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Spanish Requirement of 1513

The Spanish Requirement of 1513 (Requerimiento) was a declaration by the Spanish monarchy, written by the Council of Castile jurist Juan López de Palacios Rubios, of Castile's divinely ordained right to take possession of the territories of the New World and to subjugate, exploit and, when necessary, to fight the native inhabitants. The declaration was made on behalf of Ferdinand II of Aragon and his daughter, the Queen regnant Joanna of Castile.

The Requerimiento (Spanish for "requirement" as in "demand") was read to Native Americans to inform them of Spain's rights to conquest. The Spaniards thus considered those who resisted as defying God's plan, and so used Catholic theology to justify their conquest.

Historical context
In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, which legitimized the slave trade, at least as a result of war. It granted Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce war-conquered "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery. As such, the Dominican friars who arrived at the Spanish settlement at Santo Domingo in 1510 strongly denounced the enslavement of the local Indigenous residents. Along with other priests, they opposed the native peoples' treatment as unjust and illegal in an audience with the Spanish king and in the subsequent royal commission.

In Spain itself in 1492, the Moorish population of Granada had been given the choice by the first Archbishop of Granada, Hernando de Talavera: become Christian, or leave the country. In a letter to his religious brothers, Cardinal Cisneros, Talavera's successor, would celebrate the “peaceful domination” of the Moors of the Albaicin, a neighborhood of Granada, praising converts, lauding killing and extolling plunder. This letter came, however, after centuries of struggle by Christians in Spain to recapture what they saw as their homeland, which had been under Muslim rule for generations. Thus the war in Iberia, between Christians trying to "reconquer" land they thought of as properly Christian and Muslims defending the land their forefathers claimed by right of conquest, heightened religious tensions and fervor on both sides.

Comparing the situation in the Old World and New World: in Spain's wars against the Moors, the clerics claimed that Muslims had knowledge of Christ and rejected Him, so that waging a Crusade against them was legitimate; in contrast, in Spain's wars against the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Native Americans, wars against those who had never come into contact with Christianity were illegitimate. Responding to this impeding clerical position, the Requerimiento was issued, providing a religious justification for war against and conquest of the local populations of pre-existing residents, on the pretext of their refusing the legitimate authority of the Kings of Spain and Portugal as granted by the Pope.

So, the Requerimiento emerged in the context of moral debates within Spanish elites over the colonization of the Americas, and associated actions such as war, slavery, 'Indian reductions', conversions, relocations, and war crimes. Its use was criticized by many clerical missionaries, most prominently Bartolomé de las Casas.

To the King and Queen of Spain (Ferdinand II of Aragon, 1452–1516 and Isabella I of Castile, 1451–1504) the conquest of indigenous peoples was justified by natural law, embodied in the medieval doctrine of “just wars”, which had historically been a rationale for war against non-Christians, particularly the Moors, but which would now be applied to Native Americans. Coming shortly after the Reconquest, the realization of a centuries-long dream by Christians in Spain, the discovery, and colonization of the New World was directly affected by religious and political conditions in a now-unified Iberian Peninsula.

Legal justification
Concerned that Spain would ensure control of the natives in the newly conquered Americas, the “Reyes Católicos”, Ferdinand and Isabella, consulted theologians and jurists for religious and legal justification of Spain's conquests. The treatment of the Native Americans was at first rationalized on the grounds that they were cannibals; any means of subjugation were acceptable. However, some of Christopher Columbus’s tactics with Native Americans had resulted in uprisings. In 1500, the king and queen again sought advice; the Native Americans were declared to be "free vassals". Despite their elevated status, the Native Americans remained subject to conquest in "just wars".

The Laws of Burgos of 1512 marked the first in a series of ordinances (“Ordenanzas sobre el buen tratamiento de los indios”) with the ostensible goal of protecting the Indians from excessive exploitation; natives could celebrate holidays, be paid for their labor and receive "good treatment". Similar legislation was adopted by the Junta of Valladolid in 1513 and the Junta of Madrid in 1516.

Role of religion
The colonization of the New World by European adventurers was "justified" at the time on spiritual and religious grounds. In the conquest of the Americas, the Christian duty to evangelize nonbelievers took the form of conversion of Indians and other pagans at the hands of Roman Catholic priests.

To the European mind, the lands of the New World belonged to no one and could, therefore, be seized. The radical differences in thought and behavior of the Aztec and Mayan states, with their worship of entirely new, fierce gods, human sacrifice and complete unfamiliarity with European styles of diplomacy created a sense that conquest was not a war between states but the conquering, by a civilized, society against a ferocious, barbarous enemy. Moreover, since the native population was non-Christian, the Europeans' Christian religion conferred upon them the right and indeed the obligation to take possession of the lands and the people in the name of God and the throne.

More particularly, Catholic theology held that spiritual salvation took precedence over temporal and civil concerns. The conversion of pagan natives to Christianity was the rationale for and legitimized Spain's conquests. Thus "informed" by the Spanish, the Native people of the land had to accept the supremacy of the Catholic Church and the Spanish Crown. The state was authorized to enforce submission, by war if necessary.

Content
The 1513 Requerimiento, in relation to the Spanish invasion of the Americas and the subsequent Spanish colonization of the Americas, demanded the local populations to accept Spanish rule and allow preaching to them by Catholic missionaries on pain of war, slavery or death. The Requerimiento did not demand conversion, but the Indian Reductions through the Encomienda and Mission systems often did. This claim provided a legal loophole for enslavement of the population as rebellious vassals if they resisted, and the document stated: "We emphasise that any deaths that result from this [rejection of Christian rule] are your fault…."

The European view of the inherent right to conquest and domination in the New World was captured in a declaration addressed to Indian populations known as El Requerimiento (The Requirement). The document was prepared by the Spanish jurist Juan López de Palacios Rubios, a staunch advocate of the divine right of monarchs and territorial conquest. It was first used in 1514 by Pedrarias Dávila, a Spanish aristocrat who had fought the Moors in Granada and later became Governor of Nicaragua.

The Spanish Requirement, issued in the names of King Ferdinand and Queen Juana, his daughter, was a mixture of religious and legal justifications for the confiscation of New World territories and the subjugation of their inhabitants. At the time, it was believed that Native Americans resisted conquest and conversion for one of two reasons: malice or ignorance. The Requirement was putatively meant to eliminate ignorance.

A member of the conquistador's force would read El Requerimiento in Castilian before a group of Indians on the shore, who, with or without translation, remained uncomprehending. All the region's inhabitants were thus considered to have been advised of Spain's religious and legal rights to conquest and forewarned of the consequences of resisting. The true nature of the Spanish Requirement, however, was one of absolution; the symbolic act of reading the document relieved the crown and its agents from legal and moral responsibility for the conquest, enslavement and killing of Native Americans. Readings were often dispensed with prior to planned attacks.

