving views enhanced with an additional third image, chromatropes, or raree shows. The spectacle was mostly well-received, but the flickering quality of the stroboscopic images was occasionally criticized.

Franz von Uchatius developed two different phenakisticope-based projectors. An 1851 oil lamp version only managed to project weak six inch images. A later limelight variation was demonstrated to the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1853, with plans to construct a similar apparatus with 100 lenses for 100 images to create a circa 30-second "moving tableau". Von Uchatius showed little interest in commercial shows and seems to have only performed private screenings at his home.

From around 1853 until the 1890s in Paris, J. Duboscq marketed different models of a projection phénakisticope. It had a glass disc with a diameter of 34 centimeters for the pictures, and a separate disc with four lenses. The discs rotated at different speeds.

Thomas Ross developed a small transparent phénakisticope system, called Wheel of life, which fitted inside a standard magic lantern slide. A first version, patented in 1869, had a glass disc with eight phases of a movement and a counter-rotating glass shutter disc with eight apertures. The discs depicted Ice Skaters, Fishes, Giant's Ladder, Bottle Imp and other subjects. An improved version had 13 images and a single slot shutter disc, and received British Patent 2685 on 10 October 1871.

Early (3D) stop motion/pixilation concepts and devices (since 1849)
After the introduction of photography in 1839, it took circa 10 years before this new technique was occasionally combined with phénakisticopes and proto-zoetropes. Stereoscopic photography, which became very popular in the early 1850s, led to the belief that photography could be further developed into a perfect illusion of reality. Stereoscopic recordings with motion and colour were the logical next steps. Before the necessary photographic emulsions and mechanics were fast enough to capture a photographic sequence in real-time, early attempts recorded simulated motion sequences by photographing different poses or positions separately. This technique would eventually become known as stop motion (for lifeless objects) or pixilation (for living actors).

In 1849, Joseph Plateau published a note about improvements for the Fantascope. He combined the stroboscopic disc with aspects of his Anorthoscope to create a 27 cm translucent disc (oiled paper on a cardboard frame) that was lit from behind and had a stroboscopic 4-slit black metal shutter disc in front. The pictures, 16 in Plateau's example, were designed with a 4 to 5 anamorphic width to compensate the deformation of the resulting image. The animation could be seen with both eyes by several people at the same time, with greatly improved image quality. A screen behind the translucent disc blocked the light, except for a cutout trapezoid area that corresponded with the space where the figures were visible at the proper position. A gear system for the rotation ensured that the image would appear in the right area. Plateau used the translucency of the disc to create light effects in the designs. One extant disc, made in collaboration with painter Jean Baptiste Madou, shows a demon's head blowing on a glowing coal. Plateau stated that the illusion could be advanced even further with an idea communicated to him by Charles Wheatstone: a combination of Fantascope and stereoscope. Plateau believed two copies of his improved Fantascope could be adapted to deliver stereoscopic images to Wheatstone's reflecting stereoscope. He thought the construction of a sequential set of stereoscopic image pairs would be more difficult. Wheatstone had suggested using photographs on paper of a solid object, for instance a statuette. Plateau concluded that for this purpose 16 plaster models could be made with 16 regular modifications. He believed such a project would take much time and careful effort, but would be well wort it because of the expected marvelous results. Unfortunately, the plan was never executed, possibly because Plateau became almost completely blind by this time. Eventually the idea reached instrumentmaker Jules Duboscq, who since 1850 very successfully marketed a stereoscope with lenses in collaboration with David Brewster (he also sold Wheatstone's version with mirrors, became the French publisher for Plateau's Fantascope and offered a projector on wheels for phantasmagoria, among many other optical instruments).

