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Śramaṇa

A śramaṇa (श्रमण, ; 𑀲𑀫𑀡; ; sa môn) is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic". . The Śramaṇa tradition includes primarily Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvika.

The śramaṇa religions became popular in the same circles of mendicants from greater Magadha that led to the development of spiritual practices, as well as the popular concepts in all major Indian religions such as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).

The Śramaṇic traditions have a diverse range of beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, renunciation, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating.

Etymology and origin

One of the earliest recorded uses of the word śramaṇa, in the sense of a mendicant, is in verse 4.3.22 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad composed by about the 6th century BCE. The concept of renunciation and monk-like lifestyle is found in Vedic literature, with terms such as yatis, rishis, and śramaṇas. The Vedic literature from pre-1000 BCE era, mentions Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man). Rig Veda, for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions mendicants as those with kēśin (केशिन्, long-haired) and mala clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of mananat (mind, meditation).

"केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥ मुनयो वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥ He with the long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The Munis, girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course, go where the Gods have gone before."

- Rig Veda

The hymn uses the term vātaraśana (वातरशन) which means "girdled with wind". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "sky-clad, naked monk" and therefore a synonym for Digambara (a Jainism sect). However, other scholars state that this could not be the correct interpretation because it is inconsistent with the words that immediately follow, "wearing soil-hued garments". The context likely means that the poet is describing the "munis" as moving like the wind, their garments pressed by the wind. According to Olivelle, it is unlikely that the vātaraśana implies a class within the Vedic context.

The earliest known explicit use of the term śramaṇa is found in section 2.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, a layer within the Yajurveda (~1000 BCE, a scripture of Hinduism). It mentions śramaṇa Rishis and celibate Rishis.

Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting (samita) of evil (pāpa) as in the following phrase from the 3rd century BCE Dhammapada, verse 265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil is called samaṇa").

The word śramaṇa is postulated to be derived from the verbal root , meaning "to exert effort, labor or to perform austerity". The history of wandering monks in ancient India is partly untraceable. The term 'parivrajaka' was perhaps applicable to all the peripatetic monks of India, such as those found in Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism.

The śramaṇa refers to a variety of renunciate ascetic traditions from the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. The śramaṇas were individual, experiential and free-form traditions. The term "śramaṇas" is used sometimes to contrast them with "Brahmins" in terms of their religious models. Part of the śramaṇa tradition retained their distinct identity from Hinduism by rejecting the epistemic authority of the Vedas, while a part of the śramaṇa tradition became part of Hinduism as one stage in the Ashrama dharma, that is as renunciate sannyasins.

Pali samaṇa has been suggested as the ultimate origin of the word Evenki сама̄н (samān) "shaman", possibly via Middle Chinese or Tocharian B; however, the etymology of this word, which is also found in other Tungusic languages, is controversial (see ).

History

Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. Martin Wiltshire states that the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these as sectarian manifestations. These traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts, states Wiltshire, to communicate their own distinct doctrines. Reginald Ray concurs that Śramaṇa movements already existed and were established traditions in pre-6th century BCE India, but disagrees with Wiltshire that they were nonsectarian before the arrival of Buddha.

According to the Jain Agamas and the Buddhist Pāli Canon, there were other śramaṇa leaders at the time of Buddha. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions: "...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahavira)..."

- Digha Nikaya

Relationship with Vedism
The traditional view of scholars in the field, represented for example by Govind Chandra Pande in his 1957 study on the origins of Buddhism, is that Śramaṇa began as a "distinct and separate cultural and religious" tradition from Vedic religion. However, this claim is disputed by several Indologists and Sanskrit scholars such as Patrick Olivelle.

Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Indology and known for his translations of major ancient Sanskrit works, states in his 1993 study that contrary to some representations, the original Śramaṇa tradition was a part of the Vedic one. He writes,

"Sramana in that context obviously means a person who is in the habit of performing srama. Far from separating these seers from the vedic ritual tradition, therefore, śramaṇa places them right at the center of that tradition. Those who see them [Sramana seers] as non-Brahmanical, anti-Brahmanical, or even non-Aryan precursors of later sectarian ascetics are drawing conclusions that far outstrip the available evidence."

- Patrick Olivelle, The Ashrama System

According to Olivelle, and other scholars such as Edward Crangle, the concept of Śramaṇa exists in the early Brahmanical literature. The term is used in an adjectival sense for sages who lived a special way of life that the Vedic culture considered extraordinary. However, Vedic literature does not provide details of that life. The term did not imply any opposition to either Brahmins or householders. In all likelihood states Olivelle, during the Vedic era, neither did the Śramaṇa concept refer to an identifiable class, nor to ascetic groups as it does in later Indian literature. Additionally, in the early texts, some pre-dating 3rd-century BCE ruler Ashoka, the Brahmana and Śramaṇa are neither distinct nor opposed. The distinction, according to Olivelle, in later Indian literature "may have been a later semantic development possibly influenced by the appropriation of the latter term [Sramana] by Buddhism and Jainism".

The Vedic society, states Olivelle, contained many people whose roots were non-Aryan who must have influenced the Aryan classes. However, it is difficult to identify and isolate these influences, in part because the vedic culture not only developed from influences but also from its inner dynamism and socio-economic developments.

According to Indian anthropologist Ramaprasad Chanda the origins of Sramanism back to pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan cultures, particularly those practicing magic. He posited that the practice of asceticism could be linked to the initiatory phases of seclusion and abstinence observed by shamans.

According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "Greater Magadha," which was Indo-Aryan, but not Vedic. In this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals.

Pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools in Buddhist texts
Pande attributes the origin of Buddhism, not entirely to the Buddha, but to a "great religious ferment" towards the end of the Vedic period when the Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions intermingled.

The Buddhist text of the Samaññaphala Sutta identifies six pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools, identifying them by their leader. These six schools are represented in the text to have diverse philosophies, which according to Padmanabh Jaini, may be "a biased picture and does not give a true picture" of the Sramanic schools rivaling with Buddhism,

 * The Purana Kassapa (Amoralism) śrāmana school: believed in antinomian ethics. This ancient school asserted that there are no moral laws, nothing is moral or immoral, there is neither virtue nor sin.

 * The Makkhali Gosala (Ajivika) śrāmana school: believed in fatalism and determinism that everything is the consequence of nature and its laws. This school denied that there is free will, but believed that soul exists. Everything has its own individual nature, based on how one is constituted from elements. Karma and consequences are not due to free will, cannot be altered, everything is pre-determined, because of and including one's composition.

 * The Ajita Kesakambali (Lokayata-Charvaka) śrāmana movement: believed in materialism. Denied that there is an after-life, any samsara, any karma, or any fruit of good or evil deeds. Everything including humans are composed of elemental matter, and when one dies one returns to those elements.

 * The Pakudha Kaccayana śrāmana movement: believed in atomism. Denied that there is a creator, knower. Believed that everything is made of seven basic building blocks which are eternal, neither created nor caused to be created. These seven blocks included earth, water, fire, air, happiness, pain and soul. All actions, including death is mere re-arrangement and interpenetration of one set of substances into another set of substances.

 * The Mahavira or (Jain) śrāmana school: believed in fourfold restraint, avoidance of all evil (see more below).

 * The Sanjaya Belatthiputta (Ajñana) śrāmana movement: believed in absolute agnosticism. Refused to have any opinion either way about existence of or non-existence of after-life, karma, good, evil, free will, creator, soul, or other topics.

These pre-Buddhist śrāmana movements were organized Sanghagani (orders of monks and ascetics), according to the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta. The six leaders above are described as a Sanghi (head of the order), Ganacariyo (teacher), Cirapabbajito (recluse), Yasassi and Neto (of repute and well known).

Jainism
Jain literature too mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta. During the life of Buddha, Mahavira and the Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta refers to Mahāvīra.

According to Pande, Jainas were the same as the Niganthas mentioned in the Buddhist texts, and they were a well established sect when Buddha began preaching. He states, without identifying supporting evidence, that "Jainas" appear to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and Sramanas who may have been ultimately connected with pre-Vedic civilization". The śramaṇa system is believed by a majority of Jaina scholars to have been of independent origin and not a protest movement of any kind, were led by Jaina thinkers, and were pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic.

Some scholars posit that the Indus Valley civilisation symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may have a connection to Rishabhanatha. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.

Buddhism
It was as a śramaṇa that the Buddha left his father's palace and practised austerities. Gautama Buddha, after fasting nearly to death by starvation, regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead a "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist sangha by demanding more rigorous practices.