As the Spanish Requirement matter-of-factly sets forth, so brazenly from five centuries' retrospect, God created heaven and earth, and the first man and woman from whom all are descended. God directed St Peter to establish the Roman Catholic Church. St Peter's descendant, the Pope, lives in Rome. The Pope has given the New World territories to the King of Castile and directed the conversion of the Indians. If they listen carefully, the Indians will understand and accept what is happening as just; if not, Spain will make war on them.

Here what the document does is to create an ontology into which these new lands and their peoples fit; it is creating a place for them in the existing Spanish and European political structure and Christian belief structure.

Evaluation
Many critics of the conquistadors' policies were appalled by the flippant nature of the Requerimiento, and Bartolomé de las Casas said in response to it that he did not know whether to laugh or to cry. While the conquistadors were encouraged to use an interpreter to read the Requerimiento, it was not absolutely necessary, and in many cases, it was read out to an uncomprehending populace.

In some instances, it was read to barren beaches and empty villages long after the indigenous people and communities had left, to prisoners after they were captured, and even from the decks of ships once they had just spotted the coast. Nevertheless, for the conquistadors, it provided a religious justification and rationalization for attacking and conquering the native population. Because of its potential to support the enrichment of the Spanish royal coffers, the Requerimiento was not generally questioned until the Spanish crown had abolished its use in 1556.

Text
":On behalf of the King, Don Fernando, and of Doña Juana I, his daughter, Queen of Castille and León, subduers of the barbarous nations, we their servants notify and make known to you, as best we can, that the Lord our God, Living and Eternal, created the Heaven and the Earth, and one man and one woman, of whom you and we, all the men of the world at the time, were and are descendants, and all those who came after and before us. But, on account of the multitude which has sprung from this man and woman in the five thousand or even more years since the world was created, it was necessary that some men should go one way and some another, and that they should be divided into many kingdoms and provinces, for in one alone they could not be sustained.

 * Of all these nations God our Lord gave charge to one man, called St. Peter, that he should be Lord and Superior of all the men in the world, that all should obey him, and that he should be the head of the whole Human Race, wherever men should live, and under whatever law, sect, or belief they should be; and he gave him the world for his kingdom and jurisdiction.

 * And he commanded him to place his seat in Rome, as the spot most fitting to rule the world from; but also he permitted him to have his seat in any other part of the world, and to judge and govern all Christians, Moors, Jews, Gentiles, and all other Sects. This man was called Pope, as if to say, Admirable Great Father and Governor of men. The men who lived in that time obeyed that St. Peter, and took him for Lord, King, and Superior of the universe; so also they have regarded the others who after him have been elected to the pontificate, and so has it been continued even till now, and will continue till the end of the world.

 * One of these Pontiffs, who succeeded that St. Peter as Lord of the world, in the dignity and seat which I have before mentioned, made donation of these isles and Tierra-firme to the aforesaid King and Queen and to their successors, our lords, with all that there are in these territories, as is contained in certain writings which passed upon the subject as aforesaid, which you can see if you wish.

 * So their Highnesses are kings and lords of these islands and the land of Tierra-firme by virtue of this donation: and some islands, and indeed almost all those to whom this has been notified, have received and served their Highnesses, as lords and kings, in the way that subjects ought to do, with good will, without any resistance, immediately, without delay, when they were informed of the aforesaid facts. And also they received and obeyed the priests whom their Highnesses sent to preach to them and to teach them our Holy Faith; and all these, of their own free will, without any reward or condition, have become Christians, and are so, and their Highnesses have joyfully and benignantly received them, and also have commanded them to be treated as their subjects and vassals; and you too are held and obliged to do the same. Wherefore, as best we can, we ask and require you that you consider what we have said to you, that you take the time that shall be necessary to understand and deliberate upon it, and that you acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and Superior of the whole world, and the high priest called Pope, and in his name the King and Queen Doña Juana our lords, in his place, as superiors and lords and kings of these islands and this Tierra-firme by virtue of the said donation, and that you consent and give place that these religious fathers should declare and preach to you the aforesaid.

 * If you do so, you will do well, and that which you are obliged to do to their Highnesses, and we in their name shall receive you in all love and charity, and shall leave you, your wives, and your children, and your lands, free without servitude, that you may do with them and with yourselves freely that which you like and think best, and they shall not compel you to turn Christians, unless you yourselves, when informed of the truth, should wish to be converted to our Holy Catholic Faith, as almost all the inhabitants of the rest of the islands have done. And, besides this, their Highnesses will award you many privileges and exemptions and will grant you many benefits.

 * But, if you do not do this, and maliciously make delay in it, I certify to you that, with the help of God, we shall powerfully enter into your country, and shall make war against you in all ways and manners that we can, and shall subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and of their Highnesses; we shall take you and your wives and your children, and shall make slaves of them, and as such shall sell and dispose of them as their Highnesses may command; and we shall take away your goods, and shall do you all the mischief and damage that we can, as to vassals who do not obey, and refuse to receive their lord, and resist and contradict him; and we protest that the deaths and losses which shall accrue from this are your fault, and not that of their Highnesses, or ours, nor of these cavaliers who come with us. And that we have said this to you and made this Requisition, we request the notary here present to give us his testimony in writing, and we ask the rest who are present that they should be witnesses of this Requisition."

title: Spanish Requirement of 1513


text:
User:Silence/Theism

Do you believe that at least one deity exists?

 * 1) Yes. = Theism
 * 2) No. = Explicit atheism ("Atheism" using narrower def. of "atheism")
 * 3) Undecided. = Agnosticism
 * 4) I don't care. = Apatheism
 * 5) What's a deity? / Goo goo gaa gaa? / Meow? = Implicit atheism (General "Nontheism" using narrower definition of "atheism")

Is it possible that deities exist/don't exist?
* Do not confuse the philosophical "open theism" stance with the Open Theism movement.

How sure can we be that deities do or don't exist?
* Gnosticism is being used here as the opposite of agnosticism, and should not be confused with the religion Gnosticism.

How important is the question of whether deities exist?

 * 1) Vitally important. = Full Non-Apatheism (Patheism)
 * 2) Fairly important. = Partial Non-Apatheism (Patheism)
 * 3) Not especially important. = Partial Apatheism
 * 4) Completely irrelevant. = Full Apatheism

How meaningful is the question of whether deities exist?

 * 1) Highly meaningful and cohesive. = Full Non-Ignosticism
 * 2) Somewhat meaningful. = Partial Non-Ignosticism
 * 3) Barely meaningful. = Partial Ignosticism
 * 4) Totally meaningless and nonsensical. = Full Ignosticism
 * 5) Should be meaningless, but has been defined and is therefore somewhat meaningful. = Idealist Ignosticism

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Silence/Theism


text:
Transportation in Alaska

This article discusses transportation in the U.S. state of Alaska.