Duboscq patented his version of the stéréoscope on 16 February 1852, with mention of a projection variation. On 12 November 1852 he applied for an addition certificate to include his "Stéréoscope-fantascope, ou Bïoscope". Basically a combination of Plateau's standard fantascope and the stereoscope, it used two small mirrors in different angles next to each other that reflected stereoscopic image pairs (printed above each other on the stroboscopic disc) into the stereoscope viewer. Of three planned variations only one was actually produced, but it wasn't very successful commercially. Only one extant disc is known, from the Joseph Plateau estate kept at the Ghent University. It has stereoscopic sets of a sequence of photographic images of a machine in action. No original viewing device has resurfaced, but parts of it are known from an illustration in an 1853 advertisement.

In 1851, Antoine Claudet wrote to French magazine La Lumière in response to a patent given to the Mayer brothers for their "multiplicateur", which photographed multiple (identical) images onto a single plate (a technique that created the carte de visite format that was very popular in the 1860s). Claudet claimed to have invented something very similar in 1844, with results exhibited at the French Industrial Exposition of 1844, including a self portrait that showed 12 sides of his face. Before the end of 1851, Claudet claimed to have created a stereoscope that showed people in motion. The stereo viewer could show a motion of two phases repetitively. During the next two years, Claudet worked on a camera that would record stereoscopic pairs for four different poses (patented in 1853). Claudet found that the stereoscopic effect didn't work properly in this device, but believed the illusion of motion was successful.

Instrument maker Francis Herbert Wenham (or possibly a lesser known Frederic Wenham) would claim in 1895 that he had already made a series of ten stereoscopic images to be viewed on two phenakistiscopes in 1852.

In 1855, Johann Nepomuk Czermak's published an article about his Stereophoroskop and other experiments aimed at stereoscopic moving images. He mentioned a method of sticking needles in a stroboscopic disc, so that they would appear as if moving in and out of the cardboard when animated. He supposed that this principle provided endless possibilities to make different 3D animations. He then introduced two methods to animate stereoscopic pairs of images, one was basically a stereo viewer using two stroboscopic discs and the other was more or less similar to the later zoetrope (but in a vertical position with horizontal slits). Czermak explained how suitable stereoscopic photographs could be made by recording a series of models, with an example of a growing pyramid.

In 1858, Joseph Charles d'Almeida published descriptions of two methods that he had successfully developed to project stereoscopic images. The first was an anaglyph method with red and green glasses, the second used the stroboscopic principle to alternately present each picture to the corresponding eye in quick succession. D'Almeida had started work on combining this method with the principles of the phénakisticope.

On 7 April 1859, Belgian civil engineer and inventor Henri Désiré du Mont filed a Belgian patent for nine different versions of his Omniscope, of which most would show stereoscopic animation from stroboscopic discs or from cylinders with pictures on the outside. One version was built inside a peep-box and had a lens focusing a light-beam to project the image on a frosted glass screen. Another design combined two zoetropes with Wheatstone's reflecting stereoscope in between.

On 27 February 1860 Peter Hubert Desvignes received British patent no. 537 for 28 monocular and stereoscopic variations of cylindrical stroboscopic devices. This included a version that used an endless band of pictures running between two spools that was intermittently lit by an electric spark. Desvignes' Mimoscope, received an Honourable Mention "for ingenuity of construction" at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. It could "exhibit drawings, models, single or stereoscopic photographs, so as to animate animal movements, or that of machinery, showing various other illusions." Desvignes "employed models, insects and other objects, instead of pictures, with perfect success." The horizontal slits (like in Czermak's Stereophoroskop) allowed a much improved view, with both eyes, of the opposite pictures.

In 1861 American engineer Coleman Sellers II received US patent No. 35,317 for the kinematoscope, a device that exhibited "stereoscopic pictures as to make them represent objects in motion" on glass plates, linked together in a chain, and mounted in a box. In his application he stated: "This has frequently been done with plane pictures but has never been, with stereoscopic pictures". He used three sets of stereoscopic photographs in a sequence with some duplicates to regulate the flow of a simple repetitive motion, but also described a system for very large series of pictures of complicated motion.

In 1861, Samuel Goodale patented a hand-turned stereoscope device which rapidly moves stereo images past a viewer, in a fashion similar to the later mutoscope.