The Buddhist movement chose a moderate ascetic lifestyle. This was in contrast to Jains, who continued the tradition of stronger austerity, such as fasting and giving away all property including clothes and thus going naked, emphasizing that complete dedication to spirituality includes turning away from material possessions and any cause for evil karma. The moderate ascetic precepts, states Collins, likely appealed to more people and widened the base of people wanting to become Buddhists. Buddhism also developed a code for interaction of world-pursuing lay people and world-denying Buddhist monastic communities, which encouraged continued relationship between the two. Collins states, for example, that two rules of the vinaya (monastic code) were that a person could not join a monastic community without parent's permission, and that at least one son remained with each family to care for that family. Buddhism also combined the continuing interaction, such as giving alms to renunciants, in terms of merit gained for good rebirth and good karma by the lay people. This code played a historic role in its growth, and provided a means for reliable alms (food, clothing) and social support for Buddhism.

Randall Collins states that Buddhism was more a reform movement within the educated religious classes, composed mostly of Brahmins, rather than a rival movement from outside these classes. In early Buddhism, the largest number of monastics were originally brahmins, and virtually all were recruited from the two upper classes of society – brahmins and kshatriyas.

Ājīvika
Ājīvika was founded in the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosala, as a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete communities.

The Ājīvikas reached the height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India. Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the first millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit Śravasti) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located in what is now the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. In later part of the common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the South Indian state of Karnataka and the Kolar district of Tamil Nadu.

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy once existed, but these are unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature. Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, written by ancient Buddhist and Jaina scholars, who represented competing and adversarial philosophies to Ājīvikas.

Conflict between śramaṇa movements
According to the 2nd century CE text Ashokavadana, the Mauryan emperor Bindusara was a patron of the Ajivikas, and it reached its peak of popularity during this time. Ashokavadana also mentions that Bindusara's son Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became enraged at a picture that depicted Buddha in negative light, and issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.

Jaina texts mention separation and conflict between Mahavira and Gosala, accusation of contemptuous comments, and an occasion where the Jaina and Ajivika monastic orders "came to blows". However, given the texts alleging conflict and portraying Ajivikas and Gosala in negative light were written centuries after the incident by their śramaṇa opponents, and given the versions in Buddhist and Jaina texts are different, the reliability of these stories, states Basham, is questionable.

Jain philosophy
Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, of whom Mahavira was the last. Acharyas Umaswati, Kundakunda, Haribhadra, and others further developed and reorganized Jain philosophy in its present form. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief in the independent existence of soul and matter, predominance of karma, the denial of a creative and omnipotent God, belief in an eternal and uncreated universe, a strong emphasis on nonviolence, an accent on anekantavada and morality and ethics based on liberation of the soul. The Jain philosophy of anekantavada and syādvāda, which posits that the truth or reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity.

Usage in Jain texts
Jain monastics are known as śramaṇas while lay practitioners are called śrāvakas. The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as the śramaṇa dharma. Jain canons like Ācārāṅga Sūtra and other later texts contain many references to Sramanas.

Ācāranga Sūtra
One verse of the Ācāranga sūtra defines a good śramaṇa: "Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana."

The chapter on renunciation contains a śramaṇa vow of non-possession: "I shall become a śramaṇa who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given."

The Ācāranga Sūtra gives three names of Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara, one of which was Śramaṇa:

"The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called Vardhamana, because he is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira has been given to him by the gods."

Sūtrakrtanga
Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga describes the śramaṇa as an ascetic who has taken Mahavrata, the five great vows:

"He is a Śramaṇa for this reason that he is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of a Śramaṇa, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body."

The Sūtrakrtanga records that prince, Ardraka, who became disciple to Mahavira, arguing with other heretical teachers, told Makkhali Gosala the qualities of śramaṇas:

"He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Śramaṇas, him I call a Śramaṇa."

Buddhist philosophy
Buddha initially practiced severe austerities, fasting himself nearly to death of starvation. However, he later considered extreme austerities and self-mortification as unnecessary and recommended a "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification.

The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions many śramaṇas with whom Buddha disagreed. For example, in contrast to Sramanic Jains whose philosophical premise includes the existence of an Atman (self, soul) in every being, Buddhist philosophy denies that there is any self or soul. This concept called Anatta (or Anatman) is a part of Three Marks of existence in Buddhist philosophy, the other two being Dukkha (suffering) and Anicca (impermanence). According to Buddha, states Laumakis, everything lacks inherent existence. Buddhism is a transtheistic philosophy, which is especially concerned with pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) and śūnyatā (emptiness or nothingness).

From rock edicts, it is found that both Brahmans as well as śramaṇas enjoyed equal sanctity.

Ajivika philosophy
The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism, the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles. Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms similar to the Vaisheshika school, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. Ājīvikas were atheists and rejected the epistemic authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being there is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism as well.

Comparison of philosophies
The śramaṇa traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy (six schools of Hindu philosophy). The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul, from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.

A denial of the epistemic authority of the Vedas and Upanishads was one of the several differences between Sramanic philosophies and orthodox Hinduism. Jaini states that while authority of vedas, belief in a creator, path of ritualism and social system of heredity ranks, made up the cornerstones of Brahminical schools, the path of ascetic self-mortification was the main characteristic of all the Sramanic schools.

In some cases when the Sramanic movements shared the same philosophical concepts, the details varied. In Jainism, for example, Karma is based on materialist element philosophy, where Karma is the fruit of one's action conceived as material particles which stick to a soul and keep it away from natural omniscience. The Buddha conceived Karma as a chain of causality leading to attachment of the material world and hence to rebirth. The Ajivikas were fatalists and elevated Karma as inescapable fate, where a person's life goes through a chain of consequences and rebirths until it reaches its end. Other śramaṇa movements such as those led by Pakkudha Kaccayana and Purana Kashyapa, denied the existence of Karma.

Influences on Indian culture
The śramaṇa traditions influenced and were influenced by Hinduism and by each other. According to some scholars, the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara and the concept of liberation may quite possibly be from śramaṇa or other ascetic traditions. Obeyesekere suggests that tribal sages in the Ganges valley may instead have inspired the ideas of samsara and liberation, just like rebirth ideas that emerged in Africa and Greece. O'Flaherty states that there isn't enough objective evidence to support any of these theories.

It is in the Upanishadic period that Sramanic theories influence the Brahmanical theories. While the concepts of Brahman and Atman (Soul, Self) can be consistently traced back to pre-Upanishadic layers of Vedic literature, the heterogeneous nature of the Upanishads show infusions of both social and philosophical ideas, pointing to evolution of new doctrines, likely from the Sramanic movements.

Śramaṇa traditions brought concepts of Karma and Samsara as central themes of debate. Śramaṇa views were influential to all schools of Indian philosophies. Concepts, such as karma and reincarnation may have originated in the śramaṇa or the renunciant traditions, and then become mainstream. There are multiple theories of possible origins of concepts such as Ahimsa, or non-violence. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to about the 7th century BCE, in verse 8.15.1, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis (CU 8.15.1). According to some scholars, such as D. R. Bhandarkar, the Ahimsa dharma of the Sramanas made an impression on the followers of Brahamanism and their law books and practices.

Theories on who influenced whom, in ancient India, remains a matter of scholarly debate, and it is likely that the different philosophies contributed to each other's development. Doniger summarizes the historic interaction between scholars of Vedic Hinduism and Sramanic Buddhism:

"There was such constant interaction between Vedism and Buddhism in the early period that it is fruitless to attempt to sort out the earlier source of many doctrines, they lived in one another's pockets, like Picasso and Braque (who, in later years, were unable to say which of them had painted certain paintings from their earlier, shared period)."

- Wendy Doniger

Hinduism
Randall Collins states that "the basic cultural framework for lay society which eventually became Hinduism" was laid down by Buddhism.

Modern Hinduism can be regarded as a combination of Vedic and śramaṇa traditions as it is substantially influenced by both traditions. Among the Astika schools of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya, and Yoga philosophies influenced and were influenced by the śramaṇa philosophy. As Geoffrey Samuel notes, "Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE."

Some Brahmins joined the śramaṇa movement such as Cānakya and Sāriputta. Similarly, a group of eleven Brahmins accepted Jainism and become Mahavira's chief disciples or ganadharas.