Alaska has a small population within a very large geographic area. The geographic differences mean that no single transportation strategy works for the state as a whole. Roads connect the major Southcentral population centers with Fairbanks and the Canadian border. Barges supply the communities along the coast and major rivers, and a ferry system supports the coastal communities in the south. A railroad connects the ports of Seward, Whittier, and Anchorage with the interior via Fairbanks. Many interior communities are connected by seasonal ATV trails when the weather is cold enough to freeze otherwise impassable grounds. Air travel is the critical connection between these various regions.

Roads
Alaska's climate and geography provide significant challenges to building and maintaining roads. Mountain ranges, permafrost, long distances between small population centers, and the cost of transporting materials all add to the costs and challenges of Alaska's road system. Many of the northern highways have tighter weight restrictions during spring, where axle load limits can be reduced by as much as 20% due to seasonally soft ground.

Alaska is arguably the least-connected U.S. state in terms of road transportation. Its road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system. One unique feature of the road system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, which links the Seward Highway south of Anchorage with the relatively isolated community of Whittier. The tunnel held the title of the longest road tunnel in North America (at nearly 2.5 mi) until completion of the 3.5 mi Interstate 93 tunnel as part of the "Big Dig" project in Boston, Massachusetts. The tunnel retains the title of the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.

Winter Trails
The State and local boroughs maintain about 4700 mi of winter trails throughout the northern and western regions. The trails often follow paths laid out by indigenous people, and the network stretches along the coast from Norton Sound to the Beaufort Sea. Trails reach the interior along the Yukon, Koyukuk, and Kobuk rivers. In 2004, the State Department of Transportation worked with local partners to provide wayfinding in the form of tripods made of 8 ft tall reflective stakes, able to be placed each season when the ground freezes enough to allow passage. It intended to place these tripods at least every 500 ft. In addition to refuge cabins maintained along the route in case of emergency, the tripods can be used for basic shelter with the addition of a tarpaulin.

Winter trails are established every winter after the ground freezes and contain three categories:
 * Winter Trails are unimproved trails suitable for dog sleds or snowmachines. The trails are marked with blazes and signs where tall vegetation allows, or tripods and plastic stakes when there is no tall vegetation.
 * Snow Roads are routes constructed of packed snow that is suitable for dog sleds, snowmachines, and 4WD vehicles traveling in a convoy. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and Alaska Department of Natural Resources (DNR) are experimenting with whether snow roads can be expanded under specific, structured conditions in a way that protects the fragile tundra environment.
 * Ice Roads are routes constructed of frozen water that are suitable for heavier equipment. These roads have been popularized by the reality TV show Ice Road Truckers.

Iditarod Trail System
The Iditarod National Historic Trail (not to be mistaken for the race of the same name) is a network of roughly 2400 mi of trail stretching from Seward in the southeast to Nome in the northwest. The trail began as a composite of trails established by Alaskan native peoples. During the Gold Rush era from the 1890s to the 1920s, it connected a string of mines, trading posts, and settlements, for which it was declared a National Historic Trail in 1978.

RS 2477
The Revised statute 2477 of 1866 was passed to allow for the development of the Western states. It states that "the right-of-way for the construction of highways across public lands not otherwise reserved for public purposes is hereby granted," with no requirements for a survey or a recorded decision creating the road. RS 2477 was repealed in 1976, but the access it provided across Federally owned land was not rescinded. Access to trails across what was at the time Federal lands can be retained as public highways. Since most land title in Alaska was held by the Federal Government before the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1977, RS277 trails now cross public and private lands and remain vital to transportation within Alaska. The DNR actively researches and pursues historical trail use to assert public access to RS 2477 trails.

Alaska Railroad

The Alaska Railroad runs from Seward through Anchorage, Denali, and Fairbanks to North Pole, with spurs to Whittier and Palmer (locally known as "The Railbelt"). Purchased by the State from the Federal Government in 1985, it is run as a state cooperation. The railroad carries both freight and passengers throughout its system, but only runs daily passenger service in the summer to accommodate tourists and a more limited weekly passenger service in the winter primarily for residents. The railroad plays a vital part in moving Alaska's natural resources, such as coal and gravel, to ports in Anchorage, Whittier, and Seward. In 2015, the railroad carried more than 4.3 million tons of freight. The railroad brings goods from tidewater to the interior city of Fairbanks, and to Nenana, where goods are put on barges to travel the Tanana and Yukon rivers. There are rail connections by barge between Whittier and the port of Seattle.

The Alaska Railroad carries about 500 thousand passengers a year. Most passengers use the Alaska Railroad for seasonal recreational use. The Alaska Railroad offers one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 mi of track along an area inaccessible by road serves as the only transportation to cabins in the area. Although rail ferry service links Alaska with Washington state (Seattle) and British Columbia, there are plans to link Alaska to the rest of the North American rail network via Yukon Territory and British Columbia.

White Pass and Yukon
The White Pass and Yukon Route was established in 1898 between Skagway and Whitehorse. Originally built for the Klondike Gold Rush, it was not completed before the rush died down. The railway found work hauling Canadian copper, silver, and lead to tidewater in Skagway. A combination of low ore prices and competition with the Haines Highway, which saw major improvements in 1976, caused the White Pass and Yukon Railroad to close on October 7, 1982.

In 1988 the railroad was reopened as a passenger-only line catering to tourists, traveling to Lake Bennet and back, using vintage parlor cars. In 2015 the line carried 401,905 passengers on an excursion to the summit and back.

Potential connections with Canada
The idea of a Canada–Alaska Railway has been discussed and studied for years. In 2005, a joint study funded by Alaska and the Yukon found that such a railroad would cost US$11 Billion to build, but could increase the GDP of Alaska and Canada by approximately US$170 Billion. In 2016, an Alberta to Alaska pre-feasibility study paid for by the Alberta government determined that a railroad connecting Alberta to Alaska would cost between $27 and $34 Billion CDN, but could allow the development of $659 Billion CDN worth of minerals over 30 years.

, the Alaska-Alberta Railway Development Corporation is proposing connecting Fort McMurray, Alberta with the Point MacKenzie, Alaska through the Alaska Railroad.

Bus
Nearly all larger cities and boroughs across the state operate local bus systems, including Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, Sitka, Ketchikan and Bethel. While Greyhound does not operate in Alaska, numerous private bus companies in the state offer regional bus service, with Anchorage and Fairbanks as the primary hub cities.

Marine transport
Many cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air. Alaska has a well-developed ferry system, known as the Alaska Marine Highway, which serves the cities in Southeast and Southcentral Alaska as well as in the Alaska Peninsula. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia in Canada up the Inside Passage to Skagway. In the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast, the Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. Cruise ships are an increasingly popular way for tourists to see Alaska.

