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Infantry tactics

Infantry tactics are the combination of military concepts and methods used by infantry to achieve tactical objectives during combat. The role of the infantry on the battlefield is, typically, to close with and engage the enemy, and hold territorial objectives; infantry tactics are the means by which this is achieved. Infantry commonly makes up the largest proportion of an army's fighting strength, and consequently often suffers the heaviest casualties. Throughout history, infantrymen have sought to minimise their losses in both attack and defence through effective tactics. (For a wider view of battle and theater tactics see: Military strategy)

Infantry tactics are the oldest method of warfare and span all eras. In different periods, the prevailing technology of the day has had an important impact on infantry tactics. In the opposite direction, tactical methods can encourage the development of particular technologies. Similarly, as weapons and tactics evolve, so do the tactical formations employed, such as the Greek phalanx, the Spanish tercio, the Napoleonic column, or the British 'thin red line'. In different periods the numbers of troops deployed as a single unit can also vary widely, from thousands to a few dozen.

Modern infantry tactics vary with the type of infantry deployed. Armoured and mechanised infantry are moved and supported in action by vehicles, while others may operate amphibiously from ships, or as airborne troops inserted by helicopter, parachute or glider, whereas light infantry may operate mainly on foot. In recent years, peacekeeping operations in support of humanitarian relief efforts have become particularly important. Tactics also vary with terrain. Tactics in urban areas, jungles, mountains, deserts or arctic areas are all markedly different.

Ancient history
The infantry phalanx was a Sumerian tactical formation as far back as the third millennium BC. It was a tightly knit group of hoplites, generally upper and middle-class men, typically eight to twelve ranks deep, armored in helmet, breastplate, and greaves, armed with two-to-three metre (6~9 foot) pikes and overlapping round shields. It was most effective in narrow areas, such as Thermopylae, or in large numbers. Although the early Greeks focused on the chariot, because of local geography, the phalanx was well developed in Greece and had superseded most cavalry tactics by the Greco-Persian Wars. In the fourth century BC Philip II of Macedon reorganized his army, with emphasis on phalanges, and the first scientific military research. Theban and Macedonian tactics were variations focused on a concentrated point to break through the enemy phalanx, following the shock of cavalry. Carefully organized—into tetrarchia of 64 men, taxiarchiae of two tetrarchiae, syntagmatae of two taxiarchiae, chilliarchiae of four syntagmatae, and phalanges of four chilliarchiae, with two chilliarchiae of peltasts and one chilliarchia each of psiloi and epihipparchy (cavalry) attached —and thoroughly trained, these proved exceedingly effective in the hands of Alexander III of Macedon.

However, as effective as the Greek phalanx was, it was inflexible. Rome made their army into a complex professional organization, with a developed leadership structure and a rank system. The Romans made it possible for small-unit commanders to receive rewards and medals for valor and advancement in battle. Another major advantage was a new tactical formation, the manipular legion (adopted around 300BC), which could operate independently to take advantage of gaps in an enemy line, as at the Battle of Pydna. Perhaps the most important innovation was improving the quality of training to a level not seen before. Although individual methods were used by earlier generations, the Romans were able to combine them into an overwhelmingly successful army, able to defeat any enemy for more than two centuries.

The Roman tactical system
On the infantry level, the Roman Army adapted new weapons: the pilum (a piercing javelin), the gladius (a short thrusting sword), and the scutum (a large convex shield) providing protection against most attacks without the inflexibility of the phalanx. Generally, battle would open with a volley of light pila from up to 18 m (and frequently far less), followed by a volley of heavy pila just before the clashing with scuta and gladii. Roman soldiers were trained to stab with these swords instead of slash, always keeping their shields in front of them, maintaining a tight shield-wall formation with their fellow soldiers. To motivate the Roman soldier to come within two metres (6 ft) of his enemy (as he was required to do with the gladius) he would be made a citizen after doing so, upon completion of his term of service. Roman infantry discipline was strict and training constant and repetitive.

The manipular legion was an improvement over the phalanx on which it was based, providing flexibility and responsiveness unequalled before that time. By increasing dispersal, triple that of a typical phalanx, the manipular legion had the unanticipated benefit of reducing the lethality of opposing weapons. Coupled with superb training and effective leaders, the Roman army was the finest in the world for centuries. The army's power on the field was such that its leaders avoided most fortifications, preferring to meet the enemy on open ground. To take an enemy-held fortification, the Roman army would cut off any supply lines, build watchtowers around the perimeter, set up catapults, and force the enemy to attempt to stop them from reducing the fortification's walls to rubble. The Roman army's achievements were carefully carved in stone on Trajan's Column, and are well documented by artifacts strewn about battlefields all over Europe.

Middle Ages
After the fall of the Roman Empire, many of the ingenious tactics they used disappeared. Tribes such as the Visigoths and Vandals preferred to simply rush their enemies in a massive horde. These tribes would often win battles against more advanced enemies by achieving surprise and outnumbering their foes. Born out of the partition of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire created an effective military. Its conscripts were well-paid and led by commanders educated in military tactics and history. However, the army mostly relied on cavalry, making the infantry a smaller portion of its overall force.

The Vikings were able to be effective against stronger enemies through surprise and mobility. Like guerrillas in other wars, the Vikings could decide when and where to attack. In part because of their flat bottomed ships, which enabled them to sneak deep into Europe by river before carrying out an attack, the Vikings could frequently catch their enemies by surprise. Monasteries were common targets because they were seldom heavily defended and often contained substantial amounts of valuables.

