text:
Víctor Aristizábal

Víctor Hugo Aristizábal Posada (born 9 December 1971) is a Colombian retired professional footballer who played as a striker.

At the 2001 Copa América in his home country, he won the country's first international title with the Colombian selection and was the tournament's top scorer with 6 goals.

Club career
Aristizábal was born in Medellín, Antioquia. He started his career in Atlético Nacional, and played there from 1990 to 1996 only interrupted by a short spell with Valencia CF in 1994. Winning the Colombian league twice with Nacional, he eventually moved to play in Brazil. He played for São Paulo and Santos before spending two seasons at Nacional and Deportivo Cali. In 2002, he once again moved to Brazil, and played for EC Vitória, Cruzeiro and Coritiba. Aristizábal is the all-time top foreign goalscorer in the Brazilian league. He is also the all-time Colombian goalscorer with 348 goals, of which about 200 goals were scored with Atlético Nacional, club which he is also the top goalscorer. He is the only player that has won six championship with Atlético Nacional. He announced his retirement from football in November 2007 after suffering an awkward knee injury.

International career
Between 1993 and 2003, Aristizábal played 66 international matches and scored 15 goals for the Colombia national team. He was an unused substitute for the 1994 FIFA World Cup, but played all three matches at the 1998 FIFA World Cup.

Aristizábal finished as top scorer with six goals in the 2001 Copa América held in Colombia, as Los Cafeteros won the title for the first time. He was also a member of the nation's squad for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup, where they finished in fourth place.

During the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign, Aristizábal announced he was retiring from international soccer after being dropped for a match against Brazil.

Personal life
Aristizábal's son, Emilio, is also a professional footballer, and currently plays for Atlético Nacional.

Club
Summary of official goals

International

 * Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Aristizábal goal.

Honours
Atlético Nacional
 * Fútbol Profesional Colombiano: 1991, 1994, 1999, 2005-I, 2007-I, 2007-II
 * Copa Interamericana: 1990, 1995
 * Copa Merconorte: 2000

Cruzeiro
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 2003
 * Copa do Brasil: 2003
 * Campeonato Mineiro: 2003

Coritiba
 * Campeonato Paranaense: 2004

Colombia
 * Copa América: 2001

Individual
 * Copa América top scorer: 2001
 * Colombian League top scorer: 2005-I

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Víctor Aristizábal


text:
User:Persept

Welcome to Wikipedia. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism. If you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the work of others. Thank you. -Patstuart(talk)(contribs) 06:11, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Persept


text:
Yair Hurvitz

Yair Hurvitz (יאיר הורביץ; 1941–1988 ), also known as Yair Horowitz, was an Israeli poet who began publishing poetry in the 1960s, he was a member of the "Tel Aviv Poets" group. His poems mark a return to the tradition of Haim Nachman Bialik. According to literary critic, Ariel Hirschfeld, a poem by Hurvitz comes close "to an invocation, to the creation of a visionary world by means of the word."

He died in 1988 at the age of 47 from the heart disease that had plagued him since childhood.

title: Yair Hurvitz


text: Talk:WITI TV Tower

title: Talk:WITI TV Tower


text:
Talk:Switzerland during the World Wars

effectuated
"effectuated" ? Ouch. Is that even a word?
 * Yes. — g026r 06:26, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

Not a good one Diomedea Exulans (talk) 17:59, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Expansion of the World War I section
This section is tiny and insignificant. There needs to be more elaboration and more filling to this section. Please add info to this section. Jean-Paul 07:42, 14 August 2006 (UTC)

What is "The size of the Swiss military was considered by both sides in the pre-War years, especially in the Schlieffen Plan." supposed to mean? Diomedea Exulans (talk) 17:59, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Swiss concentration camps
Please, somebody who knows about this subject: write a Wikipedia article about it. I heard on a radio program devoted to music that a great violinist, Josef Schmidt (sp?) died in a Swiss "concentration camp" [the words of the radio host]. So I headed to Wikipedia to see if neutral Switzerland could in fact have had concentration camps. As of today (13 Aug 07) there is nothing in Wikipedia even remotely related to this subject. But after much Googling I came up with an interesting website: http://swissinternees.tripod.com/wauwilermoos.html

I'm not an historian so I feel uncomfortable writing a Wikipedia article - but someone needs to, I feel.

Thanks!

71.129.174.133 20:01, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

 * hi! the word concentration camp is wrong in this context. --Philtime (talk) 11:47, 18 November 2007 (UTC)

The largest internment camp in switzerland, opened in 1940 in Bueren, was a trial to reach better managament efficieny by concentrating the internees in one place. For a short duration, the internment camp was thus called "Concentrationslager" (note the different spelling to the german "Konzentrationslager" and no, it wasnt anything like a germen Konzentrationslager). After management problems and clashes between polish inmates and guards, the whole project was regarded as a failure. See also ""Concentrationslager": Büren an der Aare 1940-1946 : das grösste Flüchtlingslager der Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg ", ISBN-13: 978-3906419039 129.132.31.142 (talk) 11:51, 1 February 2008 (UTC)Nik, 12:51,

Konzentrationslager or Concentration Camp was originally the term used for harmless internment camps. Thats the reason why the Germans called their camps that, as an euphemism to hide the real meaning. Only after WW2 it has got this extremely negative meaning, so the swiss camps should be called internment camps. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.186.215.187 (talk) 01:14, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

Merge articles
It seems that there are three articles with overlapping information:

1. History of Switzerland

2. Modern history of Switzerland

3. Switzerland during the World Wars

I think these should be combined -- or if that is too long for one article, at least edit them so they do not overlap. --Semitemos (talk) 01:39, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

 * No merging here. See Talk:History_of_Switzerland. Lupo 16:03, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

Inadequate Accounting of Switzerland Role as a Supporter of Nazis and Fascists
I just find this article to weak in its information of the connections the Swiss had to the Nazis and other war thugs and in its expression of just how much financial fraud relating to Nazi war crimes went on. And what about those rich and powerful families and figures from around the world who stayed in or headed to Switzerland to take "refuge" in the center of the Nazi empire? Why on Earth would anyone choose to escape war by going to a 'neutral' country in the heart of the Nazi realm? Is someone trying to rewrite history? 203.131.210.82 (talk) 04:35, 29 November 2016 (UTC)

Switzerland hid Nazi Gold during WWII, and turned into hard currency so that Hitler could prosecute the war. Switzerland also made Nazi armaments and shipped them to Germany. They also stopped Jewish refugees at the border and sent them back to certain death in German Concentration camps, consequently, many Jews committed suicide at the border, rather than go back. The Swiss also had anti-aircraft emplacements that shot down US B-17 bombers, murdering their crews. Swiss gun emplacements are still carved into their mountains today. The Swiss had Billions of dollars of Jewish wealth in their vaults after the war, and many family never saw a penny of that money, and the one's who did only received a little decades later after the Swiss were challenged by US legal actions. The Swiss were by no means neutral during the war, they served Hitler, otherwise they would have been invaded like every other Country. They committed crimes against humanity, and it is very difficult to hear this nonsense that they were neutral. See Dead Men's Secrets on the Military History Channel - Episode "Tracking Nazi Gold" 2004 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.158.232.133 (talk) 01:41, 28 September 2019 (UTC)