River barges
The Yukon and Tanana rivers allow for seasonal barge use for barges with about 4.5 feet of draft. Barge service is provided by private industry and provides most of the bulk fuel and material shipments for villages in the area. The tight ice-free season means that some villages only receive barge service 3 or 4 times a year. The only permanent port barge facilities are the rail/barge transfer sites at Nenana, although most bulk fuel is loaded onto the barge in North Pole.

Air transport
Since surface transportation in Alaska has so many difficulties, air transport is essential to how Alaskans travel within the state. The state owns and maintains a majority of the airports within the state but relies on private air carriers to provide air service. Alaska has several regional hubs, such as Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, and Dillingham, that receive regular service with large aircraft and act as the base for smaller aircraft to serve communities within the region. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. With surface transportation being varied and seasonable, aircraft are used extensively for freight as well as passengers, and Alaska Airlines is the only major U.S. airline to maintain a fleet of dedicated cargo aircraft.

Air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism. In 2000–2001, the latest year for which data are available, 2.4 million total arrivals to Alaska were counted, 1.7 million came via air travel, and 1.4 million were visitors.

Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and an abundance of items from stores and warehouse clubs. Alaska has the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state: out of the estimated 663,661 residents, 8,550 are pilots, or about one in every 78.

Bypass Mail Service
Because of the high volume of mail that travels by air within the state, the Bypass Mail System was formed to "alleviate congestion of mail in processing centers by creating bypass mail acceptance points." Because of the high quantity of mail shipped to rural Alaska from Anchorage and Fairbanks, the program intended to allow certain volume shippers to bypass postal facilities entirely, reducing cost and congestion. The USPS pays airlines to deliver the packages by air, but charges shippers USPS ground rates to do so, based on a premise that the Post Office should treat each customer the same, whether that customer is in rural Alaska a more well-connected suburb in the lower 48 U.S. states. A 2011 report from the U.S. Postal Service Office of Inspector General states the program lost $73 million 2010, that it supports a freight service shipping things that would not be considered mail in the rest of the United States, and that it provides a higher level of service than Priority Mail while charging less than parcel post. Supporters of the bypass mail system argue that it is an essential lifeline for rural Alaska, and that it actually saves money for the USPS by reducing the handling costs on mail the Post Office would be obligated to ship anyway.

The bypass mail system pays at an "intra-Alaska mainline service rate," which is an average cost of operations from a pool of carriers. Some carriers receive as much as 60% of their revenue from Bypass Mail contracts, allowing them to provide more frequent passenger service as well.

Essential Air Service
With the Airline Deregulation Act, airlines gained the ability to end service on unprofitable routes. To maintain service, Congress created the Essential Air Service (EAS) program. Through EAS, the Department of Transportation subsidizes passenger and freight service to communities that would otherwise be too small for viable service. In Alaska, there are approximately 60 communities served by EAS.

Other transport
Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times, dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a 1150 mi trail from Anchorage to Nome. The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash prizes and prestige.

In areas not served by road or rail, primary summer transportation is by all-terrain vehicle and primary winter transportation is by snowmobile, or "snow machine," as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.

Alaska has the highest percentage of people whose method of commute to work is walking.

title: Transportation in Alaska


text:
Talk:The Robbers

Translation
This text is a very bad translation of the german Wikipedia article. It seems like it was translated word by word, ignoring the specific grammar and syntax of the english language. '''It needs to be completly edited. '''

- Sascha (Leipzig, Germany)

Copyediting
Cleaned up most of the introductory section, and changed ''1. Act to Act I'', etc. Wasn't sure what to put instead of 'dear deficit', though. /kaˈʋɛːfa ˈweːnaː/T

 * Just looked up the German article from which this was translated: "dear deficit" seems to be an attempt at translating the German "Liebesentzug" - a psychological term apparently meaning something like "deprivation of love". Is there such a term in English? Lukas 13:38, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I was looking to improve this, but I have no idea what half of it means. Eg 'Amalia is Karl's love. To its relationship see sucked. "Hektorlied". you is a faithful and reliable person. But so it is also again not reliable: Their uncertainty tells itself, when it believes Franz first, as it tries it against Karl to apply (see ring, sword).' When I have more time, I'll check German Wikipedia and try to do a better translation.

 * OK, I took a quick stab at Act IV (had to start SOMEWHERE), going off the German Wikipedia article. This is the worst translation I've ever seen, clearly machine translated, to the point where Schloss was consistently translated as "lock" instead of "castle"!  I'll do more when I have time and energy, and hopefully a copy of the actual play on hand! -- PKtm 05:47, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

 * hi, yes this is a bit of a jumble but i've taken a stab too, and we'll get it all to make sense eventually. --Smithgrrl 22:38, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I reckon it's best if this is copy-edited by someone who is fluent in German so they can get their head around what the article means. Morrad 16:44, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Did some more cleaning up in the Intro. Didn't look at the German, but there was plenty to do without that -- simply putting similar ideas into the same paragraph was a big step.... Aristophanes68 (talk) 05:44, 6 March 2008 (UTC)

Moorland?
Since when are they named Moorland? In every edition I could find the family name is just Moor. The only explanation could be an altering of the surname in the English translation - and this seems very unlikely to me.--Sokrat3000 17:56, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

re: copyedit
My inclination here is to drastically prune the character list. one or two lines for the main ones and just the names for the rest. I looked at a Shakespeare play article and it had very little detail for characters. Any thoughts?-- killing sparrows  (chirp!) 06:30, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Bronte
Perhaps you might mention that Charlotte Bronte uses passages from this work in Jane Eyre, chapter 28. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.151.182.157 (talk) 09:52, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Maybe the article should be expanded in its core first before such peripheral items get added to "Adaptations (and influences)". But if you can be a bit more specific about the context, you can of course add it to the article.
 * If you refer to the episode where Mary Rivers reads to Diana a passage from The Robbers (Franz, act 5: "Then steppeth forth one, in appearance like the starry night" / "Da trat hervor Einer, anzusehen wie die Sternennacht"), I think that might not be quite significant enough to be mentioned here. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 13:16, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Robbers


text:
Windsor, Cornwall

Windsor is a hamlet in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is located half-a-mile east of Lansallos village.

title: Windsor, Cornwall


text: User talk:69.248.253.71

title: User talk:69.248.253.71


text:
Chikara (professional wrestling)

Chikara (stylized in all capital letters and sometimes referred to as Chikara Pro) was an American professional wrestling promotion based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The company took both its name and logo from the Japanese kanji meaning 'strength' (力). It was founded in 2002 by professional wrestlers Mike Quackenbush and Reckless Youth, who also served as trainers and in-ring performers.