Patrick Olivelle suggests that the Hindu ashrama system of life, created probably around the 4th-century BCE, was an attempt to institutionalize renunciation within the Brahmanical social structure. This system gave complete freedom to adults to choose what they want to do, whether they want to be householders or sannyasins (ascetics), the monastic tradition was a voluntary institution. This voluntary principle, states Olivelle, was the same principle found in Buddhist and Jain monastic orders at that time.

In Western literature
Various possible references to "śramaṇas", with the name more or less distorted, have appeared in ancient Western literature.

Clement of Alexandria (150–211)
Clement of Alexandria makes several mentions of the śramaṇas, both in the context of the Bactrians and the Indians: "Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Samanaeans among the Bactrians ("Σαμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sarmanae ("Σαρμάναι"), and Brahmanae ("Βραχμαναι")."

Porphyry (233–305)
Porphyry extensively describes the habits of the śramaṇas, whom he calls "Samanaeans", in his On Abstinence from Animal Food Book IV. He says his information was obtained from "the Babylonian Bardesanes, who lived in the times of our fathers, and was familiar with those Indians who, together with Damadamis, were sent to Caesar."

"For the polity of the Indians being distributed into many parts, there is one tribe among them of men divinely wise, whom the Greeks are accustomed to call Gymnosophists. But of these there are two sects, over one of which the Brahmins preside, but over the other the Samanaeans. The race of the Brahmins, however, receive divine wisdom of this kind by succession, in the same manner as the priesthood. But the Samanaeans are elected, and consist of those who wish to possess divine knowledge."

"All the Bramins originate from one stock; for all of them are derived from one father and one mother. But the Samanaeans are not the offspring of one family, being, as we have said, collected from every nation of Indians. A Bramin, however, is not a subject of any government, nor does he contribute any thing together with others to government."
 * On entering the order:

"The Samanaeans are, as we have said, elected. When, however, any one is desirous of being enrolled in their order, he proceeds to the rulers of the city; but abandons the city or village that he inhabited, and the wealth and all the other property that he possessed. Having likewise the superfluities of his body cut off, he receives a garment, and departs to the Samanaeans, but does not return either to his wife or children, if he happens to have any, nor does he pay any attention to them, or think that they at all pertain to him. And, with respect to his children indeed, the king provides what is necessary for them, and the relatives provide for the wife. And such is the life of the Samanaeans. But they live out of the city, and spend the whole day in conversation pertaining to divinity. They have also houses and temples, built by the king, in which they are stewards, who receive a certain emolument from the king, for the purpose of supplying those that dwell in them with nutriment. But their food consists of rice, bread, autumnal fruits, and pot-herbs. And when they enter into their house, the sound of a bell being the signal of their entrance, those that are not Samanaeans depart from it, and the Samanaeans begin immediately to pray."

"And with respect to those that are philosophers, among these some dwell on mountains, and others about the river Ganges. And those that live on mountains feed on autumnal fruits, and on cows' milk coagulated with herbs. But those that reside near the Ganges, live also on autumnal fruits, which are produced in abundance about that river. The land likewise nearly always bears new fruit, together with much rice, which grows spontaneously, and which they use when there is a deficiency of autumnal fruits. But to taste of any other nutriment, or, in short, to touch animal food, is considered by them as equivalent to extreme impurity and impiety. And this is one of their dogmas. They also worship divinity with piety and purity. They spend the day, and the greater part of the night, in hymns and prayers to the Gods; each of them having a cottage to himself, and living, as much as possible, alone. For the Bramins cannot endure to remain with others, nor to speak much; but when this happens to take place, they afterwards withdraw themselves, and do not speak for many days. They likewise frequently fast."
 * On food and living habits:

"They are so disposed with respect to death, that they unwillingly endure the whole time of the present life, as a certain servitude to nature, and therefore they hasten to liberate their souls from the bodies [with which they are connected]. Hence, frequently, when they are seen to be well, and are neither oppressed, nor driven to desperation by any evil, they depart from life."
 * On life and death:

In contemporary Western culture
German novelist Hermann Hesse, long interested in Eastern, especially Indian, spirituality, wrote Siddhartha, in which the main character becomes a Samana upon leaving his home.

title: Śramaṇa


text:
Edubuntu

Edubuntu, previously known as Ubuntu Education Edition, is an official derivative of the Ubuntu operating system designed for use in classrooms inside schools, homes and communities.

Edubuntu is developed in collaboration with teachers and technologists in several countries. Edubuntu is built on top of the Ubuntu base, incorporates the LTSP thin client architecture and several education-specific applications, and is aimed at users aged 6 to 18. It was designed for easy installation and ongoing system maintenance.

Features
Included with Edubuntu is the Linux Terminal Server Project and many applications relevant to education including GCompris, KDE Education Suite, Sabayon Profile Manager, Pessulus Lockdown Editor, Edubuntu Menueditor, LibreOffice, Gnome Nanny and iTALC. Edubuntu CDs were previously available free of charge through their Shipit service; it is only available as a download in a DVD format.

In 23.04, Edubuntu's default GUI is GNOME. From 12.04 to 14.04, Edubuntu's default GUI was Unity; however GNOME, which had previously been the default, was also available. Since release 7.10, KDE is also available as Edubuntu KDE. In 2010, Edubuntu and the Qimo 4 Kids project were working on providing Qimo within Edubuntu, but this was not done as it would not have fit on a CD.

Project goals
The primary goal of Edubuntu was to enable an educator with limited technical knowledge and skills to set up a computer lab or an online learning environment in an hour or less and then effectively administer that environment.

The principal design goals of Edubuntu were centralized management of configuration, users and processes, together with facilities for working collaboratively in a classroom setting. Equally important was the gathering together of the best available free software and digital materials for education. According to a statement of goals on the official Edubuntu website: "Our aim is to put together a system that contains all the best free software available in education and make it easy to install and maintain."

It also aimed to allow low-income environments to maximize utilisation of their available (older) equipment.

Versions
The first Edubuntu release coincided with the release of Ubuntu 5.10, which was codenamed Breezy Badger on 2005-10-13. With the 8.04 Hardy Heron release of Edubuntu it was given the name of Ubuntu Education Edition and was changed to be an add-on to a standard Ubuntu installation instead of being an installable Live CD. From version 9.10 onwards, Edubuntu changed to be available as a full system DVD instead of an Add-on CD. Edubuntu is also installable via a selection of "edubuntu" packages for all distributions using the official Ubuntu repositories (Ubuntu and Kubuntu mainly).

Since 14.04, Edubuntu became LTS-only; Edubuntu announced that they would skip the 16.04 LTS update and that they planned on staying with 14.04 due to lack of contributors. It would then be discontinued for a number of years, but as of April 2023, the distro has returned as an official flavor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edubuntu


text: Category:Olympic archers by year

title: Category:Olympic archers by year


text:
Caverns of the Snow Witch

Caverns of the Snow Witch is a single-player roleplaying gamebook, written by Ian Livingstone, illustrated by Gary Ward and Edward Crosby and originally published in 1984 by Puffin Books. It was later republished by Wizard Books in 2003. It forms part of Steve Jackson and Ian Livingstone's Fighting Fantasy series. It is the 9th in the series in the original Puffin series (ISBN 0-14-031830-5) and 10th in the modern Wizard series (ISBN 1-84046-432-1).

Creation
The story was first published in Warlock: The Fighting Fantasy Magazine as a shorter 190-section adventure. Livingstone later expanded the plot to create the final story.

Story
Caverns of the Snow Witch is a fantasy adventure scenario in which the character is a guard working in the caravan of a merchant in the frozen land of Allansia, and hunts a dangerous beast.

The story takes the form of a campaign: the player must first locate the correct path to the lair of the Snow Witch, defeat the villain and her minions, and finally after escaping with allies find a means of overcoming a potentially fatal curse.

Reception
RPG.net stated the concept was "substantially better than The Warlock of Firetop Mountain, and certainly more novel than your typical dungeon crawl."

In other media
The gamebook was converted into a 40-page d20 System role-playing adventure by Jamie Wallis. It was published by Myriador in 2003 and reissued in pdf format by Greywood Publishing in 2008.

A digital version was developed by Tin Man Games available for Android and iOS. A PC Steam version was also released.

title: Caverns of the Snow Witch


text:
The Code (band)

The Code is an American ska-punk rock band from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The band released their first full-length CD on A-F Records, which they followed up with a split with Whatever It Takes. They have also toured with bands such as Rise Against, Against Me!, Bouncing Souls, Pipedown and Anti-Flag. Their most recent release is an EP, Rhetoric of Reason, released on Jumpstart Records. The band announced their break up in August 2006. On July 2, 2007, The Code reunited for a show in Lawrenceville.