In my opinion the article needs some fixing but it's certainly not as inaccurate as you both say. Let's start with the claim that "Switzerland hid Nazi gold during WWII [ true] so that Hitler could prosecute the war (false- there is no well-accepted academic evidence it was in the declared interest of the Swiss state for the Nazis to continue their campaign and hence continue a war that led to food rationing in Switzerland, among other deprivations suffered by the Swiss population- I am NOT saying these deprivations are the same as those suffered by some other peoples during the war, but they are deprivations nonetheless). "Switzerland made Nazi armaments"- true, but they made armaments for Allied countries too. Regarding refugees, I think the article refers to the scholarly literature sufficiently. Regarding the shooting down of US bombers, the Swiss shot down German bombers too, both US and German aircraft were shot down, which is mentioned in the article. On Holocaust-era Jewish wealth in Swiss banks: The Volcker Commission found a few dozen million USD worth of account not billions. The claim that the Swiss "served Hitler" and that the article needs to be rewritten in that tone is hyperbolic at best. Also, there were German plans to invade Switzerland, despite its declared neutrality. Switzerland was already surrounded by Axis powers and the Germans saw it as unnecessary. Henri Guisan, the Swiss Head General ordered his troops to fight to the death in the case of a German invasion. The reason the Dutch/Belgians, for example, were invaded is that Hitler needed a clear path to France to achieve his goals. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:646:C000:AC50:5C0:294D:7F04:7F5C (talk) 11:40, 29 September 2019 (UTC)

Split discussion
Only from a superficial level could these two topics be seen as being similar enough to be placed in a single article. Aside from declaring a state of neutrality while being surrounded by belligerent nations, Switzerland's situations had very different sociopolitical contexts. During World War I, Switzerland was wrought with internal struggle over the very question of neutrality for the first few years. In World War II, the government sponsored attempts to define Swiss identity to keep its people distanced from Fascist leanings. There's also the whole question of Nazi and Jewish gold, refugees, severe infringements on neutrality, and very serious plans to invade and annex the country, none of which can be directly related to the earlier war experience. As the article currently stands, I don't believe it facilitates the fleshing-out of its most vital components. I think this can best be rectified via split. -Indy beetle (talk) 05:07, 28 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Split. I agree with Indy beetle. Switzerland in World War I and World War II are extremely different subjects. There is no reason to group Swiss actions, reactions, and relations during World War I with World War II as the two wars were not connected in that each war was fought for different reasons and involved different conflicting nations. -- Willthacheerleader18 (talk) 05:15, 28 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Comment It's only 35kB at the moment. It could expand to 60kB before needing to be split on size grounds. One option that could be considered is just leaving it in one article, just adding material to either the World War I or World War II sections, until it's a bit bigger. Honestly I have no real opinion either way - I'm just pleased it's being expanded. Buckshot06 (talk) 14:37, 28 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Split. I agree to split because the two topics are very different.  Switzerland took vastly different positions and acted very differently in both wars. Elliot321 (talk) 13:34, 25 April 2017 (UTC)

Miscellaneous
"Between 10,000 and 24,000 Jewish civilian refugees were refused entry" I couldn't find it on the mentioned page 107 in the bergier report. Where does this number come from? --178.193.39.223 (talk) 15:02, 12 July 2013 (UTC)

Generate two separate articles - but keep this one as well
Yes, there should be two separate pages on WW1 and WW2, since the current material on both of these topics is suitable for expanding and enriching.

The present article should also be retained, with the copy on WW1 and WW2 somewhat shortened-down, with links to the dedicated article in each case. The section on the inter-war period could remain as it is. Valetude (talk) 17:31, 15 May 2017 (UTC)

 * Why keep this one if we were to have articles on the other two? Aside from the generality that the country was neutral during both wars, so many different things occurred. That's like having an umbrella article World War I and World War II for World War I and World War II. -Indy beetle (talk) 02:18, 9 June 2021 (UTC)

External links modified
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Map
The map in the first section is incorrect. It shows Italy as an ally of Germany and Austria when in fact it was an ally of Britain and France. Only in World War Two was Italy an ally of Germany. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.114.44.56 (talk) 23:58, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Image states "Military alliances in 1914". Italy changed sides after WW1 began. See Triple Alliance (1882). 2001:56A:FA59:F800:5CF2:C911:3DA1:E589 (talk) 04:27, 15 February 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:22, 13 May 2020 (UTC)
 * SwissArmyAlps.jpg

"surrounded by mountains"
I've edited the article lead, which had read as follows: "During World War I and World War II, Switzerland maintained armed neutrality, and was not invaded by its neighbors, in part because it is surrounded by mountains."

The problem is that, although there certainly are quite a few mountains in Switzerland, it's not really "surrounded" by them, and in fact most of the German-Swiss border doesn't have a lot of large mountains that would provide a significant impediment to an invading army. And most of Switzerland's major German-speaking population centers are in a relatively flat area between the German border to the north and the Alps to the south. See:

Had the Germans invaded from the north in order to seize control of these German-speaking population centers (e.g. Basel, Zürich), topography would not have been a significant impediment to their advance, although the mountains further south would have provided some strategic depth to the Swiss defenders, from which to launch counterattacks and wage guerilla warfare. -2003:CA:8748:5C3A:786F:23E2:4E6A:ABBC (talk) 16:58, 28 June 2021 (UTC)

Incorrect citation for number of rejected Jewish refugees
I noticed that the article says "Between 10,000 and 24,000 Jewish civilian refugees were refused entry", citing the Bergier report. However, on page 117, this report reads as follows:

So in fact, this figure is not about Jewish refugees specifically but about total refugees.

I have no expertise in this and leave it to others to cite more accurate figures/citations.