The promotion held multiple live events per month, with the majority taking place at the Chikara Wrestle Factory school. Two of their major events, September's King of Trios, the promotion's premiere event, and April's Tag World Grand Prix were centered on tag team and trios matches. Their other major events included Aniversario, held in May, and the Young Lions Cup tournament, held between June and August. In 2011, Chikara introduced the Grand Championship, the promotion's primary singles championship.

Influenced by the lucha libre tradition, Chikara performers were grouped into técnicos and rudos (the lucha libre terms for faces and heels respectively). Just as in lucha libre, many performers in the promotion performed under masks and with unique gimmicks.

The promotion closed in June 2020, after several allegations of abuse and sexual misconduct were made against individuals within it during the Speaking Out movement.

Despite the promotion's closure, the Wrestle Factory school continues to operate in Allentown, Pennsylvania.

History
In the summer of 2000, after "Reckless Youth" Tom Carter had been released from his World Wrestling Federation developmental deal, he, Mike Quackenbush and Don Montoya started talking about starting a wrestling school, which would teach professional wrestling in various international styles. Originally, the school was to be called "Impact Wrestling" (not to be confused with the later promotion of the same name), but when Montoya decided not to put up money for its foundation and left the project, Carter and Quackenbush decided they needed a new name. The Wrestle Factory was founded by Carter and Quackenbush in Allentown, Pennsylvania on January 7, 2002. The first class included UltraMantis, Mister Zero, Dragonfly, Hallowicked, and Ichabod Slayne. In May of the same year, Chikara expanded into a wrestling promotion with the intent of showcasing its students. The first show on May 25, 2002, featured not only the Wrestle Factory students and head trainers, but several other independent wrestlers, including Don Montoya, CM Punk, Colt Cabana, Chris Hero, Love Bug, Marshal Law, and Blind Rage. The main event of the first show featured Quackenbush and Youth joined by Don Montoya as the Black T-shirt Squad defeat the Gold Bond Mafia of Chris Hero, CM Punk, and Colt Cabana. In the early days, Blind Rage, Hallowicked, and Ichabod Slayne formed a stable known as the Night Shift, which became the top group of rudos (or heels) in the promotion. They frequently feuded with tecnicos (faces) Quackenbush, Youth, and UltraMantis. Notable events of 2002 included an appearance by former World Championship Wrestling star La Parka, who joined Mister Zero against Quackenbush and Youth, and the opening of the short-lived sister promotion Kiryoku Pro, which highlighted female wrestling.

2002 was also marked by a lawsuit against Chikara for promoting shows at the Wrestle Factory. Neighborhood activists claimed that the building was not properly zoned for assembly, and that the shows detracted from the "complexion of the community". It was eventually ruled that Chikara provided inadequate parking for their shows, and would not be allowed to promote out of the Wrestle Factory any longer. This deterred Chikara from holding any more shows until October. During the Chikara hiatus, they released tapes of their early shows, titled "The Renaissance Dawns" and "Baila, Parka, Baila", and the wrestlers worked showcase matches in other promotions, such as IWA Mid-South. Chikara soon reached an agreement with St. John's Lutheran Church in Allentown to hold shows there, only eight blocks from the Wrestle Factory. Chikara also began a second Wrestle Factory class, but lost trainer Reckless Youth at the beginning of the class, as he left the wrestling business. The first show in St. John's saw the Wildcards (Eddie Kingston and BlackJack Marciano), Gran Akuma, D. J. Skittlez, Melvin Snodgrass and Lester Crabtree debut, and shortly after, they were joined by Wrestle Factory graduates Jigsaw and Bryce Remsburg. Soon after Chikara debuted the Young Lions Cup tournament, a concept still used by the promotion. Commonly abbreviated as the YLC, the tournament was designed to showcase the best of the Wrestle Factory graduates. Hallowicked defeated Mister Zero to win the inaugural tournament, becoming the first-ever Young Lions Cup Champion in the process. In December 2002, Chikara took a two-week break during Christmastime before returning in 2003, establishing a tradition of "seasons" that they maintain today.

In 2004, Chris Hero became a co-trainer at the Chikara Wrestle Factory, replacing Carter. In 2005, Jorge "Skayde" Rivera joined as the third trainer. In March 2005, the school moved from Allentown to the New Alhambra Arena, in Philadelphia. They then took over the training for Combat Zone Wrestling, leading to the school's new name of CZW/Chikara Wrestle Factory. After the schools split in 2007, the training center became once again simply known as the Chikara Wrestle Factory. In 2007, Claudio Castagnoli took over Chris Hero's training duties.

On March 2, 2008, Chikara drew their biggest crowd ever of over 550 people during the King of Trios finals. That record was broken on January 31, 2010, when their first show of season nine, A Touch of Class, drew over 600 fans. Later that year, on July 25, the record was broken once again at Chikarasaurus Rex: King of Show, which drew 755 fans. The show was released by Smart Mark Video on DVD less than 24 hours after its conclusion.

On April 26, 2009, Chikara announced a working agreement with Dragon Gate USA, which saw Chikara wrestlers take part in Dragon Gate USA events. Throughout the years, Chikara has also worked with several Japanese promotions in bringing their talent over to the United States, including Dragon Gate, Ice Ribbon, JWP Joshi Puroresu, and Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling. In 2010, Chikara established a close working relationship with the Osaka Pro Wrestling promotion. In December 2011, Chikara partnered with numerous Japanese promotion to hold the three-day-long JoshiMania event, which featured some of the biggest names in joshi puroresu. Wrestlers such as Aja Kong, Dick Togo, The Great Sasuke, Jinsei Shinzaki, Kana, Kaori Yoneyama, Kota Ibushi, Manami Toyota, and Mayumi Ozaki have made rare American appearances for Chikara.

On April 25, 2010, Chikara announced the release of a video game, titled Rudo Resurrection, for multiple gaming platforms later in the year. After not being heard of again for four years, it was announced on May 2, 2014, that a new developer, Rotary Games, had picked up the rights to the game.

On August 1, 2011, Chikara announced that their first ever live Internet pay-per-view (iPPV), titled High Noon, would take place November 13, 2011, and would feature the crowning of the first ever Chikara Grand Champion. The event would again break Chikara's attendance record, drawing 864 fans. During 2012, High Noon was followed by the Chikarasaurus Rex: How to Hatch a Dinosaur and Under the Hood Internet pay-per-views.

In February 2012, Chikara launched their first ever web comic, written by Joey Esposito and drawn by Alex Cormack, telling the secret origin of Frightmare. On April 6, 2013, Chikara took part in WrestleCon, held during the WrestleMania 29 weekend in Secaucus, New Jersey, holding an event, which again broke the promotion's attendance record.