The Code played a show with The Suicide Machines on May 25, 2018 in Lawrenceville along with Worlds Scariest Police Chases and announced that they were working on new material, and played a newly written song.

In Anti-Flag's EP, A Benefit for Victims of Violent Crime they have a song called "Marcdefiant" about lead singer of The Code. A demo version was first released as a bonus track on Anti-Flag's "For Blood And Empire" LP.

In April 2019, The Code played a series of Midwest shows with We Are the Union and Dollar Signs. They're currently working on a new record.

Discography

 * Alert, Aware, Involved (2002) A-F Records
 * The Code/Whatever it Takes Split (2003) A-F Records
 * Rhetoric of Reason (2004) Jumpstart Records

title: The Code (band)


text:
Carvacrol

Carvacrol, or cymophenol, C6H3(CH3)(OH)C3H7, is a monoterpenoid phenol. It has a characteristic pungent, warm odor of oregano.

Natural occurrence
Carvacrol is present in the essential oil of Origanum vulgare (oregano), oil of thyme, oil obtained from pepperwort, and wild bergamot. The essential oil of thyme subspecies contains between 5% and 75% of carvacrol, while Satureja (savory) subspecies have a content between 1% and 45%. Origanum majorana (marjoram) and Dittany of Crete are rich in carvacrol, 50% and 60–80% respectively.

It is also found in tequila and Lippia graveolens (Mexican oregano) in the verbena family.

Synthesis and derivatives
Carvacrol may be synthetically prepared by a number of routes. The fusion of cymol sulfonic acid with caustic potash results in desulfonation. By the action of nitrous acid on 1-methyl-2-amino-4-propyl benzene, one effects diazotization. Prolonged heating of camphor and iodine or carvone with glacial phosphoric acid have also been demonstrated. The dehydrogenation of carvone with a palladium-carbon catalyst has been established.

It has also been prepared by transalkylation of isopropylated cresols.

It is extracted from Origanum oil by means of a 50% potash solution. It is a thick oil that sets at -20 °C to a mass of crystals of melting point 0 °C, and boiling point 236–237 °C. Oxidation with ferric chloride converts it into dicarvacrol, whilst phosphorus pentachloride transforms it into chlorcymol.

Antimicrobial effects
In vitro, carvacrol has antimicrobial activity against 25 different phytopathogenic bacteria and strains including: Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium glabrum, Pseudomonas syringae, and fungi such as ''Fusarium verticillioides/F. moniliforme, Rhizoctonia solani/R. solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Phytophthora capsici''.

Compendial status

 * British Pharmacopoeia

title: Carvacrol


text: Talk:The Textile Institute

title: Talk:The Textile Institute


text:
Riverside Quarter

The Riverside Quarter, or Riverside Exchange is one of Sheffield's 11 designated City Centre Quarters. Its borders are West Bar, Coulston Street, Bridge Street, Castlegate, Exchange Place and the Parkway to its south, the Wicker Viaduct, Johnson Street, Spitalfields and Nursery Street to the North, and Corporation Street to the west. It is named after the Whitbread Exchange Brewery, which was formerly located on the site of the current developments, and incorporates the Victoria Quays.

History
In the 1760s, one of the earliest integrated steelworks in the world was set up on the site of what is now the Riverside Exchange. A brewery was founded in the area by Tennant Brothers in 1852, and by then there were already four different steelworks there. The brewery grew, however, and took up more and more of the area, and as Sheffield's steel industry plummeted in the mid-20th century and the steelworks were shut down, the brewery was free to expand and it soon took up most of the current area of the Riverside Exchange.

In 1962, the Exchange Brewery was taken over by Whitbread & Co Ltd. However, as the importance of the area decreased due to the closure of the Sheffield Wicker goods station and the loss of tram connections to the area, the brewery shut down in 1993.

In the late 1990s, plans were made by Sheffield's city council to redevelop the Exchange Brewery's area. The area now has more than 300 new apartments, built between 2003 and 2005, and some large office blocks. The area has been made pedestrian-friendly by the construction of the Upper Don Trail, a walkway parallel to Bridge Street along the river Don, and a pedestrian bridge linking the new developments to Nursery Street on the other side of the river.

The development of the Riverside Exchange neighbourhood continues, with planned new developments such as more office space, shops and cafés. There are also schemes for Nursery Street to be pedestrianised. The final northern section of Sheffield's Inner Relief Road, finished in 2008, shifts traffic away from Bridge Street and further increases the neighbourhood's desirability.

Another development, the West Bar scheme is to be based in the quarter. This is planned to extend the city centre's retail offering, and will also contribute new apartments and office space, and is based around the Sheffield Law Courts.

title: Riverside Quarter


text:
Talk:Road surface marking

Reference to U.S. Standards
I added reference and links to U.S. standards. I'd love to see other standards treated likewise and perhaps a separate section listing them all. MARussellPESE 17:15, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

This article needs to be deleted or merged out of existence
Yo---it looks like we need to delete or merge this mess. We already have excellent articles (all of which were partially researched and written by moi) on Lane, Cat's eye (road), and Raised pavement marker. The reason we cannot have a single article for Pavement marker (roads) is that all English language dialects outside of North America interpret "pavement" to mean what North Americans call a "sidewalk." This was the cause of much controversy in the Cat's eye article (please review the HUGE debate on that article's talk page) and the eventual reason for why it was split up into the two articles that exist now.

Also, the correct term is Botts' dot, not Bot dot, as indicated by all of the articles I have cited in the Raised pavement marker article. --Coolcaesar 01:30, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I just did a search on "road marker" and this article (Pavement marker (roads)) shot to the top. I had to dig through Lane to find the Road marking article, which is far superior. I see now that this article (Pavement marker (roads)) is redundant and should go. MARussellPESE 13:11, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

Centre white line
This article says that the idea was pioneered in California. However, I have a source that claims the first white line was painted in Sutton Coldfield, England in 1921.

Source: The Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield - A Commemorative History, Douglas V. Jones, 1994, Westwood Press (ISBN 0-9502636-7-2)

Seeing as this article has no reference to the claims, then wouldn't this be more appropriate? Or should it be outlined that the claim to who pioneered the central white line is contested? - Erebus555 12:21, 17 May 2007 (UTC)
 * If you have a reference, I'd list that. Do use the Cite book for the inline cite.  A referenced cite has standing.  If you can't find a cite for the current one, it may not be correct.  If someone later finds a source to support the previous claim then it can be listed as the first and yours as the first in Europe,  Vegaswikian 18:16, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

I fail to see how the claim for whose painted line came first can be "contested." The earliest date given is Hines' in 1911. Whether McCarroll read about Hines' use of the concept on Michigan, or came up with it herself, the simple fact remains that 1911 came before 1917. When I get a minute, I'd like to sit down and try to rewrite this, with appropriate documantation for Hines' claim, of course, giving McCarroll due credit for being the first to get it done in California. Dr-t 14:07, 16 December 2012

Pedestrian Crossings in UK
The article currently says that zig-zag markings identify pedestrian crossings but that pedestrians are prohibited from crossing there. Is this a typo or does it just need to be explained better? Strandist 17:17, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Reference added (or see the picture on the right) TiffaF 11:00, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Shark's teeth
The article Sharks teeth (Road Surface Marking) indicates only that such markings exist. It would be nice to know (either here or there) what they look like and what they are used for. Thanks to anyone who can add this information. Tim Ross  (talk)  12:52, 8 February 2010 (UTC)

Proposed merge with Road marking machine
Seems that there is no reason two articles on nearly the same subject.  Admr Boltz  18:42, 14 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Well, the article is about the general topic. Adding the machines, which come in many forms, to the article would appear to over complicate it and add too much extra text.  Vegaswikian (talk) 19:34, 14 January 2014 (UTC)
 * The machine article seems like an add. If you look at the creators contributions and specifically their contributions to commons, they are adding a lot of image from a chinese manufacturer and claiming "own work" on those images so it seems like a COI that could be easily averted by a merge. CombatWombat42 (talk) 21:37, 19 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Agree with merge proposal; much of the machine article is actually about the process of road surface marking, so there is a lot of overlap/duplication. Klbrain (talk) 19:57, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

✅

Proposed merge with Yield line
This is just a specialized road surface marking.  Admr Boltz  18:46, 14 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Removing request --  Admr Boltz  18:15, 15 January 2014 (UTC)

Proposed merge with Road re-striping
Cover the same topic, though the re-striping one has bad grammar and seems to be advertising something. EoRdE6(Come Talk to Me!) 03:23, 15 May 2015 (UTC)
 * Already done. It looks like that was one of many attempts to advertise for specific machine manufacturers.  Imzadi 1979  →   04:04, 15 May 2015 (UTC)

Removed undecipherable and unreferenced section.
I found this just above the preformed thermoplastic section, see edit history. If you want to fix this, please add references and translate it into proper English.