Of note, the relevant section of the German Wikipedia states the following (translated using Deepl.com):

``` James Quinnies Dog (talk) 11:31, 13 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Switzerland during the World Wars


text:
User talk:Anulka~enwiki

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text: User talk:83.90.151.92

title: User talk:83.90.151.92


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User talk:Snail2

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On the Whistle Register and it's catagory
It has been requested that requests to have artists verified be added in a specific manner within one section. It is generally polite and good procedure to follow those requests, and this will result in less frustration for all involved.

Although your own musical knowledge may let you say that an artist reaches a note, this cannot be used within articles as it counts as original research. Hence we need good quality references stating such things. The whistle register is a more difficult point again, since it is unclear from the article if being able to hit a certain high note means that the whistle register must be in use. Until this has been decided via concensus and references, the only allowable reference for the use of this must be a specific statement of use. LinaMishima 14:34, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

Warning
You have already been informed once about the need to verify any additions to any article, especially those on living people. There is an attempt on the Whilst register catagory talk page to define, via references, once and for all who should an should not be included.

Recient edits by you with no grounding have been reverted. Do not re-add the catagory without a reference. Your own musical knowledge will not suffice, as this will count as original research. LinaMishima 20:24, 14 August 2006 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikipedia. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the work of others. Thank you. I'll bring the food 13:10, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

that was blatant vandalism. I also think you may be a sock puppet. I will request a ban next time you edit maliciously. You have already been warned.--I'll bring the food 13:12, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Sabrinajohnston.jpg
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Your recent edits
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User talk:Knights4u

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Rodovia Floriano Rodrigues Pinheiro

The Rodovia Floriano Rodrigues Pinheiro (official designation SP-123) is a single-lane highway in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It connects the Rodovia Carvalho Pinto (SP-070) and the Rodovia Presidente Dutra (BR-116) nearby the city of Taubaté, to the mountain resort of Campos do Jordão.

The SP-123 is one of the most scenic roads in the state. Just a short 28 km, it ascends from the 500 m above sea level of the Paraíba River valley to more than 1,600 m altitude of Campos do Jordão, with many meandering curves, sharp inclines and a 270 m tunnel along the face of the Mantiqueira Mountains. In some places the view towards the valley is stunning, and the cities of Taubaté, Guaratinguetá, Pindamonhangaba, Caçapava and São José dos Campos, as well as the distant Serra do Mar, which separates the plateau from the coastline, can be seen in a clear day. Rich pine temperate forests line along the road. Picturesque stalls by the road sell milk directly from the cow, conserves, sweets, wines, smoked trout, brandy (cachaça), cheese and typical artworks of the region, very Swiss-like. Two belvederes in key places allow tourists and voyagers to enjoy the best views.

The road is managed and maintained by the Department of Roads of the State of São Paulo (DER). Toll is not required.

title: Rodovia Floriano Rodrigues Pinheiro


text:
User talk:Sanoj~enwiki

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Johann Wolfgang [ T ... C ]

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Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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title: User talk:Sanoj~enwiki


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/I. V. Sasi

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was keep. H e rmione1980 23:37, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

I. V. Sasi
This seems to be some kind of a Bollywood filmography, but the author doesn't seem to be interested at all in complying the layout convention and its encyclopedic notability is questionable. It's been tagged as speedy but I don't think it belongs to CSD, so I bring here for discussion. 202.156.6.59 17:43, 8 October 2005 (UTC) Ok I withdraw my nn claim. After a cursory web search, he does appear to be a well-known director in India, and at least one page calls him a veteran director. Keep -202.156.6.62 01:49, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 *  Delete , unless it is rewritten before the nomination is closed. I'd say keep if it could be cleaned up, but besides a list of films without Wikipedia articles, it has no content. -- Kjkolb 03:55, 9 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep cleaned up version. -- Kjkolb 07:55, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, same reasons as already mentioned. Peruvianllama 07:05, 9 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. After seeing the cleanup, I've changed my vote. Peruvianllama 04:28, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Strong Keep. Add cleanup tag. He was a major movie director in Malayalam and definitely notable Tintin 13:08, 9 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Cleaned up a bit. Tintin 13:50, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep I. V. Sasi is an important film director. The present state of the article is not very satisfactory, but that does not merit a deletion. Italo 17:37, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
User talk:Gotabaya

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User talk:Sniecinskisf

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17:44, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

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text: User:Jtkiefer.

title: User:Jtkiefer.


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User talk:Magnify

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17:44, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

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User talk:RagingCrow

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Laurel High School (Maryland)

Laurel High School is a public high school located in Laurel, Maryland, United States; it is the oldest school in the Prince George's County Public Schools system.

The school serves Laurel, portions of Konterra, South Laurel, and West Laurel.

History
Laurel High School was founded in 1899 with an enrollment of 59 students and four teachers. According to The Washington Post, the 1900 graduating class was all women. The original school building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. In 1965, the school moved to a larger building at 8000 Cherry Lane in Laurel, and annexed the former Margaret A. Edmonson Elementary School in 1983. The last class at the original location held a 50th reunion in 2015.

Fulfilling an objective of the Prince George's County Capital Improvement Program since 1989, construction on a new 800-seat auditorium for the school was expected to begin in February 2009. The addition was completed in the early 2010 school year.

Laurel High's student newspaper, "The Shield", established in the 1995–1996 school year, has won awards from the American Scholastic Press Association and the Columbia Scholastic Press Association. Prior to the 1995–96 school year, the school paper operated under the name "The Tattler".

Laurel shares the same layout as Bowie High School, in neighboring Bowie, Maryland. Laurel High School currently enrolls roughly 2,000 students in grades 9 through 12. The school mascot is the Spartan, and the school colors are blue and gold.

In 2009, Sheryll Cashin said in The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class are Undermining the American Dream that Laurel High was one of several mostly black, mostly middle class Prince George's County public high schools that were "decidedly underachieving: fewer than half of the seniors at these schools went on to attend four-year colleges in recent years."

Notable alumni

 * Mike Bullock – writer, musician
 * Shari Elliker – radio personality
 * Marty Friedman – guitarist (former lead of Megadeth)
 * Gertrude Poe – journalist, lawyer, real estate agent, insurance agent, and radio broadcaster
 * Angie Vaughn – track and field athlete
 * Ray Vigliotti – soccer player
 * Alonzo T. Washington – politician
 * Tico Wells – actor

title: Laurel High School (Maryland)


text:
User talk:Iali

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17:45, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

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User talk:Mikemunsinger

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text:
The Iron Bridge

The Iron Bridge is a cast iron arch bridge that crosses the River Severn in Shropshire, England. Opened in 1781, it was the first major bridge in the world to be made of cast iron. Its success inspired the widespread use of cast iron as a structural material, and today the bridge is celebrated as a symbol of the Industrial Revolution.

The geography of the deep Ironbridge Gorge, formed by glacial action during the last ice age, meant that there are industrially useful deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and fire clay present near the surface where they are readily mined, but also that it was difficult to build a bridge across the river at this location. To cope with the instability of the banks and the need to maintain a navigable channel in the river, a single span iron bridge was proposed by Thomas Farnolls Pritchard. After initial uncertainty about the use of iron, construction took place over 2 years, with Abraham Darby III responsible for the ironwork. The bridge crosses the Ironbridge Gorge with a main span of 100 ft, allowing sufficient clearance for boats to pass underneath.