Battles of the Middle Ages were often smaller than those involving the Roman and Grecian armies of Antiquity. Armies (much like the states of the period) were more decentralized. There was little systematic organisation of supplies and equipment. Leaders were often incompetent; their positions of authority often based on birth, not ability. Most soldiers were much more loyal to their feudal lord than their state, and insubordination within armies was common. However, the biggest difference between previous wars and those of the Middle Ages was the use of heavy cavalry, particularly knights. Knights could often easily overrun infantry armed with swords, axes, and clubs. Infantry typically outnumbered knights somewhere between five and ten to one. They supported the knights and defended any loot the formation had. Infantry armed with spears could counter the threat posed by enemy cavalry. At other times pits, caltraps, wagons or sharpened wooden stakes would be used as protection from charging cavalry, while archers brought down the enemy horsemen with arrows; the English used stakes to defend against French knights at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.

Pikemen often became a substitute for communities and villages who could not afford large forces of heavy cavalry. The pike could be up to 18 ft long, whereas the spear was only 6 to 8 ft in length. Archers would be integrated into these forces of spearmen or pikemen to rain down arrows upon an enemy while the spears or pikes held the enemy at bay. Polearms were improved again with the development of the halberd. The halberd could be the length of a spear, but with an axe head which enabled the user to stab or chop the enemy cavalry with either the front of the axe or a thin point on the opposite side. The Japanese also created polearms. The naginata consisted of an approximately 6 ft long shaft and a 2.5 ft blade. The naginata was often used by women to guard a castle in the absence of men.

The crossbow, which did not require trained archers, was frequently used in armies where the extensive training necessary for longbow was not practical. The biggest disadvantage of crossbows was the slow reloading time. With the advent of steel and mechanical drawing aids, crossbows became more powerful than ever. Armor proof against longbows and older crossbows could not stop quarrels from these improved weapons. Pope Innocent II put a ban on them, but the move toward using this lethal weapon had already started.

The first gunpowder weapons usually consisted of metal tubes tied down to wooden staves. Usually, these weapons could only be fired once. These gonnes, or hand cannons, were not very accurate, and would usually be fired from city walls or in ambush. Like the crossbow, the gonne did not require trained soldiers and could penetrate the armor worn by enemy soldiers. Ranged weapon users were protected by soldiers with melee weapons. Knights would be on either sides of this force and close in on the enemy to destroy them after they had been weakened by volleys. The introduction of firearms presaged a social revolution; even an illiterate peasant could kill a noble knight.

Early modern period
As firearms became cheaper and more effective, they grew to widespread use among infantry beginning in the 16th century. Requiring little training, firearms soon began to make swords, maces, bows, and other weapons obsolete. Pikes, as a part of pike and shot formation, survived a good deal longer. By the mid-16th century, firearms had become the main weapons in many armies. The main firearm of that period was the arquebus. Although less accurate than the bow, an arquebus could penetrate most armours of the period and required little training. In response, armor thickened, making it very heavy and expensive. As a result, the cuirass replaced the mail hauberk and full suits of armour, and only the most valuable cavalry wore more than a padded shirt.

Soldiers armed with arquebuses were usually placed in three lines so one line would be able to fire, while the other two could reload. This tactic enabled an almost constant flow of gunfire to be maintained and made up for the inaccuracy of the weapon. In order to hold back cavalry, wooden palisades or pikemen would be in front of arquebusiers. An example of this is the Battle of Nagashino.

Maurice of Nassau, leader of the 1580s Dutch Revolt, made a number of tactical innovations, one of which was to break his infantry into smaller and more mobile units, rather than the traditional clumsy and slow-moving squares. The introduction of volley fire helped compensate for the inaccuracy of musket fire by and was first used in European combat at Nieuwpoort in 1600. These changes required well-drilled troops who could maintain formation while repeatedly loading and reloading, combined with better control and thus leadership. The overall effect was to professionalise both officers and men; Maurice is sometimes claimed as the creator of the modern officer corps.

His innovations were further adapted by Gustavus Adolphus who increased the effectiveness and speed of volley fire by using the more reliable wheel-lock musket and paper cartridge, while improving mobility by removing heavy armour. Perhaps the biggest change was to increase the numbers of musketeers and eliminating the need for pikemen by using the plug bayonet. Its disadvantage was that the musket could not be fired once fixed; the socket bayonet overcame this issue but the technical problem of keeping it attached took time to perfect.

Once this was resolved in the early 18th century, the accepted practice was for both sides to fire then charging with fixed bayonets; this required careful calculation since the closer the lines, the more effective the first volleys. One of the most famous examples of this was at Fontenoy in 1745 when the British and French troops allegedly invited each other to fire first.

The late 17th century emphasised the defence and assault of fortified places and avoiding battle unless on extremely favourable terms. In the 18th century, changes in infantry tactics and weapons meant a greater willingness to accept battle and so drill, discipline and retaining formation became more important. There were many reasons for this, one being that until the invention of smokeless powder, retaining contact with the men on either side of you was sometimes the only way of knowing which way to advance. Infantry in line was extremely vulnerable to cavalry attack, leading to the development of the carré or square; while not unknown, it was rare for cavalry to break a well-held square.