Pedestrian cross striping
Striping machine Pedestrian cross striping machine is special equipment professionally used for painting zebra lines on the intersections or other busy road sections. Because of the characteristics of zebra cross, parallel stripes not long, the striping machine is often small hand-guide road marking machine, convenient to turn direction. The widths of stripe are 350mm, 400mm, 450mm, 500mm and 600mm. There is discrepancy between the engineer regulations in different countries. The marking shoe of pedestrian cross striping machine, which determines marking lines’ width, is much wider than other pavement marking machines. Some simple marking shoe with wheels is also applied to deal the road striping.

Painting construction The section of road should be swept clean and kept dry. Pull a guiding line straight and fix the two ends on the ground. Then spray or brush a primer layer on the asphalt or concrete surface. The powder state thermoplastic paint needs melt into molten state for painting. Pull or push the striping machine with the guide rod along the guiding line to keep the zebra stripes straight and beautiful. Generally, the hand-push road striper is backward coating and the self-propelled type is forward coating to conform the body force exert habit. EthanL (talk) 16:02, 23 December 2015 (UTC)

Where is the mnemonic association?
"Yellow was adopted because it was already the standard color of warning signs, and because it was easy to teach drivers to associate yellow lines with dividing opposing traffic and white lines with dividing traffic in the same direction. In turn, this simple mnemonic device greatly reduced head-on collisions and improved road traffic safety"

Is it that yellow = danger/warning & crossing yellow lines is more dangerous? Is it yellow = opposite traffic & white = same direction traffic?

It certainly doesn't seem like a helpful mnemonic, like ROY G VIB. Ileanadu (talk) 17:13, 15 July 2019 (UTC)

Proposing to rewrite entire article in American English because it was originally drafted in American English
Someone rewrote the article a few years ago into British English in violation of Wikipedia policy. For articles on subjects that are not inherently specific to a particular dialect, we normally keep the article in the dialect in which it was originally drafted. I am proposing to rewrite this mess back into American English. --Coolcaesar (talk) 22:26, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:12, 21 April 2021 (UTC)
 * DY-STM-Road-Marking-Machine-Working-in-Bahrain.jpg
 * DY-STM-Road-Marking-Machine-Working-in-Kenya.jpg
 * Road-Marking-Machines.jpg

Highway shields painted directly onto the road
At geo:37.6311260,-122.4360871 one can see highway shields painted directly onto the expressway surface. The article could perhaps mention cases like these. Jidanni (talk) 09:04, 13 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Road surface marking


text:
Talk:List of caricatures at Sardi's

Untitled
Yet to be searched for Sardi portraits: http://www.playbill.com/search/?q=sardi&np=4&m=&ul=&wf=12F00 http://www.playbill.com/search/?q=sardi&np=5&m=&ul=&wf=12F00 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Zanimum (talk • contribs) 17:16, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

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When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 05:05, 14 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of caricatures at Sardi's


text:
Talk:Eddie Timanus

Untitled
For reference, it looks like this edit was made by Mr. Timanus. Beginning 17:17, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, so what? He would be the best source for an article about himself, would he not be? --OntarioQuizzer 18:07, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Spoiler Alert
The statement "Timanus participated in the March 3, 2014 episode of the Decades tournament. While he had the most money going into Final Jeopardy!, he did not win." should have been added after the episode aired, and not before.66.19.240.4 (talk) 00:40, 4 March 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eddie Timanus


text:
Smother play

Smother play in contract bridge is a type of endplay where an opponent's apparent trump trick goes away.

Example
The situation can be illustrated with the following end-position:

Spades are trumps, and the lead is in the North (dummy) hand, declarer needing 2 tricks. It appears that the declarer is fated to take just one more trick with the Ace of spades. However, if the declarer leads dummy's diamond, pitching a heart (loser on loser play) (as does West), East gains the trick and has to lead something at trick 12. Whichever card he leads, South will play his trump and West's king is "smothered" – whatever spade he plays, South will take the last two tricks.

Smother play can be executed only when the victim's partner is on lead, because it requires that the declarer ruffs in one hand, and decides whether to overruff with the other.

title: Smother play


text:
Talk:Curly Howard

Some of this material contains too many colloquialisms.
Greasysteve13 09:56, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Rewrite
I redid the page and removed the "verify" tag, all the information seemed to come from reputable sources. Though I don't have a specific source for it, I think it's safe to assume that Curly is considered to be the favorite Stooge. Right? MorrisGregorian 07:01, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Lou Costello
I seem to remember a statement that Lou Costello incorporated (or copied) Curly's high pitched voice into his routine. Can anyone confirm?

AlGorup 15:50, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

Greed
"Sometime in his late teens, Curly married a young girl, whose name remains a mystery to this day. His mother, Jennie Horwitz, was against the idea of Curly's marrying at such a young age and had the marriage annulled."

That was mentioned on Greed. The guy said it was his great great, or great (I think great great) aunt. He said they apparently weren't in love and she didn't like him (he was laughing and I doubt he knew much about it) and it lasted only ten days. So if you want to put it lasted ten days, yeah, but it's from an episode if Greed that I can't find the episode number of. It was on at 10pm on November 29th, EST time though. But I know it's not a good source so I doubt it'll be mentioned. Maybe it can be said it's just an iffy fact?

Even if not, it's still pretty cool.-Babylon pride 03:13, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

untitled discussion
A while back, your biography of Jerome "Curly" Howard contained this paragraph:

"Jerry had been expelled from high school around 1920 after he and several fellow male students visted a brothel in Brooklyn during a class field trip. Only a fair student, and probably because of this incident, Jerry never graduated from high school."

There was no citation, and I've never seen this printed anywhere about the Three Stooges. Today, this fabrication has been changed to:

"Jerry was expelled from high school after an alleged incident circa 1920 where he and some other male classmates had visited a brothel in Brooklyn during a class field trip and Jerry had spent the night with in (sic) escort. After the incident, Jerry decided not to graduate..."

Now it's been changed to, not only did he visit a brothel, but he spent the night with an escort. Let's see your sources, other than your own head. Wikipedia, if you're going to allow someone to come on here and fabricate things about someone who's dead and can't defend themselves, then please, allow others to remove it.

Please get it right (talk) 12:37, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

The author had better check his facts. Even the birth and death dates are wrong. According to IMDB, Jerome Howard was born 22 October, 1903, and died 18 January, 1952. I noticed other errors too. And considering how much has been written about Curly, in my POV, he deserves a lot more article than he gets here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.130.4.118 (talk • contribs)

"Teen marriage" and "mystery first wife" is an urban legend
The business about Jerome "Curly" Howard being married for the first time in his teens, the marriage annulled and his first wife's identity being "a mystery to this day" is an urban legend (that info was probably copied out of an old book from 25 or more years ago). Info on Curly's first wife is known, and was researched by a member of The Three Stooges Fan Club, back in 1995. Unfortunately, i do not have a copy of that issue (The Three Stooges Journal) handy, but here is a link to a citation from it:

http://www.threestooges.net/index.php?main=/journal.php&action=view&id=76

His first wife's name was Julia Rosenthal. They were married in 1930 (Jerome would have been about 27 years old at the time, not a teenager). They were divorced (not annulled). Sorry I can't provide more concrete documentation at this moment, but this is the truth. No "mystery woman" and no "teen marriage."

Have a great day.

Someone please change the wikipedia article to reflect this, as it still, as of March 6, 2020, states that Curly's mother had the first marriage annulled, which does not make sense at all upon reading, since Curly was then in his 20's-TWENties- and his mother would ostensibly have had no say in his marriage. {{{{ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.137.16.4 (talk) 02:09, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I have cleaned up the article to reflect this. The Journal article appeared in the Winter 1995 edition (reference to this has been noted).Oanabay04 (talk) 13:17, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

Mark Yurkiw —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 63.3.67.132 (talk) 04:56, 8 February 2007 (UTC).