In 1934 it was designated a scheduled monument and closed to vehicular traffic. Tolls for pedestrians were collected until 1950, when the bridge was transferred into public ownership. After being in a poor state of repair for much of its life, extensive restoration works in the latter half of the 20th century have protected the bridge. The bridge, the adjacent settlement of Ironbridge and the Ironbridge Gorge form the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site.

Background
The Ironbridge Gorge was formed at the end of the last ice age by the overflowing of Lake Lapworth, which resulted in the exposure of useful deposits of resources such as coal, iron ore, fire clay and limestone near the surface where they were readily mined. With the river providing a means of transport, the local area was an important centre of the emerging Industrial Revolution.

Abraham Darby I first smelted local iron ore with coke made from Coalbrookdale coal in 1709, and in the coming decades Shropshire became a centre for industry due to the low price of fuel from local mines. The River Severn was used as a key trading route, but it was also a barrier to travel around the deep Ironbridge Gorge, especially between the then important industrial parishes of Broseley and Madeley, the nearest bridge being at Buildwas 2 miles away. The Iron Bridge was therefore proposed to link the industrial town of Broseley with the smaller mining town of Madeley and the industrial centre of Coalbrookdale. The use of the river by boat traffic and the steep sides of the gorge meant that any bridge should ideally be of a single span, and sufficiently high to allow tall ships to pass underneath. The steepness and instability of the banks was problematic for building a bridge, and there was no point where roads on opposite sides of the river converged.

The Iron Bridge was the first of its kind to be constructed, although not the first to be considered nor the first iron bridge of any kind. An iron bridge was partly constructed at Lyons in 1755, but was abandoned for reasons of cost, and a 22.2 m span wrought iron footbridge over an ornamental waterway was erected in Kirklees, Yorkshire, in 1769.

Proposal
In 1773, architect Thomas Farnolls Pritchard wrote to his 'iron mad' friend and local ironmaster, John Wilkinson of Broseley, to suggest building a bridge out of cast iron. Although he specialised in the design of chimneypieces and other items of interior decoration, and in funerary monuments, he had also previously designed both wooden and stone bridges.

During the winter of 1773–74, local newspapers advertised a proposal to petition Parliament for leave to construct an iron bridge with a single 120 ft span. In 1775, a subscription raised funds of between £3000 and £4000 (equivalent to £ to £ in 2016), and Abraham Darby III, the grandson of Abraham Darby I and an ironmaster working at Coalbrookdale, was appointed treasurer to the project.

In March 1776, the Act to build a bridge received Royal assent. It had been drafted by Thomas Addenbrooke, secretary of the trustees, and John Harries, a London barrister, then presented to the House of Commons by Charles Baldwyn, MP for Shropshire. Abraham Darby III was commissioned to cast and build the bridge. In May 1776, the trustees withdrew Darby's commission, and instead advertised for plans for a single arch bridge to be built in "stone, brick or timber". No satisfactory proposal was made, and the trustees agreed to proceed with Pritchard's design, but there was continued uncertainty about the use of iron, and conditions were set on the cost and duration of the construction. In July 1777 the span of the bridge was decreased to 90 ft, and then increased again to 100 ft, possibly in order to accommodate a towpath.

Construction
The site, adjacent to where a ferry had run between Madeley and Benthall, was chosen for its high approaches on each side and the relative solidity of the ground. The Act of Parliament described how the bridge was to be built from a point in Benthall parish near the house of Samuel Barnett to a point on the opposite shore near the house of Thomas Crumpton. Pritchard died on 21 December 1777 in his towerhouse at Eyton on Severn, only a month after work had begun, having been ill for over a year.

The bridge is built from five sectional cast-iron ribs that give a span of 100 ft. The construction of the bridge used of iron, and there are almost 1,700 individual components, the heaviest weighing. Components were cast individually to fit with each other, rather than being of standard sizes, with discrepancies of up to several centimetres between 'identical' components in different locations.

The masonry and abutments were constructed between 1777 and 1778, and the ribs were lifted into place in the summer of 1779. The bridge first spanned the river on 2 July 1779, and it was opened to traffic on 1 January 1781.

In 1997, a watercolour by Elias Martin was discovered in a Stockholm museum, which showed the bridge under construction in 1779. The painting shows a moveable wooden scaffold consisting of derrick poles standing in the river bed being used as a crane to position the half-ribs of the bridge, which had been taken to the site by boat from Darby's foundry 500 m downstream. Using the approach depicted in the painting, a half-size replica of the main section of the bridge was built in 2001 as part of the research for the BBC's Timewatch programme, which was shown the following year.

Design
Decorative rings and ogees between the structural ribs of the bridge suggest that the final design was Pritchard's, as the same elements appear in a gazebo he rebuilt. A foreman at the foundry, Thomas Gregory, drew the detailed designs for the members, resulting in the use of carpentry jointing details such as mortise and tenon joints and dovetails.

The two outer ribs are engraved with the words: "This bridge was cast at Coalbrook-Dale and erected in the year MDCCLXXIX" (Roman numerals for 1779).

Two supplemental arches, of similar cast iron construction, carry a towpath on the southern bank and also act as flood arches. A stone arch with a brick vault carries a small path on the northern (town side) bank.

Material
The Iron Bridge is made of cast iron. This is immensely strong in compression, but performs less well than steel and wrought iron when subjected to tension or bending moments, because of its brittleness and lower tensile strength. Analysis of an arch and a strut from the Iron Bridge revealed the following elemental compositions:

The presence of 0.1% sulphur in cast iron is at the upper limit of what is acceptable, but the presence of sufficient manganese leads to the formation of harmless manganese sulphide.

Puddled wrought iron was a much better structural material than cast iron but not widely available until after 1800, eventually becoming the preferred material for bridges, rails, ships and buildings until new steel making processes such as the Bessemer process were developed in the late 19th century.

Cost
Darby had agreed to construct the bridge with a budget of £3,250 (equivalent to £426,353 in 2023) and this was raised by subscribers to the project, mostly from Broseley. While the actual cost of the bridge is unknown, contemporary records suggest it was as high as £6,000 (£787,113 in 2023), and Darby, who was already indebted from other ventures, agreed to cover the excess. However, by the mid-1790s the bridge was highly profitable, and tolls were giving the shareholders an annual dividend of 8 per cent.

Later history
The opening of the bridge resulted in changes in the pattern of settlement in the gorge, and roads around the bridge were improved in the years after its construction. The town of Ironbridge, taking its name from the bridge, developed at the northern end. The trustees, as well as local hotel keepers and coach operators, promoted interest in the bridge among members of high society.

Repairs
In July 1783, a 35 yard wall was built in order to prevent the north bank from slipping into the river. Cracks were found in the stone land arch on the south side in December 1784, and the neighbouring abutment showed signs of movement. The Gorge is very prone to landslides, and over 20 are recorded in the British Geological Survey's National Landslide Database in the area. It was suspected that the sides of the gorge were moving towards the river, forcing the feet of the arch towards each other, and consequently repairs were carried out in 1784, 1791 and 1792.

It was the only bridge on the River Severn to survive the flood of February 1795 undamaged, due to its strength and small profile against the floodwaters. The medieval bridge at Buildwas was replaced with a cast iron bridge by Thomas Telford, which, by virtue of superior design, required half the quantity of iron despite a longer span of 39 m. The Buildwas Bridge survived until 1906. Contrary to a common misconception, Telford was not responsible for the construction of the bridge itself.

In 1800 the trustees commissioned repairs which lasted for several years, which involved the replacement of the stone land arches with wooden ones to relieve pressure on the main span. A proposal to build a rigid support between the abutments to keep them apart was found to be impossible with the available technology, but was achieved during the later restoration of the bridge in the 1970s. In 1812, its construction was described as "very bad" by Charles Hutton, and he predicted that it would not last for long, "though not from any deficiency in the iron-work", but due to cracks that had appeared in the stonework. The timber arches were replaced with cast iron ones in December 1820, and further repairs were necessary throughout the remainder of the 19th century.