Napoleonic
Napoleon Bonaparte implemented many military reforms to change the nature of warfare. Napoleon's single greatest legacy in warfare was the extensive use and elaboration of the disseminated army; he separated groups of units in his army to spread them out over a wider area but kept them under his central command unlike in earlier times when each separate division would have fought independently. This allowed him to force battle by turning or encircling the enemy army where in previous eras armies only fought by mutual consent or because a surprise manoeuvre had them trapped against an obstacle such as a river.

He relied heavily on the column, a formation less than a hundred men wide and containing an entire brigade in tight formation and mostly advanced to contact with the bayonet. The constant movement and sheer mass of this formation could break through most enemy lines, but was susceptible to being broken by well-drilled or large volumes of fire as it could not fire as it advanced. Its main advantage was its ability to march rapidly and then deploy into line comparatively easily, especially with well-drilled and motivated troops such as those available to Napoleon after the French Revolution. He later utilised the Mixed Order formation which could be a combination of one or more lines supported by one or more columns. This offered the extended firepower of the line with the rapid reaction ability of the column in support.

The column formation allowed the unit rapid movement, a very effective charge (due to weight of numbers) or it could quickly form square to resist cavalry attacks, but by its nature, only a fraction of its muskets would be able to open fire. The line offered a substantially larger musket frontage allowing for greater shooting capability but required extensive training to allow the unit to move over ground as one while retaining the line.

The mixed order remained a part of French tactical doctrine as the French army grew in discipline, capitalising as it did on the strengths of both the line and column formations while avoiding some of their inherent weaknesses. It was used extensively by Napoleon when commanding the Grande Armée.

This greatly surpassed other armies at the time which had to move slowly to keep their lines aligned and coherent and as such keep the cavalry from their interior; spaces could be guarded with musket fire, but the line had to be generally aligned and this could be lost over even apparently flat undulating ground as individuals slowed or sped up across uneven ground. The only antidote was slow movement and the column afforded tactical battlefield manoeuvrability and as such a chance to outflank or outmanoeuvre the enemy, or, more importantly, concentrate against weaknesses in the enemy lines.

Napoleon was also an avid user of artillery —he began his career as an artillery officer— and used the artillery to great effect due to his specialist knowledge. The French army after the French Revolution was greatly motivated and after the reforms of 1791, well trained in the newest doctrine.

Napoleon was eventually defeated, but his tactics were studied well into the 19th Century, even as improved weapons made massed infantry attacks increasingly hazardous.

Irregular tactics
Countries which have not been major world powers have used many other infantry tactics. In South Africa, the Zulu impis (regiments) were infamous for their bull horn tactic. It involved four groups - two in the front, one on the left, and one on the right. They would surround the enemy unit, close in, and destroy them with short assegai, or iklwas while fire-armed Zulus kept up a harassing fire. The Zulu warriors surprised and often overwhelmed their enemies, even much better armed and equipped enemies such as the British army.

The Sudanese fought their enemies by using a handful of riflemen to lure enemy riflemen into the range of concealed Sudanese spearmen. In New Zealand, the Māori hid in fortified bunkers or pā that could withstand strikes from even some of the most powerful weapons of the 19th century before luring opposing forces into an ambush. Sometimes the natives would arm themselves with weapons similar or superior to those of the imperialistic country they were fighting. During the Battle of Little Bighorn, Lt. Colonel George Custer and five out of twelve companies of the 7th Cavalry were destroyed by a force of Sioux and Cheyenne.

Unconventional infantry tactics often put a conventional enemy at a disadvantage. During the Second Boer War, the Boers used guerrilla tactics to fight the conventional British Army. Boer marksmen would often pick off British soldiers from hundreds of yards away. These constant sniper attacks forced the British infantry to begin wearing khaki uniforms instead of their traditional red. The Boers were much more mobile than the British infantry and thus could usually choose where a battle would take place. These unconventional tactics forced the British to adopt some unorthodox tactics of their own.

After 1945
The Korean War was the first major conflict following World War II. New devices, including smaller radios and the helicopter were also introduced. Parachute drops, which tended to scatter a large number of men over the battlefield, were replaced by airmobile operations using helicopters to deliver men in a precise manner. Helicopters also provided fire support in many cases, and could be rushed to deliver precision strikes on the enemy. Thus, the infantry was free to range far beyond the conventional fixed artillery positions. They could even operate behind enemy lines, and later be extracted by air. This led to the concept of vertical envelopment (originally conceived for airborne), in which the enemy is not flanked to the left or right, but rather from above.

Mobile infantry tactics
As part of the development of armored warfare, typified by blitzkrieg, new infantry tactics were devised. More than ever, battles consisted of infantry working together with tanks, aircraft, artillery as part of combined arms. One example of this is how infantry would be sent ahead of tanks to search for anti-tank teams, while tanks would provide cover for the infantry. Portable radios allowed field commanders to communicate with their HQs, allowing new orders to be relayed instantly.

Another major development was the means of transportation; no longer did soldiers have to walk (or ride a horse) from location to location. The prevalence of motor transport, however, has been overstated; Germany used more horses for transport in World War II than in World War I, and British troops as late as June 1944 were still not fully motorized. Although there were trucks in World War I, their mobility could never be fully exploited because of the trench warfare stalemate, as well as the terribly torn up terrain at the front and the ineffectiveness of vehicles at the time. During World War II, infantry could be moved from one location to another using half-tracks, trucks, and even aircraft, which left them better rested and able to fight once they reached their objective.

A new type of infantry, the paratrooper, was deployed as well. These lightly armed soldiers would parachute behind enemy lines, hoping to catch the enemy off-guard. First used by the Germans in 1940, they were to seize key objectives and hold long enough for additional forces to arrive. They required prompt support from regulars, however; First British Airborne was decimated at Arnhem after being left essentially cut off.