 * All that information about his marriage at 27 and their divorce might be true. But it doesn't contradict the teen marriage story. The fact that the teen marriage and annulment is mentioned in his neice's book must lend some credibility to it.  140.147.160.78 17:24, 29 June 2007 (UTC)Stephen Kosciesza
 * Actually, Curly's niece has gone obn record as saying the Julia Rosenthal marriage was indeed the first one and that the annulled one has essentially been voided. The article has been cleaned up to reflect this.Oanabay04 (talk) 13:17, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

Contradiction
The article first states that he had some minor strokeS (note the plural) but then later had his second stroke. Which is correct? Stusutcliffe 19:45, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

Stusutcliffe - no one really knows for sure if Curly had one minor stroke shortly before If a Body Meets a Body (where it is readily noticable), or had several minor ones throughout 1945. Either way, the one that did him in was on the set of Half-Wits Holiday. Now, whether or not that was his second stroke or just the big one after several small ones is anyone's guess.Oanabay04 (talk) 19:11, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Curly biography
Hello all - I agree that this biography on Curly is poorly compiled. It has been edited, chopped, and pasted together in such a slapdash fashion, it is embarrassing. I am in the process of slowly cleaning this page up, to bring it up to the standards of the master Three Stooges page, complete with citations, quotes, and the facts. Just give me a little time, as I have spent most of my free time working on the individual pages for the 190 shorts (see List of Three Stooges shorts). Oanabay04 (talk) 19:07, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Birdinhead.jpg
The image Image:Birdinhead.jpg is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

The following images also have this problem:

 * Image:RhythmTogether.jpg

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --13:02, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Item removed from Trivia
I removed this from the Trivia section because it isn't well-written (and makes me rather suspicious):
 * When Curly was a young boy. He start to mess with one of his father pistols. He accidentally shot his own foot with the pistol leaving the bullet inside his foot. His brother Moe came and save him from what had happen to him and told his parents to take him to the doctor. But curly did not like the doctor at all never wanted surgery wanting the bullet removed from his foot. So Curly Kept the bullet on his foot making his own little foot dance. When he makes the step back with his foot when he raises it and walks back. As it shows that he still has the bullet on his foot

- furrykef (Talk at me) 13:09, 17 May 2008 (UTC)

 * It's also already covered in the article, in something resembling real English. Baseball Bugs What's up, Doc? 14:16, 17 May 2008 (UTC)

Curly biography rewritten, expanded
Hello all - Ok, all. I reviewed the article is detail and have added some sections, and rewritten others. Hope this clears up many factual inaccuracies. The major discoverey over the last 25+ has been the revelation of Curly's first marriage.Oanabay04 (talk) 13:14, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

Incorporate Curly's formal Hebrew name

 * According to the Hebrew inscription on Curly's gravestone, his formal Hebrew name was "Yehudah Lev son of Shelomo Natan the Levite".

I'm not sure where in the article is the most appropriate place to add this information. It is transliterated directly from the Hebrew inscription on Curly's gravestone and is his given formal Hebrew name. I can read Hebrew and have verified the transliteration as accurate. It was previously in the Trivia section.

Perhaps the most appropriate place to add the information would be the 'early life' section. Bubbadersh (talk) 22:24, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

Curly's Nickname Conception
Which one of these two lines from the article is true? Is it Ted Healy or Shemp's Wife that caused the change?:

"Because he was the youngest, his brothers called him "Babe" to tease him. The nickname stuck with him all his life, although when Shemp married Gertrude Frank, who was also nicknamed "Babe," the brothers started calling him Curly to avoid confusion"

"Ted took one look at Jerry, with his chestnut-red locks and elegant waxed mustache and stated that he was not a funny character like Moe and Larry. Jerry left the room and returned minutes later with a shaved head and face. Healy quipped, "Boy, don't you look girlie?" Moe misheard the joke as "curly" and all who witnessed the exchange realized that the nickname "Curly" would be a perfect fit."
 * What is "girlie" about a shaved head?

12:24, 22 January 2009 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.24.119.11 (talk)

Answer: BOTH. The Ted Healy story is about how he got the stage-name "Curly." The story about Shemp's wife is about how his stage name became his real-life nickname. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 139.68.134.1 (talk) 19:59, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

Costello
I'll leave "siphoning", but it just sounds weird to me. What is siphoning, in this context, if not stealing? Why not say stealing? Siphoning just sounds like an attempt to be cute or clever, not really in keeping with encyclopedic style. But that's just MHO. Monkeyzpop (talk) 19:07, 5 March 2009 (UTC)

Gerald or Jerome?
I've heard both. Which is true, or neither? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Longinus876 (talk • contribs) 10:54, 6 June 2014 (UTC)

Conflict between Harry Cohn article and this
Harry Cohn article says "there is a popular myth that he forced Curly Howard of the Stooges to keep working after suffering a series of minor strokes, which led to a further deterioration of Howard's health and his eventual retirement. [5] That is untrue. Production records for 1945 and 1946 clearly show that the amount of time Curly spent filming was minimal ... " 109.145.112.211 (talk) 01:25, 14 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Thanks. Hmmm... That paragraph (Harry Cohn, bottom of section) is unsourced. It was adding by an IP address in May 2014. I've corrected the conflict there and rephrased it to explain that it was according to one biographer. That should help clear up some of the WP:NPOV issues. Grayfell (talk) 01:50, 14 December 2014 (UTC)

3 stooges ancestry
What is the historical ancestry of the 3 stooges. P aren't and grand parents? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.221.132.46 (talk) 20:23, 17 February 2018 (UTC) Why was Curly Howard not also buried with his last wife at his side, and if not where was she buried? It seems all the brothers were buried together or near each other, however I'd expect Curly's wife would of took priority to be buried beside him, and the bothers that were not married beside her. Where were the other brother's wives buried? Was Curly's last wife buried by herself or with her family? A family as rich as the Howards I'm sure could have a afforded a large plot where all the families could have been buried. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.245.70.102 (talk) 08:00, 4 September 2018 (UTC)

Moidalise?
I have the phrase ‘I’ll moidalise [murder] da bum!’ in my head, attributed to The Stooges, and Curly in particular, but is that correct? Was it a Moe-ism, or some other source entirely? 2001:44B8:3102:BB00:1938:3FF8:E87:36CE (talk) 20:43, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Word modification.
"Ah-ba-ba-ba-ba-ba-ba!" – used during his later years,a sort of nonsense, high-pitched yelling that signified being scared or overly excited.

In this section, "nonsense" should be changed to "nonsensical." 142.170.61.116 (talk) 00:00, 4 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Curly Howard


text:
State Prizes of the Soviet Republics

The State Prizes of the Soviet Republics were each republic counterpart to the USSR State Prize. Each republic granted several different prizes, generally named after writers or artists from the republic, as well as a blanket Komsomol prize for young artists.

Republics

 * Russian SFSR
 * Maxim Gorky (literature)
 * Konstantin Stanislavski (theatre)
 * Mikhail Glinka (music)
 * Vasili Bazhenov (architecture)
 * Ilya Repin (fine arts)
 * Brothers Vasilyev (cinema)
 * Nadezhda Krupskaya (art and literature for children)
 * Ukrainian SSR
 * Taras Shevchenko
 * Pavlo Tychyna
 * Maksym Rylsky
 * Lesya Ukrainka
 * Nikolai Ostrovsky
 * Belarusian SSR
 * Yanka Kupala (literature)
 * Yakub Kolas
 * Panteleymon Lepeshinsky
 * Uzbek SSR
 * Alisher Navoiy
 * Kazakh SSR
 * Abay Qunanbayuli (literature)
 * Kurmangazy (music)
 * Kulyash Baiseitova
 * Georgian SSR
 * Shota Rustaveli
 * Azerbaijan SSR:
 * Mirza Akhundov (literature)
 * Uzeyir Hajibeyov (music)
 * Lithuanian SSR
 * Žemaitė (literature)
 * Pranas Zibertas
 * Moldavian SSR
 * Boris Glavan
 * Latvian SSR
 * Eduards Veidenbaums (literature)
 * Mirdza Ķempe
 * Kyrgyz SSR
 * Toktogul Satylganov
 * Mayramkan Abylkasymova
 * Tajik SSR
 * Rudaki
 * Armenian SSR
 * Aram Khatchaturian (music)
 * A. Danielyan
 * Turkmen SSR
 * Makhtumkuli
 * Estonian SSR
 * Juhan Smuul (literature)