Around 1870, "Sir B. Baker stated that it had required patching for ninety years, because the arch and the high side arches would not work together. Expansion and contraction broke the high arch and the connexions between the arches. When it broke they fished it. Then the bolts sheared or the ironwork broke in a new place. He advised that there was nothing unsafe; it was perfectly strong and the stress in vital parts moderate. All that needed to be done was to fish the fractured ribs of the high arches, put oval holes in the fishes, and not screw up the bolts too tight."

On 24 August 1902, a 30 ft length of parapet collapsed into the river, and a section of deck plate weighing around 5 Lcwt fell from the bridge in July 1903. The opening of a toll-free concrete bridge in 1909 caused concern among the trustees, but it continued to be used by vehicles and pedestrians.

Closure to vehicles
A 1923 report by engineering consultants Mott, Hay and Anderson suggested that other than the paintwork, the main span of the bridge was in good condition. It was suggested that the metal deck of the bridge was dangerously heavy, and that after removing the dead weight the bridge should be reopened to vehicles no heavier than 2 tons and restricted to the centre of the roadway. A weight limit of 4 tons was imposed, but the housing boom of the 1930s meant that drivers distributing tiles produced at Jackfield were insistent that they should be allowed to use the bridge, so the trustees took the decision to close it to vehicular traffic with effect from 18 June 1934. Tolls for pedestrians were collected until 1950, when ownership of the bridge was transferred to Shropshire County Council. The tolls collected only marginally covered the cost of collection, leaving no budget for conservation, and the bridge had not been cleaned or painted for many years. Due to its poor condition, between the 1940s and 1970s a number of suggestions were made to scrap and replace the bridge, or move it to a different location. In 1956 the County Council made a proposal to demolish the bridge and replace it with a new one, but this plan did not come to fruition. The Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust was set up in 1967 with the aim of protecting industrial heritage in the Ironbridge Gorge, and was able to secure funding from the council to carry out repairs.

Restoration
With funding from Shropshire County Council, the Historic Buildings Council for England, and the nascent Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust, a programme of repairs took place on the foundations of the bridge at a cost of £147,000 between 1972 and 1975. The consulting engineers Sandford, Fawcett, Wilton and Bell decided to place a ferro-concrete inverted arch under the river to counter inward movement of the bridge abutments. The arch was built by the Tarmac Construction Company, starting in the spring of 1973, but unusually high summer floods washed over the cofferdam, frustrating hopes that the work could be done in a single summer. Filling material was removed from the south abutment to reduce its weight, and the arch through it was reinforced with concrete. The road surface was replaced with a lighter tarmac, the stone of the abutments was renewed and the toll-house was restored as an information centre. In 1980, the structure was painted for the first time in the 20th century, and the work was complete for the bicentenary of the opening, which was celebrated on 1 January 1981.

Between 1999 and 2000, the bridge was scaffolded to allow examination by English Heritage. The bridge was also repainted and minor repairs were carried out. In January 2017 English Heritage announced a £1.2 million restoration project on the Iron Bridge, starting in September 2017, the "biggest ever conservation project" undertaken by English Heritage. The cost was quoted in 2018 at £3.6 million, with English Heritage describing it as "an ambitious conservation of its ribs and arches, its stonework and decking." The project was created after extensive surveys of the area revealed that the historic structure was under threat due to stresses in the ironwork dating from the original construction, ground movement over the centuries, and an earthquake in the 19th century. Apart from the structural restoration, the bridge was also reverted from blue-grey to its original red-brown colour after forensic analysis revealed this was how the bridge looked when it was first erected.

The project was partly funded through the use of crowdfunding in which £47,545 was raised. It also received a €1,000,000 donation from the Hermann Reemtsma Foundation, a German foundation which mainly promotes cultural and social projects in northern Germany. This would also be the foundation's first funding in the United Kingdom. Following the works the bridge was reopened on 6 December 2018.

Recognition
The bridge, the adjacent settlement of Ironbridge and the Ironbridge Gorge form the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site, which was created in 1986. The bridge is a Grade I listed building, and is owned by Telford and Wrekin Council.

In 1934 it was designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and in 1979, the bridge was recognised by the American Society of Civil Engineers as an International Civil Engineering Landmark.

In 2020 the conservation and restoration work on the bridge was honoured in the European Heritage Awards/Europa Nostra Awards, which includes up to 30 of the most outstanding heritage projects from all parts of Europe within the EU and EEA.

Influence on bridge design
The bridge, as the first bridge of significant size built of metal, had "considerable influence on developments in the fields of technology and architecture". The successful use of cast iron in 1781 pioneered the choice of that material for many subsequent bridges, and cast iron arches of considerable span were constructed late in the 18th and early in the 19th century.

 * In 1786, the revolutionary author and polymath Thomas Paine had models built to demonstrate the use of cast iron for bridges, and promoted these to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and to the Royal Society in England. He went on to have manufactured and erected "a complete rib of 90 feet span, and 5 feet of height from the chord line to the center of the arch", weighing three tons. This was followed by a complete bridge of five ribs and 210 feet span which he had erected in a field in Paddington, but without buttresses it was merely for display and was dismantled after a year.
 * In 1793–96, the Wearmouth Bridge was built with a span of 235 feet, constructed from cast iron in the form of cast voussoirs, somewhat like the voussoirs of a masonry bridge. The bridge used some of the iron from Paine's bridge, which had been returned to the foundry in Rotherham.
 * In 1795, a large flood in the Severn swept away all the bridges in the vicinity, except the Iron Bridge, where the open structure allowed the floodwaters to pass through. Thomas Telford was Surveyor of Public Works in Shropshire at the time. His design for the replacement bridge at Buildwas incorporated a high arch like the Iron Bridge, but it had a span 30 feet wider and used less than half the amount of iron. Telford went on to design a series of cast iron bridges, the oldest of which to survive is the Craigellachie Bridge.
 * In 1799, the Coalport Bridge was rebuilt after the flood as a single span with three cast iron ribs. This 1799 version was re-modelled in 1818 with two additional ribs, and survives to the present day.

Artistic depictions

Over fifty painters and engravers came to the area around Coalbrookdale between 1750 and 1830 to witness and record the rise of industry and changing landscape. One of the first artists to depict the bridge was William Williams, who was paid 10 guineas in October 1780 by Darby for a drawing of the bridge. An engraving by Michael Angelo Rooker proved popular, and a copy was purchased by Thomas Jefferson where it was displayed in the dining room of Monticello.

In 1979, the Royal Academy of Arts held an exhibition entitled "A View from the Iron Bridge" to commemorate the bicentenary of the bridge.

title: The Iron Bridge


text:
United Nations Atomic Energy Commission

The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) was founded on 24 January 1946 by the very first resolution of the United Nations General Assembly "to deal with the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy."

The General Assembly asked the Commission to make specific proposals:

(a) for extending between all nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful ends;

(b) for control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes;

(c) for the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction;

(d) for effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying States against the hazards of violations and evasions.

On 14 December 1946, the General Assembly passed a follow-up resolution urging an expeditious completion of the report by the Commission as well as its consideration by the United Nations Security Council. The Security Council received the report on 31 December 1946 and passed a resolution on 10 March 1947, "recognizing that any agreement expressed by the members of the Council to the separate portions of the report is preliminary" and requesting a second report to be made. On 4 November 1948, the General Assembly passed a resolution stating that it had examined the first, second and third reports of the Commission and expressed its deep concern at the impasse which had been reached, as shown in its third report.

On 14 June 1946, the United States representative to the Commission, Bernard Baruch, presented the Baruch Plan, wherein the United States (at the time the only state possessing atomic weapons) would destroy its atomic arsenal on the condition that the U.N. imposed controls on atomic development that would not be subject to United Nations Security Council veto. These controls would allow only the peaceful use of atomic energy. The plan was passed by the Commission, but not agreed to by the Soviet Union who abstained on the proposal in the Security Council. Debate on the plan continued into 1948, but by early 1947 it was clear that agreement was unlikely.