To counter the tank threat, World War II infantry initially had few options other than the so-called "Molotov cocktail" (first used by Chinese troops against Japanese tanks around Shanghai in 1937 ) and anti-tank rifle. Neither was particularly effective, especially if armor was accompanied by supporting infantry. These, and later anti-tank mines, some of which could be magnetically attached to the tank, required the user to get closer than was prudent. Later developments, such as the Bazooka, PIAT, and Panzerfaust, allowed a more effective attack against armor from a distance. Thus, especially in the ruined urban zones, tanks were forced to enter accompanied by squads of infantry.

Marines became prominent during the Pacific War. These soldiers were capable of amphibious warfare on a scale not previously known. As Naval Infantry, both Japanese and American Marines enjoyed the support of naval craft such as battleships, cruisers, and the newly developed aircraft carriers. As with conventional infantry, the Marines used radios to communicate with their supporting elements. They could call in sea and air bombardment very quickly.

The widespread availability of helicopters following World War II allowed the emergence of an air mobility tactics such as aerial envelopment.

Squad tactics
Small unit tactics, squad in particular, had basic principles of assault, and support elements that were generally adopted by all the major combatants, with differences being in the exact size of units, placement of the elements and specialized guidance.

Offensive tactics
The main goal was to advance by means of fire and movement with minimal casualties while maintaining unit effectiveness and control.

The German squad would win the Feuerkampf (fire fight), then occupy key positions. The rifle and machine gun teams were not separate, but part of the Gruppe, though men were often firing at will. Victory went to the side able to concentrate the most fire on target most quickly. Generally, soldiers were ordered to hold fire until the enemy was 600 m or closer, when troops opened fire on mainly large targets; individuals were fired upon only from 400 m or below.

The German squad had two main formations while moving on the battlefield. When advancing in the Reihe, or single file, formation, the commander took the lead, followed by the machine gunner and his assistants, then riflemen, with the assistant squad commander moving on the rear. The Reihe moved mostly on tracks and it presented a small target on the front. In some cases, the machine gun could be deployed while the rest of the squad held back. In most cases, the soldiers took advantage of the terrain, keeping behind contours and cover, and running out into the open when there were none to be found.

A Reihe could easily be formed into Schützenkette, or skirmish line. The machine gun deployed on the spot, while riflemen came up on the right, left or both sides. The result was a ragged line with men about five paces apart, taking cover whenever available. In areas where resistance was serious, the squad executed "fire and movement". This was used either with the entire squad, or the machine gun team down while riflemen advanced. Commanders were often cautioned not to fire the machine gun until forced to do so by enemy fire. The object of the firefight was to not necessarily to destroy the enemy, but Niederkämpfen - to beat down, silence, or neutralize them.

The final phases of an offensive squad action were the firefight, advance, assault, and occupation of position:

The Fire Fight was the fire unit section. The section commander usually only commanded the light machine gunner (LMG) to open fire upon the enemy. If much cover existed and good fire effect was possible, riflemen took part early. Most riflemen had to be on the front later to prepare for the assault. Usually, they fired individually unless their commander ordered them to focus on one target.

The Advance was the section that worked its way forward in a loose formation. Usually, the LMG formed the front of the attack. The farther the riflemen followed behind the LMG, the more easily the rear machine guns could shoot past them.

The Assault was the main offensive in the squad action. The commander made an assault whenever he was given the opportunity rather than being ordered to do so. The whole section was rushed into the assault while the commander led the way. Throughout the assault, the enemy had to be engaged with the maximum rate of fire. The LMG took part in the assault, firing on the move. Using hand grenades, machine pistols, rifles, pistols, and entrenching tools, the squad tried to break the enemy resistance. The squad had to reorganize quickly once the assault was over.

When occupying a position (The Occupation of Position), the riflemen group up into twos or threes around the LMG so they could hear the section commander.

The American squad's basic formations were very similar to that of the Germans. The U.S. squad column had the men strung out with the squad leader and BAR man in front with riflemen in a line behind them roughly 60 paces long. This formation was easily controlled and maneuvered and it was suitable for crossing areas open to artillery fire, moving through narrow covered routes, and for fast movement in woods, fog, smoke, and darkness.

The skirmish line was very similar to the Schützenkette formation. In it, the squad was deployed in a line roughly 60 paces long. It was suitable for short rapid dashes but was not easy to control. The squad wedge was an alternative to the skirmish line and was suitable for ready movement in any direction or for emerging from cover. Wedges were often used away from the riflemen's range of fire as it was much more vulnerable than the skirmish line.

In some instances, especially when a squad was working independently to seize an enemy position, the commander ordered the squad to attack in sub-teams. "Team Able", made up of two riflemen scouts, would locate the enemy; "Team Baker", composed of a BAR man and three riflemen, would open fire. "Team Charlie", made up of the squad leader and the last five riflemen, would make the assault. The assault is given whenever possible and without regard to the progress of the other squads. After the assault, the squad advanced, dodging for cover, and the bayonets were fixed. They would move rapidly toward the enemy, firing and advancing in areas occupied by hostile soldiers. Such fire would usually be delivered in a standing position at a rapid rate. After taking the enemy's position, the commander would either order his squad to defend or continue the advance.