On June 2, 2013, Chikara ran an angle at the conclusion of their fourth iPPV, Aniversario: Never Compromise, where the event was shut down by Director of Fun Wink Vavasseur. Following the event, Chikara went inactive, "canceling" all upcoming events, though in reality these events were never scheduled to take place. Chikara held no official events for the rest of 2013, though wrestlers from the promotion did hold a small event on November 2 in Philadelphia's FDR Skatepark with the storyline that they were trying to revive the promotion. In October 2013, Viz Media acquired rights to 26 Chikara events, which would start airing on their Neon Alley digital service on Sundays as part of the new fall lineup. On February 1, 2014, it was announced that Chikara would be returning on May 25. On February 10, 2014, it was announced that The Wrestle Factory would start a new training class at the 2300 Arena on March 1.

In April 2015, Chikara made its debut in the United Kingdom with a four-show tour held across England and Wales and launched Chikaratopia, a streaming service featuring past events. That same year on July 29, the promotion launched a new weekly program, entitled Journey Into Chikara, which would air live on both Chikaratopia and YouTube. In December 2016, Chikara concluded its 16th season. However, when the promotion returned in February 2017, it was announced as the start of season 18. Season 17 had been taped during the break and would be streamed on Chikaratopia.

On August 7, 2019, Chikara announced a working relationship with Michinoku Pro Wrestling.

On June 24, 2020, Quackenbush announced Chikara was shutting down amid allegations of misconduct within the company.

Chikara Wrestle Factory
On January 7, 2002, "Reckless Youth" Tom Carter and Mike Quackenbush founded the Chikara Wrestle Factory, a wrestling school based in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Following the start of the Wrestle Factory's second class, Carter departed from Chikara and ultimately left the wrestling industry. In 2004, Chris Hero became a co-trainer at the Wrestle Factory, filling the vacancy left by Carter's departure. In 2005, Mexican luchador Jorge "Skayde" Rivera became the school's third trainer. In March 2005, the school moved from Allentown to the New Alhambra Arena, in Philadelphia. In 2007, Chris Hero left Chikara and the Wrestle Factory, with Claudio Castagnoli taking over Hero's training duties. In August 2011, Castagnoli signed with WWE, and departed the Wrestle Factory. Former guest instructors included El Pantera, Terry Funk, CM Punk, Marty Jannetty, and many others.

At the time of June 2020, head trainer Mike Quackenbush was assisted by trainers Fire Ant, Hallowicked, and Ophidian. As of now, training to prospective professional wrestlers, managers, valets, and referees in Northeastern Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is offered in all styles of pro wrestling, including lucha libre, puroresu, Lancashire, and catch, among others.

At the end of 2022, The Wrestle Factory moved to a new location in Allentown.

Notable alumni

 * 1-2-3 Kid / Sean Waltman / X-Pac
 * 2 Cold Scorpio
 * A. C. H.
 * Acid Jaz
 * Aero Star
 * El Alebrije
 * Cedric Alexander
 * Bryan Alvarez
 * Amasis
 * Amazing Kong
 * Amazing Red
 * Josh Abercrombie / Josh Raymond
 * Mark Andrews
 * Mark Angelosetti
 * Ares
 * Austin Aries
 * Atlantis
 * Ax
 * B-Boy
 * The Barbarian
 * Tyler Bate
 * Mike Bennett
 * Big Stevie Cool
 * Sinn Bodhi
 * Chris Bosh
 * Max Boyer / Maxime Boyer
 * Brad Bradley
 * Brain Damage
 * Harlem Bravado
 * Lancelot Bravado
 * Jay Briscoe
 * Mark Briscoe
 * D'Lo Brown
 * Bull Pain
 * BxB Hulk
 * C. Red
 * Colt Cabana / Matt Classic
 * Call-Me-Kevin
 * Sami Callihan
 * Arik Cannon
 * Carpenter Ant
 * Claudio Castagnoli / Cesaro
 * Chimaera
 * Dash Chisako
 * Chiva IV / Chiva Kid
 * Tommaso Ciampa
 * Cima
 * Adam Cole
 * Danny Boy Collins
 * Command Bolshoi
 * Jervis Cottonbelly
 * Matt Cross
 * Da Blue Guy
 * Allison Danger
 * Christopher Daniels / Curry Man
 * Danny Daniels
 * Bryan Danielson
 * KC Day / Cloudy
 * Sara Del Rey
 * Colin Delaney / Colin Olsen
 * Delirious
 * Chris Dickinson
 * J. J. Dillon
 * DJ Hyde / Mano Metalico
 * Naruki Doi
 * Tim Donst
 * Lince Dorado
 * Drago
 * Ryan Drago / Simon Grimm
 * Tommy Dreamer
 * Pete Dunne
 * Dustin / Chuck Taylor
 * Sonjay Dutt
 * Dymond
 * Madison Eagles
 * Robbie Eagles
 * Ebessan (I) / Kikutaro
 * Eddie Edwards
 * Egotistico Fantastico
 * Robbie Ellis
 * Tommy End
 * Escorpion Egipcio
 * Excalibur
 * Fénix
 * Orange Cassidy / Fire Ant
 * Jody Fleisch
 * A. R. Fox
 * Terry Frazier
 * Frightmare
 * Tsukasa Fujimoto
 * Gangrel
 * Johnny Gargano
 * El Generico
 * Vin Gerard / Equinox
 * Glacier
 * Gran Akuma
 * The Great Sanada
 * The Great Sasuke
 * Green Ant (I) / Silver Ant
 * Green Ant (II)
 * Jonathan Gresham / Hieracon
 * Chavo Guerrero Jr.
 * Drew Gulak / Soldier Ant
 * Billy Gunn
 * Dasher Hatfield
 * Hailey Hatred
 * Hallowicked
 * Ayako Hamada
 * Daisuke Harada
 * Daizee Haze
 * Helios / Ricochet
 * Cheech Hernandez / Cheech
 * Hernandez
 * Chris Hero
 * Hollywood Nova / Simon Dean
 * Homicide
 * Hydra
 * Princess Kimber Lee
 * Kid Lykos
 * Kota Ibushi
 * Icarus
 * Incognito
 * Greg Iron
 * Ryuji Ito
 * Matt Jackson
 * Nick Jackson
 * Jimmy Jacobs
 * Jagged / Scott Parker
 * Mickie James
 * Marty Jannetty
 * Jazz
 * Jigsaw
 * Johnny
 * Joker / Colt Cabunny
 * Kagetora
 * Kana
 * Maria Kanellis
 * Manami Katsu
 * Kenny
 * Johnny Kidd
 * Eddie Kingston
 * Mickie Knuckles
 * Kodama
 * Aja Kong
 * Atsushi Kotoge
 * Kudo
 * Tsubasa Kuragaki
 * Yujiro Kushida
 * La Parka
 * La Parkita
 * Brodie Lee
 * Trevor Lee
 * Candice LeRae
 * Jay Lethal
 * Jushin Thunder Liger
 * Scott Lost
 * Heidi Lovelace
 * Jerry Lynn
 * Mad Man Pondo
 * Magno
 * Makoto
 * Mercedes Martinez
 * Mascarita Dorada
 * Shane Matthews
 * Joel Maximo
 * Jose Maximo
 * Wil Maximo
 * m.c. KZ
 * Jessie McKay
 * Meng
 * Mikey
 * Milanito Collection a.t.
 * Milano Collection A.T.
 * Miyawaki
 * Masaaki Mochizuki
 * Aldo Montoya
 * Jon Moxley
 * Necro Butcher / CP Munk
 * Osamu Nishimura
 * Shinjitsu Nohashi
 * Amber O'Neal
 * Kyle O'Reilly
 * Yuji Okabayashi
 * Kazuchika Okada
 * Jimmy Olsen / Equinox (II)
 * One Man Gang
 * Ophidian
 * El Oriental
 * Chase Owens
 * Mayumi Ozaki
 * Pac
 * El Pantera
 * Archibald Peck / Mixed Martial Archie / The Mysterious and Handsome Stranger / The Latvian Proud Oak
 * Portia Perez
 * Pierrothito
 * Player Dos / Stupefied
 * Player Uno
 * Psycho
 * CM Punk
 * Mike Quackenbush
 * Rain
 * Reckless Youth
 * Joel Redman
 * Ashley Remington
 * Rey Bucanero
 * Willie Richardson
 * Matt Riddle
 * Jorge Rivera
 * Marshe Rockett
 * Rockstar Spud
 * Romeo Roselli
 * Ian Rotten
 * Ruckus
 * Joey Ryan
 * Sabian
 * Chris Sabin
 * Zack Sabre Jr.
 * Sendai Sachiko
 * Raisha Saeed
 * Johnny Saint
 * Sumie Sakai
 * Sha Samuels
 * Tito Santana
 * Sassy Stephie
 * Meiko Satomura
 * Daisuke Sekimoto
 * Trent Seven
 * SeXXXy Eddy
 * Shark Girl
 * Alex Shelley
 * Mototsugu Shimizu
 * Mima Shimoda
 * Shingo
 * Jinsei Shinzaki
 * Mio Shirai
 * Emil Sitoci
 * Smash
 * Al Snow
 * Kevin Steen
 * Martin Stone
 * Jonny Storm
 * Shane Storm / Stigma
 * A.J. Styles
 * Super Dragon
 * Super Shisa
 * Rich Swann
 * Larry Sweeney
 * Matt Sydal
 * Tadasuke
 * Tatanka
 * Dave Taylor
 * Thief Ant
 * Antonio Thomas
 * Tigre Uno
 * Rhett Titus
 * Dick Togo
 * Tank Toland
 * Manami Toyota
 * Akira Tozawa
 * Trauma
 * Toshie Uematsu
 * Ultramantis / UltraMantis Black
 * Victoria
 * The Warlord
 * Worker Ant (I)
 * Worker Ant (II)
 * Shiima Xion
 * Yamamoto
 * Keita Yano
 * Kaori Yoneyama
 * Masato Yoshino
 * Drake Younger