The UN General Assembly officially disbanded UNAEC in 1952, although the Commission had been inactive since July 1949.

title: United Nations Atomic Energy Commission


text: File:Sonic Spinball Box.jpeg

title: File:Sonic Spinball Box.jpeg


text:
User talk:Johnconltd1

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User talk:Antigua73

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User talk:KulaBeth

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User talk:Dag Out~enwiki

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Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 11:52, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dag Out~enwiki


text: User:Canthusus

title: User:Canthusus


text: Category:Images of Turkey

title: Category:Images of Turkey


text:
User talk:Jstinsonfernandez

Welcome
Welcome to Wikipedia , I hope you will like it here and decide to stay.

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Johann Wolfgang [ T ... C ]

17:48, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jstinsonfernandez


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Scrotar

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result was   Delete Mhiji 00:24, 6 January 2011 (UTC)

Scrotar
Speedy it if you'd like, this is cruft upon cruft, it's hard to tell where one layer begins and another ends. Karmafist 17:49, 8 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Scrotar


text:
User talk:Dr. no one

Welcome
Welcome to Wikipedia , I hope you will like it here and decide to stay.

You may want to take a look at the welcome page, tutorial, and stylebook, avoiding common mistakes and Wikipedia is not pages.

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Also: To sign comments on talk pages, simply type four tildes, like this: ~~~~. This will automatically add your username and the time after your comments. Signing with three tildes ~~~ will just sign your username. I hope to see you around Wikipedia! If you have any questions, feel free to contact me on my talk page!

Johann Wolfgang [ T ... C ]

17:49, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dr. no one


text:
The Simple Past

The Simple Past (Le passé simple) is a French novel by the Moroccan writer Driss Chraïbi. It was first published by the Gallimard in 1954.

The novel received widespread attention, in Morocco and France, due to its controversial themes and defiant expression and was harshly criticized by conservatives in both countries alike, but today it is considered a classic.

Plot
The novel follows the experiences of a young man called Driss who is sent to a French school in Morocco where he becomes an enthusiastic but innocent admirer of Western civilization. Yet his background is conservative. His father - The Seigneur ("The Lord") - enjoys respect and a high position in society due to his apparent "sanctity" as a traditional learned Muslim and as a successful merchant but under the surface of this there is a strong element of violence and tensions in the life of the a family with tragic consequences that succeed in turning Driss into a disrespectful, anarchic, destructive and rejected rebel.

The story is told in the first person by Driss and there is a clear element of the autobiographical in terms of the author's experience, even though the story is imaginary. The style and expression of the novel is explosive and direct but there is also humor and tenderness. Driss Chraïbi acknowledges William Faulkner's influence on him at the time he wrote it.

Analysis
The main theme of the novel is the conflict between the values of the Western world and those of traditional Islam. and their impact on a personal level against a background of colonialism and the campaign for Moroccan independence. Other important themes include the place of women in Islamic society, individual freedom, and cultural identity in an age of change.

title: The Simple Past


text:
User talk:Biggie.P

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you have any questions, check out Where to ask a question or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! Bushytails 17:49, 8 October 2005 (UTC)
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AFD'ing user pages
Hi. Please do not add Afd to User: pages. Thanks.--Sean Black Talk 02:06, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * You shoudn't remove comments from your Talk page, either.--Sean Black Talk 02:11, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Go check your own user page before you start messing with mine.--Biggie.P

 * You vandalised my user page, and I gave you a message on your User Talk page. I didn't "mess with" anything.--Sean Black Talk 02:16, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Please read WP:NPA. Thanks. Sean Black Talk 02:35, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

 * And don't edit other people's comments. Bushytails 19:37, 23 October 2005 (UTC)
 * As Sean said, no removing comments from your talk page. Bushytails 20:48, 23 October 2005 (UTC)
 * You can guess what this comment is going to say, right? Removing criticism, especially about vandalism, is highly frowned upon.  Bushytails 02:07, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I have protected this page temporarily since you refuse to stop acting like this. Please stop it. -- Phroziac ( talk )[[Image:Flag_of_Phyzech_Republic.svg|25px]] 01:46, 25 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Biggie.P


text:
Vidas secas

Vidas secas (Pre-Reform spelling: Vidas sêcas, literally "Dry Lives"; translated into English as Barren Lives) is a novel by twentieth-century Brazilian writer Graciliano Ramos, written in 1938. It tells the cyclical story of a family of five: Fabiano, the father; Sinhá Vitória, the mother; two sons (just called boys) and their dog called Baleia (whale in Portuguese) in the poverty stricken and arid Brazilian northeast. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the book is that it is written in said cyclical manner, making it possible to read the first chapter as a continuation of the last chapter, reflecting the cycle of poverty and desolation in the Sertão. Another distinguishing characteristic is that the dog Baleia is considered the most sensible and human character.

It is often considered amongst the most important works in Brazilian literature, blurring the genres of Modernism, Regionalism, and Realism with a "dry", concise style of writing. Due to its exploration of complex social and existential problems within Brazilian society, Vidas Secas has been lauded by critics as significantly contributing to the evolution of Brazilian literature.

Plot Summary
Often attributed to its composition as a “collection of autonomous short stories,” that were originally published in various newspapers throughout 1938 in order for Graciliano Ramos to capitalise on his writings, the thirteen chapters of Vidas Secas can be read individually or as a group without affecting the overarching thematic qualities of the novel. The supposed fragmentary nature of the novel, in congruence with the readers’ exposure to various narrative or plot developments through the shifting point of view of different characters, has been cited by critics as intrinsically linking both reader and character in a shared emotional state.

The plot of Vidas Secas follows the exploits of the vaqueiro (cowboy) Fabiano, his wife Sinhá Vitória, their two sons (who remain unnamed throughout the novel), and their dog Baleia (whale), in their attempts to forge a meagre existence within the arid interior of Brazil’s north-eastern Sertão. The novel opens with Fabiano and his family escaping an extreme drought by taking shelter in an abandoned fazenda (farm), whereupon they await the return of seasonal rains and tend to a wealthy landowner’s cattle. Within the first few scenes of the novel, the harsh nature of life on the Sertão is illustrated by the family killing and eating their pet parrot, the mute papagaio.

Although their time at the fazenda initially brings an “austere version of domestic stability,” Fabiano’s inability to negotiate fair wages with the landowner, along with his difficulty in navigating the city and its corrupt officials, ultimately leaves the family destitute. The family’s troubles are exacerbated by Fabiano’s run-ins with the ‘Yellow Soldier,’ a corrupt government official who bests Fabiano in a crooked card game and provokes a fight which results in Fabiano’s imprisonment. Though Fabiano is subsequently released, problems for the family continue to arise.

The next few chapters explore the varying perspectives of the other family members. A chapter dedicated to Sinhá Vitória illustrates her obsession with overcoming their destitute circumstances through her imaginative conceptualisations of “owning a comfortable bed of leather and sucupira wood.” Similarly, proceeding chapters highlights the eldest and youngest sons’ struggle to understand the sertaneja (people of the sertão) lifestyle and explores their differing perceptions of their father.

The family’s fortunes are met with further decline in the chapter ‘The Dog’ (or ‘Baleia’ in the original Portuguese edition) which has been cited by critics as “one of the most moving episodes in Brazilian literature.” The chapter, seen predominantly from the perspective of Baleia, was the first written by Graciliano Ramos and has thus been cited by critics as his inspiration for writing Vidas Secas. ‘Baleia’ documents the sick and aging dog’s death at the hands of Fabiano, following his suspicion of her contraction of rabies. After being shot in the hindquarters by Fabiano, Baleia thinks only of her household duty to mind the family goats and rather than holding animosity towards Fabiano, thinks only of licking her masters’ hand.