The British method formations depended chiefly on the ground and the type of enemy fire that was encountered. Five squad formations were primarily used: blobs, single file, loose file, irregular arrowhead, and the extended line. The blob formation, first used in 1917, referred to ad hoc gatherings of 2 to 4 men, hidden as well as possible. The regular single file formation was only used in certain circumstances, such as when the squad was advancing behind a hedgerow. The loose file formation was a slightly more scattered line suitable for rapid movement, but vulnerable to enemy fire. Arrowheads could deploy rapidly from either flank and were hard to stop from the air. The Extended Line was perfect for the final assault, but it was vulnerable if fired upon from the flank.

The British squad would commonly break up into two groups for the attack. The Bren group consisted of the two-man Bren gun team and second in command that formed one element, while the main body of the riflemen with the squad commander formed another. The larger group that contained the commander was responsible for closing in on the enemy and advancing promptly when under fire. When under effective fire, riflemen went to fully fledged "fire and movement". The riflemen were ordered to fall to the ground as if they had been shot, and then crawl to a good firing position. They took rapid aim and fired independently until the squad commander called for cease fire. On some occasions the Bren group advanced by bounds, to a position where it could effectively commence fire, preferably at 90 degrees to the main assault. In this case both the groups would give each other cover fire. The final attack was made by the riflemen who were ordered to fire at the hip as they went in.

Defensive tactics
German defensive squad tactics stressed the importance of integration with larger plans and principles in posts scattered in depth. A Gruppe was expected to dig in at 30 to 40 m (the maximum that a squad leader could effectively oversee). Other cover such as single trees and crests were said to attract too much enemy fire and were rarely used. While digging, one member of the squad was to stand sentry. Gaps between dug-in squads may be left, but covered by fire. The placing of the machine gun was key to the German squad defence, which was given several alternative positions, usually being placed 50 m apart.

Pairs of soldiers were deployed in foxholes, trenches, or ditches. The pair stood close together in order to communicate with each other. The small sub-sections would be slightly separated, thus decreasing the effect of enemy fire. If the enemy did not immediately mobilize, the second stage of defense, entrenching, was employed. These trenches were constructed behind the main line where soldiers could be kept back under cover until they were needed.

The defensive firefight was conducted by the machine gun at an effective range while riflemen were concealed in their foxholes until the enemy assault. Enemy grenades falling on the squad's position were avoided by diving away from the blast or by simply throwing or kicking the grenade back. This tactic was very dangerous and U.S. sources report American soldiers losing hands and feet this way.

In the latter part of the war, emphasis was put on defense against armored vehicles. Defensive positions were built on a "tank-proof obstacle" composed of at least one anti-tank weapon as well as artillery support directed by an observer. To intercept enemy tanks probing a defensive position, squads often patrolled with an anti-tank weapon.

Platoon tactics
Platoon is made up of squads and a command element. Usually 4 squads make up a platoon, but this can vary by the army and time period. Command element is small and is often just one officer and one NCO. Together a platoon is about 40 soldiers.

For tactics, platoon can function independently, providing its own covering fire, and have an assaulting element. For this there is a division made by the platoon leader regarding what squads are assigned what combat task (defense or offense). Within offense (assault, fire support, or in reserve)

It can also function as part of the company.

Company level tactics
Company is made up of platoons. Usually some platoons are “line” platoons, meaning they consist of soldiers with standard weapons, and then there is a support element (totaling the size of another platoon), with heavier weapons, namely mortars, heavier machine guns. It also has a larger supply unit, usually 3-10 soldiers, a small medic unit, supply unit and a communication unit. Companies in 20th century varied quite a bit by country of origin, but for Germany, USA, and UK between 170 and 200 soldiers was about the normal.

Dedicated supply section entered the military hierarchy at the company level.

Tactics start to become more complex at the company level, as more weapon systems are available at the commander's disposal.

In World War II, some interesting variations are bicycle messengers in German infantry companies, and two snipers in a Soviet rifle company.

Generally, in all the armies of the 20th century, a company is the first unit that is designed to function autonomously.

Battalion level tactics
Battalion is made up of line companies, larger headquarters, and heavier support weapons.

Ratio remains the same. Usually three line companies and one support unit.

Battalions are led by a Major or Lieutenant Colonel, with a staff of about 30-40 soldiers. Exception here are Soviet units which traditionally had smaller staffs than American or German counterparts.

A battalion is the first level that intelligence, combat engineers, air-defense and anti-tank artillery entered a unit.

Tactics of a battalion gave a lot more flexibility to the commander. In 20th century, usual deployment involved certain amount of units deployed, with specific weapon systems supporting it, creating a chess style scenario, where the side on the offensive would generally try to attack least powerful elements, while the defense would try to anticipate the correct threat and neutralize it with appropriate weapon systems.

Regiment level tactics
Regiment is the final level in tactical infantry progression. After regiment you have division, and that is operational level.

Infantry entrenchment
During the Second World War, trenches, ditches, foxholes and Dragon's teeth (fortification) were used extensively.

Jungle warfare
Jungle warfare was heavily shaped by the experiences of all the major powers in the Southeast Asian theatre of operations during World War II. Jungle terrain tended to break up and isolate units. It tended to fragment the battle. It called for greater independence and leadership among junior leaders, and all the major powers increased the level of training and experience level required for junior officers and NCOs. But fights in which squad or platoon leaders found themselves fighting on their own also called for more firepower. All the combatants, therefore, found ways to increase both the firepower of individual squads and platoons. The intent was to ensure that they could fight on their own ... which often proved to be the case.