ASSRs
The Autonomous Republics (ASSRs) also had their state prizes; a sample:
 * Abkhaz ASSR
 * Darmit Gulia
 * Bashkir ASSR
 * Salawat Yulayev
 * Chuvash ASSR
 * Konstantin Ivanov
 * Dagestan ASSR
 * Suleiman Stalsky
 * Kalmyk ASSR
 * Oka Gorodovikov
 * Karakalpak ASSR
 * Berdakh
 * Karelian ASSR
 * Arhippa Perttunen
 * Komi ASSR
 * Ivan Kuratov
 * Viktor Savin
 * Mari ASSR
 * Sergei Chavain
 * Tatar ASSR
 * Ğabdulla Tuqay
 * Yakut ASSR
 * Platon Oyunsky

title: State Prizes of the Soviet Republics


text:
User talk:Rolz0r6666

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. -- 17:20, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rolz0r6666


text:
Hlyboka Raion

Hlyboka Raion (Глибоцький район, Raionul Adâncata ) is a former administrative district of Chernivtsi Oblast located in the historical regions of Bukovina and Hertsa, in western Ukraine. The administrative center was the urban-type settlement of Hlyboka. There were 37 villages in the raion. The population of the raion according to the 2001 Census was 72,682 inhabitants, its area covers 686 km2. The raion was abolished on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Chernivtsi Oblast to three. The area of Hlyboka Raion was merged into Chernivtsi Raion. The last estimate of the raion population was

According to the Ukraine Census (2001), the 72,676 residents of the raion reported themselves as following: Ukrainians: 34,025 (46.82%), Romanians: 32,923 (45.3%), Moldovans: 4,425 (6.09%), Russians: 877 (1.21%), and other: 426 (0.59%). Hlyboka raion, within its boundaries at that time, had 72,676 inhabitants in 2001, including 52.56% Ukrainian-speakers, 45.97% Romanian-speakers, and 1.15% Russian-speakers. In 1989, in the last Soviet census of 1989, out of 68,009 inhabitants, 27,407 declared themselves Ukrainians (40.3%), 29,042 Romanians (42.7%), 9,644 Moldovans (14.18%), and 1,363 Russians (2%). The decline in the number (from 9,644 to 4,425) and proportion of self-identified Moldovans (from 14.18% to 6.09%) was explained by a switch from a census Moldovan to a census Romanian ethnic identity, and has continued after the 2001 census. By contrast, the number of self-identified ethnic Romanians has increased (from 29,042 to 32,923), and so has their proportion of the population of the former raion (from 42.7% to 45.3%), and the process has continued after the 2001 census.

The raion also had 34 public hospitals and clinics.

At the time of disestablishment, the raion consisted of eight hromadas:
 * Chahor rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Chahor;
 * Hlyboka settlement hromada with the administration in Hlyboka;
 * Kamianka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Kamianka;
 * Karapchiv rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Karapchiv;
 * Sucheveny rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Sucheveny;
 * Tarashany rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Tarashany;
 * Terebleche rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Terebleche;
 * Voloka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Voloka.

title: Hlyboka Raion


text:
Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut

The Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut (previously known as Filmfare Award for Lux New Face of the Year) is given by Filmfare as part of its annual Filmfare Awards for Hindi films to recognise a performance by a female actor in their debut role.

The first recipient of the award was Juhi Chawla, who was honored at the 34th Filmfare Awards in the year 1989. Preity Zinta and Ananya Panday are the only actresses who won the award for 2 different films. As of 2021, Priyanka Chopra and Parineeti Chopra are the only cousins to win the award while Sara Ali Khan and Abhimanyu Dassani are the only winners whose parents (Saif Ali Khan and Bhagyashree respectively) have won a Filmfare Best Debut award. Divya Bharti is the only actress to win the award for her fifth film and not for her first film.

Juhi Chawla, Preity Zinta, Kareena Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra, Vidya Balan, Deepika Padukone, Kangana Ranaut and Kriti Sanon are the only recipients who also won Filmfare Award for Best Actress, with Balan winning four times and Padukone winning twice.

Tabu, Kareena Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra, and Kangana Ranaut have all won the Filmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics) (Tabu winning the most at 4 times and Kapoor with 2 wins) and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress, while Vidya Balan has won the former award once. The award was not given in this category in the years 1997, 2010 and 2018. The most recent recipient of the award is Alizeh Agnihotri, who was honored at the 69th Filmfare Awards.

title: Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut


text:
Talk:Shinobi III: Return of the Ninja Master

Bonus
If anyone could verify my bonus descriptions? I just played the game and tried to eliminate conditions to know which was which but I'm not 100% sure. --Steerpike 17:21, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Development history
Can anyone merge this section with that of the Beta versions to produce a single coherent text on the subject? --Steerpike 21:33, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

I've given it a go, tell me if it looks OK or feel free to add more. --FFOGalvatron 12:49, 26 October 2005

 * There I finalized it for now. Plenty of room for improvement still but I'm satisfied as it is right now. --Steerpike 23:34, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah it's good work. More information about the betas could be added but for now I think it's fine. --FFOGalvatron 14:26, 28 October 2005

The second beta
Updated this page with lots more information than before. --Galvy 14:41, 05 Febuary 2006

music?
Who composed the soundtrack? Was it Yuzo Koshiro?

 * According to Mobygames, music and sound was handled by Masayuki Nagao, Hirofumi Murasaki and Morihiko Akiyama. --Steerpike 15:08, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Japanese names of characters
This: http://www.ne.jp/asahi/hzk/kommander/ss2scan3.jpg - http://www.webcitation.org/6FhHLc9kY - Appears to be a scan of a gaming magazine discussing Super Shinobi II Linked from http://www.ne.jp/asahi/hzk/kommander/ss2triv.html - http://www.webcitation.org/6FhISo8Mp WhisperToMe (talk) 08:31, 7 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Joe Musashi: ジョー・ムサシ
 * Naoko: ナオコ
 * Masked Ninja: マスクド・忍者
 * ジャドー・マスター
 * However Naoko doesn't appear in this game WhisperToMe (talk) 14:29, 7 April 2013 (UTC)


text:
William Squire

William Arthur Squire (29 April 1917 – 3 May 1989) was a Welsh actor of stage, film and television.

Career
As a stage actor, Squire performed at Stratford-upon-Avon and at the Old Vic, and notably replaced his fellow-countryman Richard Burton as King Arthur in Camelot at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway. One of his first film appearances was in the 1956 film Alexander the Great, which starred Burton in the title role.

Squire had many roles in television and movies over his career, including Thomas More in the 1969 film version of Maxwell Anderson's play Anne of the Thousand Days; Sir Daniel Brackley in the 1972 television adaptation of Robert Louis Stevenson's The Black Arrow; the voice of Gandalf in the 1978 animated version of The Lord of the Rings; and the Shadow in the 1979 Doctor Who serial The Armageddon Factor. According to the website Television Heaven, Squire's best-known role was Hunter in the British spy series Callan. Squire was the fourth actor to play the character in the main series, taking over the role from Derek Bond.

In a set of Encyclopædia Britannica-produced educational films about William Shakespeare's Macbeth, Squire played the role of Macbeth. This was in keeping with his long career as a Shakespearean actor, which included roles in the classic 1960s TV series, An Age of Kings.

On 15 June 1967, the St. John's College choir at University of Cambridge recorded A Meditation on Christ's Nativity. Squires read several poems, including The Annunciation by John Donne and A Dialogue by George Herbert, and 1 John 1:1-10 from the New English Bible for the album.

In the late 1960s Squire narrated a series of radio advertisements for Findus Foods under the pseudonym Frobisher Collingwood. The advertisements were played on Radio Caroline. According to Squire's son Nick, the idea to use a pseudonym was a joke between Squire and his friend Hugh Bredin, who wrote the advertisements, with the name itself being a combination of two telephone exchanges in London at the time.

Personal life
Squire was born on 29 April 1917 in Neath, Glamorgan, to William Squire and his wife Martha (née Bridgeman).

He was first married to the actress Betty Dixon. He later married the actress Juliet Harmer in 1967.

There is a park bench on Hampstead Heath dedicated to him.

Squire died on 3 May 1989 in London, England.

title: William Squire


text:
Le Magnifique

Le Magnifique (literally The Magnificent; also known as The Man from Acapulco) is a 1973 spy comedy, a French/Italian international co-production, starring Jean-Paul Belmondo, Jacqueline Bisset and Vittorio Caprioli that was directed by Philippe de Broca. Le Magnifique is a slapstick spoof of B-series spy films and novels and the men who write them.