In the final chapters of the novel after continued economic deprivation at the hands of the wealthy landowner, along with the deep foreboding of the onset of yet another drought, the family escapes under the cover of night to wander towards “a big city in hopes of a better life.”

Major characters

 * Fabiano: the illiterate vaqueiro (cowboy) stands as the main protagonist in Vidas Secas, holding the largest share of story events, experiencing the most extreme character arc and featuring heavily in other characters’ internal and external dialogues. He has been lauded by critics as a heroic character and the “perennial sertanejo stoically resigned to his destiny.”
 * Sinhá Vitória: the stoic sertão woman, accustomed to the deprivations and brutal reality of living in poverty. As the novel progresses, she becomes increasingly disenfranchised with her reality, fantasising about “coming-out-of-the-wild,” and obsessing over material possessions.
 * The Youngest Son: plays a very important part in the consolidation of Fabiano’s character. The youngest son idolises his father as a god-like figure who embodies the Sertão and later attempts to emulate Fabiano’s style and good character.
 * The Eldest Son: or filho mais velho, unlike his younger brother, ‘The Eldest Son’ becomes progressively disconnected with his father and life on the Sertão and views language as having the ability to break the cycle of poverty.
 * The Dog: or ‘Baleia’ (‘Whale’ in Portuguese) is one of the most symbolically important characters in the novel. Critics have argued that the humanisation of Baleia through readers’ experiencing the world through her point of view accentuates the grossly dehumanising effects of poverty on other characters. Similarly, other critics have cited her thoughts during her final moments as symbolic of an ultimate submission to authority.

Other characters

 * Papagaio: the unnamed, mute parrot is the family pet who is killed and eaten at the beginning of the novel. The family’s consumption and later lack of recall of the episode, was cited by one critic as being symbolic of the family’s dehumanisation through poverty.
 * The Yellow Soldier: appears in the third chapter ‘Jail’ (or ‘Cadeia’ in the original Portuguese edition) and the eleventh chapter ‘The Policeman in Khaki.’ ‘The Yellow Soldier’ has been viewed by critics as a plot device which acts as a catalyst for the challenging of Fabiano’s beliefs and contributes to the evolution of his characterisation. Another critic has argued that ‘The Yellow Soldier’ stands as an “allegorical allusion to the way in which the State makes itself present in the regions of the sertão.”
 * Municipal Tax Collector: appears in the tenth chapter ‘Accounts’ as an overbearing figure of authority who informs Fabiano of his outstanding debts and crushes his dream of overcoming poverty.

Background
"“In the context of Brazilian literature Graciliano Ramos stands out as one of the most provocative names, having significantly contributed to its coming of age in all senses, but especially with respect to the aesthetic representation of social problems.”" Following the publication of the prolific works Caetes (1933), São Bernardo (1934), and Angústia (1936), Vidas Secas was the fourth and final novel produced by Graciliano Ramos. Written shortly after Ramos’ release from prison in 1937, Vidas Secas was first composed as a series of short independent stories that featured in local newspapers throughout 1938, before it was eventually published as a novel in 1939. Prior to his imprisonment and subsequent conception of Vidas Secas, Ramos had been serving as director of Public Instruction in Alagoas (1933–36). However, upon Getulio Vargas’ assumption of power in 1936, and the establishment of a dictatorial Estado Novo (New State) government, Ramos was dismissed from his position without explanation, arrested, and sent to Rio de Janeiro. Here he spent a further ten months awaiting trial before his eventual release under equally dubious circumstances. Though at the time he was not a member of the Communist Party, Ramos’ imprisonment was one of many in Vargas’ politically repressive campaign and is speculated to have influenced the “representation of extreme deprivation and the unequal distribution of power” throughout Vidas Secas.

These covert political denunciations of the Estado Novo, along with stark aesthetic representations of poverty and suffering throughout Vidas Secas would position Graciliano Ramos as a leading figure within the Generation of 1930. The term, coined by the author of Vidas Secas’ first English translation, Ralph E. Dimmick, was used to describe a second wave of Brazilian Modernism in which, “the Brazilian literary firmament was transformed by the appearance of a galaxy of young authors.” This Generation of 1930 became incensed with the development of a sense of ‘Brazilianism’ within literature and art. Through novels such as Vidas Secas, Graciliano Ramos is said to have emerged within The Generation of 1930 “as an often caustic commentator on the foibles of the small-town bourgeoisie of his North-East region.”

Setting
No doubt influenced by Ramos’ upbringing in the State of Alagoas in the North-East of Brazil, the events of Vidas Secas largely take place upon the bleak backdrop of the drought-stricken and exceptionally inhospitable Sertão. The term Sertão, in an etymological sense, found its first usage during early Portuguese colonial expansion in descriptions of unchartered inland territories or “undeveloped lands.” By the time of the novel’s publication, literary focus on the Sertão, as not only a geographic categorisation but as a concept for Brazilian nationhood, had become intrinsically linked with both the Regionalist and Modernist movements. This literary obsession with the Sertão, has led critics such as Diogo Mainardi to allege that “romanticized portrayals of the Sertão, and sertaneja culture have enjoyed a disproportionate focus in the construction of the national imagination.”In Vidas Secas, Ramos opts for an ambiguous or “universal” conceptualisation of the Sertão, deciding not to name it “as one region among others in the geographical continuum of the surface of the earth.” As such, a cursory scan for place names or topographical features throughout the pages of the novel may leave readers temporally and spatially wanting. However, this withholding of place names is unlikely an attempt to position the novel as a universal allegory, but rather, as a contribution to Realism. As one scholar eloquently put it; “The realism of Vidas Secas lies in the fidelity of a representation of life not in the wealth of its concrete determinacy but in its exhaustion and evanescence.” As such, it has been said that the focal point of Ramos’ description of landscapes and botanicals specific to North-Eastern Brazil lies not in its ability to spatially ground the reader in an exact setting, but merely serves as a literary vehicle to enable a greater exploration of the characters’ inner turmoil. In other words, Ramos employs the use of the Sertão setting to “recreate the drama of people eking out a living in a land flagellated by natural calamities.”

Modernismo
Modernismo: or ‘Modernism,’ in a Brazilian context, refers to the two literary, artistic, and cultural waves of the broader Modernist Movement in the 1920s and 1930s. Though the emergence of the first wave of Modernism in Brazil coincided with the European avant-garde movement, critics have illustrated that its proponents’ primary consideration lay in the foundation of a literary code that characterised “Brazilianism.” As the first wave of Brazilian Modernism focused predominantly on creating linguistic and aesthetic representations of Brazil, it has been criticised for its limited social commentary on the reasons for Brazilian backwardness. Similarly, another common criticism of Brazilian Modernist works has been the over-reliance on colloquial terms and a dismissal of traditional Portuguese linguistic norms.

The second wave of Brazilian Modernism also referred to as the “Generation of 1930,” aimed to deepen the linguistic narrative of the previous generation by imbuing modernist works with a greater social commentary. Galvanised by Gilberto Freyre’s publication of Casa grande e senzala (The Masters and the Slaves), the “Generation of 1930” strove to illuminate the historically repressed and degraded individuals of Brazilian society. Due to his extensive experimentation with the characteristics of modernismo throughout his novels, critics have cited Graciliano Ramos as “the most expressive name in the second moment of Brazilian Modernism.”

Regionalismo
Regionalismo: or ‘Regionalism’ is a term used to describe works of literature which focus on, and are framed by, the social and historical background of a specific region and its geographical or natural features. In a Brazilian literary context, novels that portray the interior of the country were traditionally referred to as ‘sertanistas.’ Although 19th century ‘sertanista novels’ aimed to highlight the growing disparity between national power centres on the coast and the destitute interior, scholars have criticised these early works of rural regionalism for their limited fixation with a novel’s aesthetic traits rather than as a means of pure social critique.

However, the publication of Euclides da Cunha's, Os sertôes (1902) brought critical legitimacy to the literary movement through its stark exploration of extreme poverty, lack of education, and natural crises leading to extreme social and cultural underdevelopment in the North-Eastern interior of Brazil. As such, with the explosion of literary modernist movements in the 1920s and 1930s, literary depictions of the Sertão, now referred to as ‘regionalista novels,’ became integral to politically motivated authors’ criticism of the government’s abandonment of the State.

Graciliano Ramos’ bleak depiction of the squalid and impoverished living conditions of a family of retirantes attempting to forge a living upon the arid sertão, has been cited by critics as establishing Vidas Secas as a classic ‘regionalista’ novel within Brazilian literary history.