Japan, as one example, increased the number of heavy weapons in each squad. The "strengthened" squad used from 1942 onwards was normally 15 men. The Japanese squad contained one squad automatic weapon (a machine gun fed from a magazine and light enough to be carried by one gunner and an assistant ammunition bearer). A designated sniper was also part of the team, as was a grenadier with a rifle-grenade launcher.

The squad's weaponry also included a grenade-launcher team armed with what some historians might often mistakenly call a "knee mortar". This was in fact a light mortar of 50 mm that threw high explosive, illumination and smoke rounds out to as far as 400 metres. Set on the ground and fired with arm outstretched, the operator varied the range by adjusting the height of the firing pin within the barrel (allowing the mortar to be fired through small holes in the jungle canopy). The balance of the squad carried bolt-action rifles.

The result was that each squad was now a self-sufficient combat unit. Each squad had an automatic weapons capability. In a defensive role, the machine gun could be set to create a “beaten zone” of bullets through which no enemy could advance and survive. In an attack, it could throw out a hail of bullets to keep the opponent's head down while friendly troops advanced. The light mortar gave the squad leader an indirect "hip-pocket artillery" capability. It could fire high-explosive and fragmentation rounds to flush enemy out of dugouts and hides. It could fire smoke to conceal an advance, or illumination rounds to light up any enemy target at night. The sniper gave the squad leader a long-range point-target-killing capability.

Four squads composed a platoon. There was no headquarters section, only the platoon leader and the platoon sergeant. In effect, the platoon could fight as four independent, self-contained battle units (a concept very similar to the U.S. Army Ranger "chalks".)

The British Army did extensive fighting in the jungles and rubber plantations of Malaya during the Emergency, and in Borneo against Indonesia during the Confrontation. As a result of these experiences, the British increased the close-range firepower of their individual riflemen by replacing the pre-World War II bolt-action Lee–Enfield with lighter, automatic weapons like the American M2 carbine and the Sterling submachine gun.

However, the British Army was already blessed in its possession of a good squad automatic weapon (the Bren) and these remained apportioned one per squad. They comprised the bulk of the squad's firepower, even after the introduction of the self-loading rifle (a semi-automatic copy of the Belgian FN-FAL). The British did not deploy a mortar on the squad level. However, there was one 2-inch mortar on the platoon level.

The U.S. Army took a slightly different approach. They believed the experience in Vietnam showed the value of smaller squads carrying a higher proportion of heavier weapons. The traditional 12-man squad armed with semi-automatic rifles and an automatic rifle was knocked down to 9 men: The squad leader carried the M16 and AN/PRC-6 radio. He commanded two fire teams of four men apiece (each containing one team leader with M16, grenadier with M16/203, designated automatic rifleman with M16 and bipod, and an anti-tank gunner with LAW and M16).

Three squads composed a platoon along with two three-man machine gun teams (team leader with M16, gunner with M60 machine gun, and assistant gunner with M16). The addition of two M60 machine gun teams created more firepower on the platoon level. The platoon leader could arrange these to give covering fire, using his remaining three squads as his maneuver element. The M16/203 combination was a particular American creation (along with its M79 parent). It did not have the range of the Japanese 50 mm mortar. However, it was handier, and could still lay down indirect high-explosive fire, and provide support with both smoke and illumination rounds. The US Army also had 60 mm mortars. This was a bigger, more capable weapon than the Japanese 50 mm weapon. But it was too heavy for use on the squad or even the platoon level. These were only deployed on the company level.

The deficiency of the US formation remained the automatic rifleman, a tradition that had gone back to the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) gunner of World War II. The US Army discovered that an automatic rifle was a poor substitute for a real machine gun. A rifle fired in the sustained automatic role easily overheated, and its barrel could not be changed. In post-Vietnam, the US Army adopted the Belgian Minimi to replace the automatic M16. With an interchangeable barrel and larger magazine, this weapon, known as the M249 in U.S. inventory, provided the sustained automatic fire required.

The Republic of Singapore Army, whose experience is 100% in primary and secondary jungle as well as rubber plantation terrain, took the trend one step further. Their squad contained only seven men, but fielded two squad automatic gunners (with 5.56mm squad automatic weapons), two grenadiers with M16/203 underslung grenade launchers, and one anti-tank gunner with rocket launcher and assault rifle.

So in short, jungle warfare increased the number of short/sharp engagements on the platoon or even squad level. Platoon and squad leaders had to be more capable of independent action. To do this, each squad (or at least platoon) needed a balanced allocation of weapons that would allow it to complete its mission unaided.

Mountain warfare
During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet Army and Air Force fought forces called the Mujahideen. Although the Soviet Army had greater firepower and modern equipment than the Mujahideen, they were not able to completely destroy them because of the difficulty of countering guerrilla tactics in the mountains.

When the Stinger missile was supplied to the Mujahideen, they began to ambush Soviet helicopters and fixed wing aircraft in proximity of the military airfields. This was because the Stinger was only effective at a range of 15000 ft, requiring the Mujahideen to attack the aircraft as they were landing or taking off. The Stinger, however, was not the "weapon that won the war". Although it did have a significant effect on the conduct of war, it was not used to shoot down very many aircraft. It did force the Soviets to modify their helicopter tactics. Helicopters begun to cooperate more closely with the ground forces, fixed wing aircraft began flying at higher altitudes, and armor and anti-missile electronic defense systems were added to aircraft to help protect them from the Stinger.