In 1864, Dundee mechanic James Laing's motororoscope was presented to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts by a secretary. The device allowed a relatively large amount of stereoscopic pictures to be pasted on the inside of a "revolving web" with slits, transported over two rollers to pass in front of stereoscopic eyepieces. The rectangular openings of the viewer were adapted to the shape and size of the slits to avoid flaring and to reduce flicker. The demonstrated picture sequence was photographed with wooden models, with a bit of white wool round a bendable wire representing smoke coming from a cottage chimney, a paper flag and mill fans of wood. The instrument "excited considerable interest" at this presentation.

Around 1865, a disc with nine oval photographic images of Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787–1869) turning around was probably created by the physiologist himself. Purkyně reportedly used the disc to entertain his grandchildren and show them how he, an old professor, could turn around at great speed. The damaged disc is preserved in the collection of the National Technical Museum in Prague.

On 5 February 1870, Philadelphia engineer Henry Renno Heyl presented three moving picture scenes with his Phasmatrope to 1500 persons at a church entertainment evening at the Philadelphia Academy of Music. Each scene was projected from its own a intermittent spur geared rotating disk with 16 photographic images. The only known extant disk repeated four images of a waltzing couple four times and was played with appropriate musical accompaniment of a 40-person orchestra. A disk depicting a Brother Jonathan speech was voiced live by an actor, and the other disc showed a jumping Japanese acrobat. Heyl's only known other show was a screening on 16 March 1870 at the Franklin Institute.

Early cinematographic concepts (since 1860)
During the 1850s, instantaneous photography had slowly become a more or less common endeavor, mainly due to the advent of the relatively fast collodion process. This further inspired hope for the possibilities of motion photography.

In 1860, John Herschel envisioned the stereoscopic representation of scenes in action. He figured that photography could already, or would soon be able to take snap-shots in one tenth of a second and that a mechanism was possible "by which a prepared plate may be presented, focused, impressed, displaced, secured in the dark, and replaced by another within two or three tenths of a second". Apparently without knowledge of previous developments in the field, Herschel believed the "phenakistoscope" (sic) could very well be adapted into a viewer for stereoscopic motion photography pairs. He also had high hopes for the development of colour photography, since he himself had already obtained promising results.

On 2 May 1861, while working near Paris, Henri Désiré du Mont filed French patent 49,520 for "a photographic device for reproduction of the successive phases of movement". It would transport 10 or 12 photographic plates, one by one, from a slotted frame, past the camera lens, into a lower receptacle area. A moving shutter was synchronized to ensure the plates were only exposed when they were in the right place. In January 1862, DuMont explained his motives and ambitions in a demonstration for the Société Française de Photographie, stating that photographers already knew how to photograph subjects in motion, such as a galloping horse, but showed no interest in recording multiple images. He believed that series of successive images were much more interesting because of the harmony in lines and shadows, and because the captured poses of people would be much more natural. He therefore developed his patented stereoscopic and stroboscopic viewing apparatus and a camera that could capture the successive phases of movements with intervals of only fractions of seconds. He would attach the resulting images to the circumference of a cylindrical or prismatic drum, optionally bound together on a strip of fabric.

In 1864, Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron patented two ideas for camera systems that would capture scenes in all their transformations over time.

On 9 November 1876, Wordsworth Donisthorpe filed a patent application for "an apparatus for taking and exhibiting photographs" that would record sequential images of moving objects. The recorded images would be printed at equal distances apart on a strip of paper. The strip was to be wound between cylinders and carried past the eye of the observer, with a stroboscopic device to expose each picture momentarily. Such photographic strips only became commercially available several years later and Donisthorpe would not manage to record films before other pioneers.