Commercial DVD releases
Big Vision Entertainment releases

title: Chikara (professional wrestling)


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Condonation

Within the legal profession, condonation (or a condonance) is a defence argument sometimes made when an accuser has previously forgiven or chosen to ignore an act about which they are now legally complaining. In some legal jurisdictions, and for certain behaviors, it may prevent the accuser from prevailing. It is most frequently presented during divorce proceedings, though it is also used in other legal contexts.

Condonation is irrelevant to some acts. For example, some jurisdictions prohibit consensual combat (other than in specially-sanctioned sports, such as boxing). In such a jurisdiction, the people arrested for brawling cannot avoid prosecution by condoning one another's assaults.

Common law
In the civil law of the common law legal systems, if a creditor states that they forgive a certain debt, they might be blocked (or estopped) from attempting to collect that same debt at a later date. Condonation would not prevent the creditor from collecting any subsequent or other debts, however.

Divorce law
Prior to the advent of no-fault divorce statutes, condonation was frequently asserted as a defense to divorce. Although one spouse may have committed an act that justified the other in obtaining a divorce, the other spouse might be deemed to have forgiven the conduct and thus waived the right to sue for divorce. The most typical way in which condonation occurred is if the wronged spouse, with knowledge of the act, voluntarily engaged in sexual relations with the wrongdoer. Critics of the doctrine contended that it discouraged spouses from attempting reconciliation, as one act of sexual intercourse would deprive the wronged spouse of any relief if the spouses were unable to resolve their differences.

Military law
The principle of condonation in military law is traced back to the "Memorandum on Corporal Punishment" issued by the Duke of Wellington on 4 March 1832: "'The performance of a duty of honour or of trust, after the knowledge of an offence committed by a soldier, ought to convey a pardon for the offence.'"

title: Condonation


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Aileen Pringle

Aileen Pringle (born Aileen Bisbee; July 23, 1895 – December 16, 1989) was an American stage and film actress during the silent film era.

Early life
Born into a prominent and wealthy San Francisco family and educated in Europe, Pringle began her acting career shortly after her 1916 marriage to Charles McKenzie Pringle, the son of a wealthy titled British Jamaican landowner and a member of the Privy and Legislative Councils of Jamaica.

Career rise
Many of Pringle's early roles were only modestly successful, and she continued to build her career until the early 1920s. One of Pringle's first high-profile roles was in the Rudolph Valentino film Stolen Moments (1920). She was selected by friend and romance novelist Elinor Glyn to star in the 1924 film adaptation of her novel Three Weeks with matinee idol Conrad Nagel. The role catapulted Pringle into leading-lady status and her career began to build momentum.

Later career
Pringle's acting career continued throughout the early 1920s, however, she allegedly was disliked by many of her co-workers for her allegedly haughty and dismissive behavior. She was prone to make witty, sometimes caustic, comments on Hollywood and her fellow actors. During a romantic scene in Three Weeks, in which actor Conrad Nagel carried her in his arms to the bedroom, lip readers saw her say: "If you drop me, you bastard, I'll break your neck". Pringle's apparent disdain for her profession began to hurt her career and by the late 1920s her roles became fewer.

During the late silent and early period of talking pictures, Pringle co-starred in a series of light films with actor Lew Cody, including Adam and Evil (1927), Tea for Three (1927), Wickedness Preferred (1928), The Baby Cyclone (1928), Beau Broadway (1928), A Single Man (1929) and By Appointment Only (1933). Of Pringle's performance in Adam and Evil, Mourdant Hall in the August 9, 1927 edition of The New York Times wrote, “Evelyn Trevelyn, the Eve of this tale, is alluded to by Ralph Spence is (sic) one of the titles as a “spare rib.” She is impersonated by Aileen Pringle and therefore is an asset to the scenes.”