In the film, a financially struggling writer of spy novels imagines himself as an idealised superspy. In his imagination, he casts his female neighbor as the spy's paramour, and his publisher as an Albanian villain. The imagination is soon reflected in the formation of a love triangle in the writer's life.

Synopsis
François Merlin (Jean-Paul Belmondo) is a Jean Bruce type writer of pulp espionage novels (he has written 42 so far) and about half of the film plays in his imagination, where he is the world-renowned superspy Bob Sinclar. (The name of the character is never seen written in the film. While some people write his name "Saint-Clair", the way it is pronounced in French sounds like Sinclar; in the English dubbed soundtrack the surname is "St. Cloud".)

Christine (Jacqueline Bisset) is a sociology student who lives in François' building and is interested in the novels, but in the writer's imagination she becomes Tatiana, his paramour, while the pompous and rich publisher of his novels, Pierre Charron (Vittorio Caprioli), doubles as the great villain of the spy novels, the Albanian secret service's head Karpov, who in a memorable scene of the film threatens to cut off one of Tatiana's breasts.

Christine is clearly fascinated with the handsome spy Bob Sinclar, an unrealistic and idealised hero, who is the very opposite of his creator: a clumsy, frustrated divorced man who barely makes enough money to get by. However, when she is befriended by the rich and vain publisher who looks down upon his poor hack writer, she realises her mistake, and after a party where he tries to seduce her, she flees him and falls asleep on the landing outside the writer's flat, where he finds her in the morning, clad apparently only in a T-shirt and embraces her for a happy ending. In the final scene, François throws over the balcony his last manuscript, freeing himself from his character and his imaginary life.

Production
Due to a dispute between Francis Veber and director Philippe de Broca over the importance of the lead female character to the script, Francis Veber refused to be credited as a writer. As a result, the credits don't feature any writer.

UK Release
In the United Kingdom, Le Magnifique was titled How to Destroy the Reputation of the Greatest Secret Agent, and was released as the B-Movie to the film Doc Savage: The Man of Bronze in 1975.

Cast

 * Jean-Paul Belmondo : François Merlin / Bob Saint-Clar
 * Jacqueline Bisset : Christine / Tatiana
 * Vittorio Caprioli : Georges Charron / Colonel Karpof
 * Monique Tarbès : Mrs. Berger
 * Mario David (actor) : Policeman
 * Raymond Gérôme : General Pontaubert
 * Jean Lefebvre : The electrician
 * Hans Meyer : Colonel Collins
 * André Weber : The plumber
 * Hubert Deschamps : Salesman
 * Bernard Musson : Interpreter
 * Louis Navarre (actor) : Interpreter
 * Jean-Pierre Rambal : The Lecturer
 * Gaëtan Noël : Doctor

References to other films and media
This is the film that is the main inspiration for the three teenage heroes of the novel by Andrei Makine, Once Upon the River Love (Au temps du fleuve Amour, 1994).

French DJ Bob Sinclar took his stage name from the unseen super spy.

title: Le Magnifique


text:
Svetlana-class cruiser

The Svetlana-class cruiser was the first class of light cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) during the 1910s. Construction was interrupted by World War I, the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War. Only Svetlana of the quartet was completed by the Soviet Union as a cruiser, two were converted to oil tankers, and the remaining ship was scrapped without being completed.

Svetlana, now renamed Profintern, became fully operational in 1928 and was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet the following year. The ship was renamed Krasnyi Krim in 1939 and supported Soviet troops during the Black Sea Campaigns during World War II. After the war, she became a training ship until the ship was decommissioned in 1958 and broken up two years later.

Background and design
The State Duma had earlier approved construction of modern dreadnought battleships, but the IRN lacked modern cruisers and destroyers. Several years after the first Gangut-class battleship s were ordered, the navy finally gained approval for four light cruisers as part of the 1912–1916 shipbuilding program to scout for the capital ships and to lead destroyer flotillas. Design work for the ships had begun as back as 1907, but it took the IRN several iterations between alternating specifications and designs to decide what was feasible. In early 1912 it conducted a design contest for a 4000 - 5000 LT ship armed with a dozen 55-caliber 130 mm Pattern 1913 guns, capable of a speed of 30 kn, and protected by some side armor. Other important requirements were a strong resemblance to the dreadnoughts under construction and the ability to lay mines. None of the submissions were entirely satisfactory, and the shipyards were asked for new, larger, designs. The navy combined the submissions from the Russo-Baltic and Putilov Shipyards for a 6600 LT design in November. In February 1913, the IRN needed to divert some money from the cruisers to pay for the Borodino-class battlecruisers and the shipyards agreed to reduce the price from 9,660,000 rubles, excluding guns and armor, to 8,300,000 rubles in exchange for reducing the speed to 29.5 kn; the navy then ordered two ships from each yard on 13 February. Late changes to the design, including the addition of Frahm anti-roll tanks and provision for a seaplane, added several hundred extra tons to the displacement.

The Svetlana-class ships had an overall length of 158.4 m, a beam of 15.3 m, and a draft of 5.56 m. The ships displaced 6750 LT at normal load. They were powered by four direct-drive Curtis-AEG-Vulkan steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by 13 Yarrow boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 50000 shp, which would propel the ship at 29.5 knots; those for Svetlana and Admiral Greig were ordered from AG Vulcan Stettin in Germany (Admiral Greig subcontracted to Blohm+Voss). These were not delivered owing to the outbreak of World War I, and those intended for Svetlana were used to engine the German Brummer-class cruisers. As a result, new engines had to be ordered from the UK; this delayed Svetlana, and probably prevented Greig's completion as a cruiser. The ships carried 1167 LT of fuel oil. Their crew consisted of approximately 630 officers and crewmen.

The increase in size of the Svetlanas during the design process allowed their main armament to be increased from 12 to 15 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts. Six of the 10 guns on the main deck were positioned in casemates and all were difficult to work in bad weather. The guns had a range of 15364 m at an elevation of +20° and fired 36.86 kg projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 823 m/s. The maximum rate of fire was eight rounds per minute. The ships were also armed with four 38-caliber 63.3 mm anti-aircraft (AA) guns, although their maximum elevation was limited to +75°, two submerged 450 mm torpedo tubes and could carry 100 mines. During construction, Svetlana's AA guns were replaced by 30-caliber 76.2 mm Lender AA guns and the rest of the ships were intended to receive 102 mm AA guns.

The waterline belt of the Svetlana-class ships was 76 millimeters thick. It extended the whole length of the hull and covered from the lower deck to 3 ft below the waterline. Above it was a 25 mm strake of armor that covered the area between the lower and main decks. Those decks were each 20 mm thick and the funnel uptakes were protected by 25 millimeters of armor. The walls of the conning tower were 76 millimeters thick while the gun shields protecting the 130-millimeter guns were 25 millimeters thick.

Service
Svetlana and her sister ships were evacuated to Petrograd when the Germans approached Reval in late 1917 and were laid up incomplete during the Russian Revolution. The Soviets renamed Svetlana as Profintern in 1922, and removed her original torpedo tubes in exchange for a pair of triple 533 mm torpedo tubes on the main deck. The ship was completed in 1925, although she required several more years' work to be fully operational. Initially assigned to the Baltic Fleet, Profintern was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet in 1929. She was extensively overhauled in the late 1930s and her anti-aircraft armament was greatly augmented. The ship was renamed Krasnyi Krym upon the completion of her overhaul in 1939. During World War II, she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa, the Siege of Sevastopol, and the Kerch-Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941–1942. The ship was reclassified as a training ship in 1945 and was decommissioned in 1958 before being scrapped in 1960.

Admiral Spiridov and Admiral Greig were converted into diesel-powered oil tankers during the 1920s and were renamed Grozneft and Azneft respectively. They were subsequently transferred to the Black Sea where the latter ship parted her moorings during a storm in Tuapse on 23 December 1938. She was blown onto a mole and capsized. Grozneft was renamed Groznyy in 1935 and was captured by the Germans on 8 October 1941. The ship was scuttled at Mariupol on 20 September 1943 and was refloated after the war. Groznyy was transferred back to the Baltic in 1946. Admiral Butakov was renamed Voroshilov in 1928, and multiple plans were drawn up for her to be completed, including some as a training ship armed with 4 B-2LM turrets (Project 78), but none of these came to fruition. Her hull was used as a breakwater at the mouth of the Neva River at Saint Petersburg before being broken up in 1952.

title: Svetlana-class cruiser