Realism
In the context of Brazilian literary history, ‘Realism’ refers to a commitment from writers to provide “authenticity” to literary works which engenders a sense of national identity. Brazilian Realism was an important facet of nation-building during the colonial and post-colonial eras and is said to have resulted in the rejection of narratives of invention and overly subjective writing. According to Luiz Costa Lima within a Realist framework, “Brazilian fiction obeys the primacy of observation” and is employed to capture representations of Brazil “realistically.” In the 1930s, at the time of Vidas Secas’ conception, Brazilian Realism re-emerged under the banner of Neorealism as a response to the Estado Novo’s attempts to co-opt artists and writers into formulating a favourable view of Brazilian society under Vargas’ regime. Neorealism endeavoured to undermine notions of Brazilian cosmopolitanism by highlighting the lesser developed cities and rural areas of Brazil. Graciliano Ramos is said to have been exasperated with the fact that Brazilian literature was not realist enough and attempted to employ Neorealist writing practices to reflect the contemporary conditions of the Brazilian North-East in Vidas Secas.

Genre
"“Graciliano’s novel...has been hailed as both regionalista and modernista, realistic and unrealistic.”"

Due to its commitment to portraying the reality of the social and human landscape in the Brazilian North-East, as well as its overt protests against the prevailing social order, Vidas Secas is widely considered to be a ‘regionalista’ or ‘sertantista’ novel that submits to the literary parameters of the genre of Regionalism. Similarly, due to Ramos’ focus on the humiliation and misery of individuals’ struggle with the dichotomy of progress and backwardness within the Brazilian modernisation process, Vidas Secas is also considered to belong to the genre of Modernism.

Furthermore, Vidas Secas has been hailed internationally as a classic of Brazilian Realism. This is due to the intrinsic links in writing practices between Modernism and Regionalism with Realism or Neorealism, as well as Ramos’ literary experimentalism in attempting to document the reality of impoverished workers living in the hinterlands. Similarly, due to the novel’s engagement with social problems and direct attempts to highlight the reality of Brazilian contemporary society, Antonio Candido argued that Vidas Secas belonged to the genre of Naturalism. Lastly, Vidas Secas has also been argued to contain elements of Latin American Magical Realism.

Style
Graciliano Ramos’ writing style in Vidas Secas has been described as direct, objective, and dry. This has been attributed to Ramos’ yearning to represent the reality of life on the Sertão through the “absolute concision of words” and the author’s view that this could be achieved through precise language and narrative structure. Similarly, the voice of Vidas Secas has been described as “melancholic” in tone.

Additionally, Ramos’ novel employs the use of free indirect discourse to accentuate this melancholic voice. Free indirect discourse is a covert form of narration whereby the traditional third person narrator is secondary to the protagonists’ thoughts which become the focal point of the novel. This style is employed throughout the shifting points of view of the five protagonists between each chapter in order to achieve a greater sense of character development, in addition to functioning as a means of fusing third person objectivity with first person subjectivity. Ramos’ use of narrative focalization through free indirect discourse in Vidas Secas has been credited as effectively stylising sertanejo speech in the canon of Brazilian regionalist works.

Vidas Secas has also been noted by critics for its cyclical narrative structure which has been argued to reflect the cycle of drought and poverty inhabitants of the Sertão are exposed to. However, each of the chapters can also be read as independent short stories without detracting from the underlying messages of the novel. These narrative quirks are said to contribute to the creation of a “literary puzzle” within Vidas Secas which encourages readers to engage more actively with the reading process.

Anthropomorphism
One of the most notable themes of Vidas Secas is the interrelatedness of anthropomorphism and dehumanisation. Critics have suggested that the exploration of the dog Baleia’s human-like consciousness, in juxtaposition to that of the humans’ primitive ideals, illustrates their shared lack of agency and infers the dehumanisation of mankind. Similarly, other critics have argued that the representation of juxtaposing human and animal consciousness results in the “deconstruction of the non-human/human binary” and also explores a “symbiotic relation between humans and non-humans.” Furthermore, the parallels between Fabiano and Baleia’s command of language, in conjunction with their submission to authority, have been highlighted by critics as illustrative of the dehumanising effect of poverty.

Poverty
In line with Vidas Secas’ conformity to the narrative tropes of the ‘sertanista’ or regionalist genre, Ramos’ novel aims to emphasise the social and cultural underdevelopment in Northeastern Brazil by illustrating the impoverished living conditions, malnutrition, and illiteracy, inherent to the Sertão. In particular, critics have argued that the representation of illiteracy throughout the novel is employed to highlight the cyclical nature of poverty. This exploration of illiteracy as perpetuating the cycle of poverty is accentuated in the chapter dedicated to the filho mais velho (eldest son). In this chapter, the eldest son, frustrated with his parents’ rudimentary command of language and inability to communicate abstract ideas, identifies language as the determining factor in extending his intellectual horizons. Critics have pointed to the eldest son’s obsession with learning a new word as Ramos’ attempt to illustrate the fact that language or illiteracy can be a major barrier to social mobility within impoverished communities.

Humanity vs. Nature
Critics have positioned the protagonists’ relationship with the natural world as seminal to the underlying message of humanity’s struggle to overcome the “cruel vagaries of nature.” Established within the first chapter of the novel, Ramos’ portrayal of humanity and nature at odds is said to establish a “tragic and epic tone reminiscent of Euclydes da Cunha’s Os Sertões.” Other critics have argued that a sense of fatalism is established by this exploration of ‘Humanity vs. Nature.’ This is due to the fact that the cyclical nature of the novel ensures that the actions of the family at the beginning and end of Vidas Secas are entirely informed by a yearning to escape the cycle of drought on the Sertão. This fatalistic reading illuminates the intrinsic links between humanity and ecology and infers the inevitable continuation of human suffering due to natural calamities on the Sertão.

Background
Vidas secas was adapted into a highly praised film by Nelson Pereira dos Santos, in 1963, and would become a landmark for the Cinema Novo movement. Released during the first wave of the Cinema Novo movement (1960-1964), Dos Santos’ film has been regarded by critics as “seminal to the formation of a movement that engaged film as a political praxis against neo-colonialism and dependency in Brazil.” Cinema Novo or "new cinema" arose in Brazil concurrently with the "new wave" in France, and its champions, such as Brazilian filmmakers Pereira dos Santos, Ruy Guerra, Carlos Diegues and Glauber Rocha, aimed to create an “‘aesthetic of hunger’ to better reflect and denounce the country’s social reality.”

Dos Santos’ adaptation of Vidas Secas has been regarded by critic Rachel Price as “a fairly faithful transposition,” of Ramos’ work, scarcely deviating from the established narrative structure and plot. The film is set in 1940, and in keeping with the novel, follows the exploits of an impoverished migrant family wandering the barren landscapes of the north-eastern interior of Brazil. Dos Santos’ adaptation is said to be so faithful to Ramos’ written work that one critic argued that the film “wears down the words of the original text by the finicalness with which it repeats descriptions and dialogue.”

Cinematic Tropes
The film’s aesthetic qualities of starkly stylised visuals and sharp textures have been compared to both the German post-expressionist conception of Magical Realism, as well as manifestations of Alejo Carpentier’s distinctive ‘Marvelous Real.’ Dos Santos’ exploration of the bleak subject matter of “landscape’s imposing barrenness, the faces and bodies of suffering animals and people, and a flinty, hardscrabble ethos,” is magnified by deep-focus lighting and an apparent narrative directness which resembles the directorial tropes of Neorealism. The aesthetic beauty of Dos Santos’ adaptation is such that one Vincent Canby, in a 1969 review, argued that the film’s cinematography “ultimately makes poverty photogenic,” and undermines the political messages of Vidas Secas.

title: Vidas secas


text:
User talk:Jentine

Welcome
Welcome to Wikipedia , I hope you will like it here and decide to stay.

You may want to take a look at the welcome page, tutorial, and stylebook, avoiding common mistakes and Wikipedia is not pages.

Here are some links I've found useful:
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * Merge
 * New user log
 * Be Bold
 * Don't let grumpy users scare you off
 * Wikiquette
 * Contributing to Wikipedia
 * User page
 * How to upload files
 * Image copyright tags

Also: To sign comments on talk pages, simply type four tildes, like this: ~~~~. This will automatically add your username and the time after your comments. Signing with three tildes ~~~ will just sign your username. I hope to see you around Wikipedia! If you have any questions, feel free to contact me on my talk page!

Johann Wolfgang [ T ... C ]

17:51, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jentine