Although disliked by some Hollywood insiders, Aileen Pringle often was dubbed by the press as the "Darling of the Intelligentsia" because of her close friendship with such literary figures as Carl Van Vechten, Joseph Hergesheimer, Rupert Hughes, and H.L. Mencken who became a lifelong friend of the actress. She brokered the meeting of Mencken and Valentino, of which Mencken wrote an account, some weeks after Valentino had died. Mencken does not name her but describes her as "discreet as she is charming." Ralph Barton, American artist, was also a devoted friend and used her as the model for Dorothy in his illustrations for Gentlemen Prefer Blondes by Anita Loos. Another admirer was George Gershwin who met her in Hollywood and wrote much of the Second Rhapsody at her Santa Monica, California, home. Her wit, keen intellect and sparkling personality made her a sought-after companion.

After her 1926 divorce from Charles Pringle, Aileen Pringle further focused on her acting career, including Dream of Love (1928) with Joan Crawford and Wall Street (1929) co-starring Ralph Ince, brother of Thomas Ince. However, with the advent of sound film, the studios heavily began promoting a new crop of starlets and Pringle's career faded.

During the sound era, she continued to take small parts in major films and even uncredited roles. In 1944 Pringle married the author James M. Cain, but the union lasted only two years and ended in divorce. By the late 1940s, Pringle retired from the screen and lived a wealthy retirement in New York City, where she died in 1989 at the age of 94.

For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Aileen Pringle was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6723 Hollywood Blvd. in Los Angeles, California.

title: Aileen Pringle


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The Craft (album)

The Craft is the third studio album by American hip hop duo Blackalicious. It was released on Anti- on September 27, 2005. Chief Xcel said, "The Craft is our passion to bring discipline to this music, the passion to keep growing, keep stretching, keep doing things we haven't before." It peaked at number 102 on the Billboard 200 chart. As of 2015, it has sold 67,000 copies in the US.

Critical reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 80, based on 22 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Jack Booty of Prefix gave the album a 7.0 out of 10, saying, "[Chief] Xcel's production doesn't stray very far from its R&B and soul influences, but this time it comes without almost any samples, relying sometimes on players from a homebrewed funk band to create clearance-free beats instead."

Exclaim! placed it at number 6 on the "Hip-Hop: Year in Review 2005" list.

title: The Craft (album)


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Vadym Meller

Vadym Heorhiiovych Meller (Вадим Георгійович Меллер; 26 April 1884 – 4 May 1962) was a Ukrainian and Soviet painter, avant-garde Cubist, Constructivist and Expressionist artist, theatrical designer, book illustrator, and architect. In 1925 he was awarded a gold medal for the scenic design of the Berezil Theatre in the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts (Art Deco) in Paris.

Biography
He was born in Saint Petersburg. He was the second son of a top official in the Ministry of Justice in the Russian Empire. His father, Heorhiy Meller, was a noble-born Swede; his mother, Helena Caruso, was half Italian and half Greek, and also from a noble family He married Nina Genke, a fellow avant-garde artist. He died in Kyiv in May 4, 1962.

Education
From 1903–1908, Meller studied at Kyiv University. In 1905, he visited Geneva, Switzerland, where he took art lessons at the private school of Franz Roubaud. In 1908, with the recommendation of Roubaud, he continued his education at the private art school of drawing and painting of Heinrich Knirr in Munich, Germany. There, Meller met fellow student, Paul Klee, who introduced him to Der Blaue Reiter group.

After graduating from the Kyiv University with a degree in law, he acquired an artistic education in the Munich Academy of Fine Arts from 1908–1912. V. Meller stayed in close contact with Der Blaue Reiter group. During this time, he also met Wassily Kandinsky, with whom he became friends.

Work
He started to exhibit his works after moving to Paris, where he joined the Société des Artistes Indépendants. At the same time he was a student of Antoine Bourdelle. In 1912–1914, together with Kazimir Malevich, Sonia Delaunay, Alexander Archipenko, and Aleksandra Ekster, he participated in a number of exhibitions (Salon des Indépendants, Spring Salon, and Salon D' Automne) alongside Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and André Derain.

After returning to Kyiv in 1915, he worked at easel and monumental painting, graphic design, and costume design. His transition to scenography as his main field of artistic activity took place in the post-revolutionary years. From 1918–1921, he worked with scenographer and dancer Bronislava Nijinska (Vaslav Nijinsky's sister) in her ballet studio. In end of this period he became a professor in the National Academy of Fine Arts and Architecture.

In 1922, Les Kurbas invited V. Meller to the recently founded Berezil Theatre.

In 1925, V. Meller, together with Sonia Terk, Alexandra Exter, and Nathan Altman, participated in Exposition Internationale des Modernes (Art Deco) in Paris.There, Meller was awarded a gold medal for his scenic design of the Berezil' theater. That same year, V.Meller participated in the International Theater Exposition in New York.

V. Meller became the leader of the Constructivism movement in Ukrainian theater design. He worked in the National theater as a chief artist until 1945. From 1925 onward, he also taught at the Kyiv Art Institute (KKHI) together with Vladimir Tatlin and Alexander Bogomazov. Also in 1925, V. Meller became a member of the artists union Association of the Revolutionary Masters of Ukraine together with David Burliuk (co-founder), Alexander Bogomazov (co-founder), Vasyl Yermylov, Victor Palmov, and Alexander Khvostenko-Khvostov.

In 1928 he participated in the International Press Exhibition Pressa Cologne, together with El Lissitzky, Aleksandr Tyshler and Vasyl Yermylov.

V.Meller worked as an acting director of the Monumental Painting and Sculpture Institute of the Academy of Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR (1946–1948), a chief artist of the Kyiv Music Comedy Theater (1948–1953), and a chief artist of the Iv. Franko Kyiv Academic Theater (1953–1959).

title: Vadym Meller


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1937 Italian Grand Prix

The 1937 Italian Grand Prix was a "750 kg Formula" Grand Prix race held on 12 September 1937 at the Montenero Circuit in Livorno.

Race report
Caracciola took an early lead from pole, Lang was second but he soon took the lead from Caracciola, the two Mercedes drivers pushing each other hard. Team manager Alfred Neubauer was not impressed by the internal fighting. The partisan crowd were disappointed when the Italian Nuvolari retired and gave his car to Farina.

Von Brauchitsch and Kautz were out, the two leading Mercedes had a fierce fight to the flag with Caracciola blocking any attempt to pass by Lang. Rosemeyer couldn't match their pace and Caracciola held on for a win with Lang just 0.4s behind him at the flag.

title: 1937 Italian Grand Prix


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