The Soviets countered the Mujahideen tactics in various ways. The Spetsnaz were used extensively in special operations by being deployed by helicopter into areas identified as areas often transited by the Mujahideen, or sites of ambushes. Spetsnaz tactics were effective against Mujahideen as they adapted and employed similar tactic used by them; tanks and aircraft were comparatively less effective due to terrain and enemy mobility in it. The only technology with a significant impact on Mujahideen were land mines and helicopters, although over time Mujahideen were able to find ways to avoid and evade both.

As the Soviet operations stalled, they began retaliating against the civilian population for supporting the Mujahideen. It was not uncommon for Soviet helicopters to raze an Afghan village in retaliation for an attack against Soviet soldiers. At other times they dropped mines from aircraft in the fields and pastures, or shooting the livestock with helicopter weapons. Without the support of the villagers, the Mujahideen were forced to carry their own food in addition to weapons and military supplies. Another common tactic was to cordon off and search villages for Mujahideen. These tactics were not unlike those used by the United States in Vietnam, or by the Germans against Soviet partisans in World War II.

Conventional infantry tactics are generally modified before implementation in mountain warfare as the defending side generally has a decisive advantage over the attacking side by holding the heights and forcing the enemy to attack uphill against a fully prepared well entrenched position. So generally, frontal assault is avoided by implementation of blockade tactics and cutting off the supply lines, thereby creating a siege. This changed in the Kargil War of 1999 when Indian forces were faced with the huge task of flushing out intruders and disguised Pakistani soldiers who had captured high mountain posts. Instead of employing blockade tactics, Indian Army launched frontal assault against Pakistani Army positions but the tactics were intensely modified by employment of heavy artillery cover often firing in direct role and relentless air-strikes before the ground attack. As any daytime attack would be suicidal, all the attacks were made under the cover of darkness to minimize casualties. The operation took time but was successful and all the positions were recaptured by the Indian Army after two months of fighting.

Trench warfare

During World War I, the increasing lethality of more modern weapons, such as artillery and machine guns, forced a shift in infantry tactics to trench warfare. Massed infantry charges were now essentially suicidal, and the Western Front ground to a standstill.

A common tactic used during the earlier stages of trench warfare was to shell an enemy trench line, at which point friendly infantry would leave the safety of their trenches, advance across no man's land, and seize the enemy trenches. However, this tactic of "preliminary bombardment" was largely unsuccessful. The nature of no man's land (filled with barbed wire and other obstructions) was one factor. For a unit to get to an enemy trench line, it had to cross this area, secure the enemy position, then face counterattack by opposing reserves. It also depended on the ability of friendly artillery to suppress enemy infantry and artillery, which was frequently limited by "bombproofs" (bunkers), revetments, poor ammunition, or simply inaccurate fire.

The casualties caused by machine gun fire led to the widespread deployment of light machine guns such as the Lewis Gun within minor infantry units. Trench warfare also led to the rapid development of new designs of grenades, rifle grenades and light mortars—all of which represented a rapid increase in the firepower available to low-level commanders. There was a growing emphasis on field craft, especially in the British and Dominion Armies, where night-patrolling and raiding tactics soon also demanded an increase in map-reading and navigation skills. The infantryman of 1914 was content to be trained in rifle and bayonet and usually attacked in battalion formations. By 1917 he was used to grenades, rifle grenades, light machine-guns and more specialized weapons and usually worked his way forward using platoon or section tactics.

An improvement was the creeping barrage in which artillery fire is laid immediately in front of advancing infantry to clear any enemy in their way. This played an important part in later battles such as the Battle of Arras (1917), of which Vimy Ridge was a part. The tactic required close coordination in an era before widespread use of radio, and when laying telephone wire under fire was extremely hazardous. In response, the Germans devised the elastic defence and used infiltration tactics in which shock troops quietly infiltrated the enemy's forward trenches, without the heavy bombardment that gave advance warning of an imminent attack. The French and British/Dominion Armies were also engaged in evolving similar infantry tactics. The Allies introduced the tank to overcome the deadlock of static positions but mechanical unreliability prevented them from doing so.

The Germans used specially-trained stormtroopers to great effect in 1918, during Operation Michael, breaching the Allied trench lines and allowing supporting infantry to pour through a wide breach in the front lines. Even though most of the German forces were on foot, they were soon threatening Paris. Only timely and stiff resistance, the use of reserves, and German logistical and manpower problems prevented an Allied disaster. After this spring offensive, the Allies launched a series of counter-attacks with tanks and small units of assault infantry protected by air support and short intense artillery barrages while the main infantry force followed and seized strongpoints. This forced the Germans back and after less than three months the allies had made the largest territorial gains on the western front since the war began. The Germans then sued for peace ending the war.

Urban warfare
Urban warfare draws roots from a variety of tactics and strategies. Typically fought in towns and cities, Urban combatants would encounter problems such as bystanders, buildings, and restricted mobility. Unlike the battles of Napoleon, a modern military would be restricted by narrow alleys and roads. This allows an opponent to predict or limit the movement of one's motorized vehicles by using weapons such as IEDs, RPGs, and artillery. This forces the infantry to push those threats out.