Thomas Edison demonstrated his phonograph on 29 November 1877, after previous announcements of the device for recording and replaying sound had been published earlier in the year. An article in Scientific American concluded "It is already possible, by ingenious optical contrivances, to throw stereoscopic photographs of people on screens in full view of an audience. Add the talking phonograph to counterfeit their voices and it would be difficult to carry the illusion of real presence much further". Donisthorpe announced in the 24 January 1878 edition of Nature that he would advance that conception: "By combining the phonograph with the kinesigraph I will undertake not only to produce a talking picture of Mr. Gladstone which, with motionless lips and unchanged expression shall positively recite his latest anti-Turkish speech in his own voice and tone. Not only this, but the life size photograph itself shall move and gesticulate precisely as he did when making the speech, the words and gestures corresponding as in real life." A Dr. Phipson repeated this idea in a French photography magazine, but renamed the device "Kinétiscope" to reflect the viewing purpose rather than the recording option. This was picked up in the United States and discussed in an interview with Edison later in the year.

Chronophotography (since 1874)
Jules Janssen developed a large photographic revolver to document the stages of the transit of Venus in 1874, regarded as an important method to determine the Astronomical Unit (the distance between Earth and the Sun). Several copies of the device were used at different geographic points. Many negative images of the different phases of Venus passing in front of the Sun were captured on glass discs, in an early form of time-lapse photography. Unfortunately, the quality was not sufficient for a calculation of the Astronomical Unit. Several photographic revolver discs with images have been preserved, but research concluded that all of the known discs contained test recordings of a model in front of a circular light source (or brightly lit surface). Although the photographs were most likely never intended to be presented as motion pictures, images of one disc were transferred and animated into a very short stop motion film (sometime in the 20th century). No original footage of the photographic revolver recordings of the actual Venus transit has yet resurfaced. In 1875 and 1876, Janssen suggested that the revolver could also be used to document animal locomotion, especially birds since they would be hard to photograph by other means.

The oldest known motion sequence photographed in real-time, was created in the US in 1878 by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge. Muybridge was hired by Leland Stanford to photograph Stanford's horses at full speed. Muybridge shot a very fuzzy unpublished picture in 1873 and a better one in 1877, but eventually made several sequential series in 1878 with a line of cameras along the race track. A press demonstration on June 15, 1878 at Stanford's stock farm in Palo Alto, California convinced everyone attending (especially when an accident caused by a broken strap was documented in the negatives). Several sequential series of running horses captured in June 1878 were soon published as The Horse in Motion and the achievement received worldwide praise (as well as astonishment about the actual positions of the legs of running horses that were much less graceful than imagined).

Soon after Muybridge's sequential pictures were published, or at least since January 1879, there were several people who placed these in zoetropes to watch them in motion. These were possibly the very first viewings of photographic motion pictures that were recorded in real-time. The quality of the pictures was limited and the figures were mostly seen as silhouettes, often furthered by retouching of the pictures to get rid of photographic irregularities.

From 1880 to circa 1895, Muybridge gave lectures in which he projected silhouettes of his pictures with a device he called a zoopraxiscope. It used slightly anamorphic pictures traced from his photographs and painted onto glass discs. This can be regarded as an early precursor to rotoscoping. One disc used actual anamorphic photographs of the skeleton of a horse, posed in the different positions of a stride in 1881.

Inspired by Janssen's photographic revolver, Étienne-Jules Marey developed a chronophotographic gun in 1882, which was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second, recording the different phases of movements onto a single plate. He used the chronophotographic gun for studying animal and human locomotion, apparently with a preference for looking at the still images rather than reproducing the motion. He would later make early film recordings on paper strips.

Prompted by the much publicized successes of Muybridge's photographic sequences and other chronophotographic achievements, inventors in the late 19th century began to realize that the making and showing of photographic 'moving pictures' of a more useful or even indefinite length was a practical possibility. Many people working in the field followed the international developments closely through information in periodicals, patent filings, personal contact with colleagues and/or by getting their hands on new equipment.

1887–1895: Anschütz' Electrotachyscope
From 1886 to 1894 Ottomar Anschütz developed several different versions of his Schnellseher, or Electrotachyscope. The first version, exploited from 1887 to 1890, had 24 chronophotographic images on a rotating disk, illuminated from behind by a fast succession of electric flashes from a Geissler tube. Four to seven spectators could watch the images on an opal glass window inside a wall in a small darkened room. In 1890, Anschütz introduced a long cylindrical version with six small opal glass screens. In 1891, Siemens & Halske started manufacturing circa 152 examples of a coin-operated peep-box Electrotachyscope. In November 1894, he introduced a patented projector with two intermittently rotating large disks and continuous light for 6x8 meter screenings. Between 22 February and 30 March, circa 4,000 people viewed his 1,5-hour shows of 40 scenes in a 300-seat hall in Berlin.

1877–1900: Projection praxinoscope and Théâtre Optique
Émile Reynaud already mentioned the possibility of projecting moving images in his 1877 patent application for the praxinoscope. He presented a praxinoscope projection device at the Société française de photographie on 4 June 1880, but did not market his praxinoscope a projection before 1882. He then further developed the device into the Théâtre Optique which could project longer sequences with separate backgrounds, patented in 1888. He created several movies for the machine by painting colourful images on hundreds of gelatin plates that were mounted into cardboard frames and attached to a cloth band. The strip could be manually moved past a lens and mirror projection system, sometimes back and forth to show repetitive motions as desired for certain scenes. Some sound effects were synchronized by electro-magnetic devices, triggered by metal parts on the strip, while a score with some songs were to be performed live. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900, Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500,000 visitors at the Musée Grévin in Paris.

Other developments
Optics developed during the Scientific Revolution with a theory of lenses.

In 1740 and 1748, David Hume published Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, arguing for the associations and causes of ideas with visual images, forerunners to the language of film.

Phonographic recording of sound was invented in the 19th century.

Photographic film was created in the 19th century. The crucial invention of celluloid was made in 1855 by Alexander Parkes, a substance he initially called Parkesine. This was marketed from 1869 by John and Isaiah Hyatt.

In 1833, intermittent transport of pictures (moving during stroboscopic interruptions, still during projection) was deemed extremely difficult if not impossible by Simon Stampfer. Eventually, intermittent transport mechanisms adapted the principle of sewing machines, which had only just found practical application around the time Stampfer wrote about the problem.

title: Precursors of film


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User:Batman Jr.

Batman Jr. (20 BC – Unknown) is the adopted son of the fictional comic-book hero named Batman. He resides in Gotham City, spending most of his time in the secluded confines of the Batcave. There, he, under the guidance of his father's tutelage, regularly immerses himself in the study of a multitude of varied intellectual, athletic, and artistic disciplines which include, but are not limited to, nunchuck combat, MacGyveresque weapons construction, classical guitar, Cajun cuisine, child psychology, rocks, and bat husbandry.

Early life
Batman Jr. began his life on an undetermined date in the year 20 BC, shortly after the "official" beginning of the Roman Empire in 31 BC, in Rome. He was born into a family of reputable and successful toga merchants and, as such, was able to devote much of his time in his youth to his considerable curiosity unbound by the constraints of a destitution that afflicted many at that time. It was with this curiosity sensibly focused by his innate ingenuity that he led himself to the discovery of the "Duck Duck Pip Pip" time-traveling mechanism, the phenomenon which he exploited in the construction of the "P-Device" in his sixth month that brought him to present-day Gotham City.

Middle period
After having been orphaned in Gotham when the "P-Device" could not transport him back to his own time, he was found by a social worker who arranged for his adoption by billionaire Bruce Wayne. Ever since, Wayne has raised him as his own, instructing him in the ways of the arcane art of "Batmanism" with the hope that he would one day assume the mantle of crime-fighter when it came time for Batman, Sr., either to retire or die.

Death
After repairing the "P-Device," Batman Jr. will travel to the Cretaceous period, where he lived out his final days with the dinosaurs. Currently, however, he still resides in Gotham.

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title: User talk:Mrjd2636