17th Century

 * Dupuy, Trevor N., Colonel, U.S. Army. Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1980. ISBN 0-672-52050-8
 * Dyer, Gwynne. War. New York: Crown Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0-517-55615-4

World War II

 * Dr Steven Bull, World War II Infantry Tactics: Squad and Platoon, 2004 Osprey Ltd.
 * David Goldovt-Ryzhenkov (Translator from Russian) 2nd Edition, 2022: Handbook for the Commander and Soldier of the Machine Gun Squad, 1941. Translated Manuals
 * Dupuy, Trevor N., Colonel, U.S. Army. Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1980. ISBN 0-672-52050-8

title: Infantry tactics


text:
Cecil Mack

Cecil Mack (November 6, 1873 – August 1, 1944) was an American composer, lyricist and music publisher.

Biography
Born as Richard Cecil McPherson in Portsmouth, Virginia, he attended the Norfolk Mission College and Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (class of 1897) before leaving to go to New York City where the 1900 Federal Census lists his occupation as a stenographer. Mack started writing song lyrics, starting with "Good Morning, Carrie" in 1901. He co-founded the Gotham-Attucks Music Publishing Company in May 1905, in New York City; it was likely the first black-owned music publishing company. In July 1906, an article in The New York Age referred to Mack as the company's "secretary and treasurer and general business director." In 1907 he wrote the lyrics for the musical The Black Politician. In 1925 he co-wrote the book for the musical Mooching Along. Mack also formed a choir, the Southland Singers, that year. In 1931 he co-wrote the music for the musical Rhapsody in Black.

Birth date
His birthdate is also given as 1880 and 1883, and an 1876 date is shown by his World War I Draft Registration card, as referenced above, and the 1900 US Census, but an 1891 Navy Enlistment Record and the 1880 Federal census both point to an 1873 birth year.

Personal life
Mack married Dr. Gertrude Curtis on April 8, 1912, in Manhattan. Curtis was a pioneering African-American dentist who practiced in Harlem. They remained married to her until his death. They had no children. Gertrude re-married in 1946 to Ulysses "Slow Kid" Thompson (1888–1990), a comedian.

Death
Mack died in Manhattan, aged 70. The New York Age, quoting his obituary from The Christian Science Monitor, observed, "Not even Irving Berlin exceeded the output of this talented New York Negro. His songs were as American as Stephen Foster's – one or two of them may be remembered as long – and were typically representative of the pre-radio era when fortunes were made over the 10-cent-store counters. Cecil Mack's songs were pure fun and never had an off-color line."

Notable works
As lyricist, Mack's notable works include:
 * "Good Morning, Carrie" (1901, co-wrote music and lyrics with J. Tim Brymn)
 * "Please Go Away and Let Me Sleep" (1902)
 * "He's a Cousin of Mine" (1902)
 * "The Little Gypsy Maid" (1904 or before)
 * "Zongo, My Congo Queen" (1904 or before)
 * "Teasing" (1904)
 * "All in down and out" (1906)
 * "You're In the Right Church (But the Wrong Pew)" (1908, co-wrote music and lyrics with Chris Smith)
 * "I'm Miss Hanna from Savannah" (between 1908 and 1910)
 * "That's Why They Call Me Shine"(1910)
 * "Way Down East" (1911) words by Cecil Mack, music by Joe Young and Harold Norman
 * "Someone's Waiting Down in Tennessee" (1912, co-wrote music and lyrics with James Reese Europe)
 * "Charleston" (1923, co-wrote music and lyrics with James P. Johnson)
 * "Old Fashioned Love" (1923, co-wrote music and lyrics with James P. Johnson for the show )

References linked to notes

 * ; ISBN 0-8161-1117-0;.

  p. 44.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cecil Mack


text:
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Government of France/archive1

Government of France
Self-nom I think it's rather complete. Some people thought I should discuss the budget in more detail, but this is, I think, another topic, worth of a separate article. David.Monniaux 01:47, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment — I'm working through the article now, and it is well-written. However, may I ask if all those section headings starting with the definite article ae really necessary. I would advocate removing all the thes from the beginning of section headings here. --Gareth Hughes 15:06, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Ok. Fixed. David.Monniaux 16:42, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment — It is clear to me what cabinet and gouvernement mean in different sections of this article, but the interchange between the two words isn't all that helpful. Would it be possible to define gouvernement and then use that term exclusively? --Gareth Hughes 15:15, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment — The capitalisation of certain titles, like president and prime minister is erratic. I tried correcting a few before I realised that I was probably doing it wrong. See titles. --Gareth Hughes 15:41, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Regretfully object: the article is very good, but the complete lack of English-language references is unacceptable, as there's no way for the average reader to examine the cited sources. Kirill Lokshin 23:17, 15 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I added a bunch of English references (many reference texts had official English translations). Do you think it's enough? David.Monniaux 07:56, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, that looks just fine; I have no further objections. Support from me. Kirill Lokshin 12:00, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Was about to support, but I have to ask: Are those italicised "see below" notices in parentheses really necessary? I'm not sure about the policy/convention on them, but I found them a bit offputting at times. Johnleemk | Talk 17:21, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Removed most of them but one — the one linking to the difference between statute law and regulations, which is I think quite a central topic of French constitutional law after 1958. David.Monniaux 20:04, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Object at the moment. This is a very important article that I'd like to see featured. But it needs heavy editing—you could call it rewriting. Here are some comments on the lead.
 * Opening sentence
 * I've wikified by starting with the title in bold.
 * You may wish to revert to the 'laique = roughly secular' thing in the middle of the list, but it was cluttering what should be a strong, clear opening.
 * What does 'social' mean in this context? (Remove or reword.)
 * This is a quote from the preamble of the Constitution, so any rewording is surely out of question. The precise meaning of such words probably warrants detailed constitutional analysis by constitutional scholars. David.Monniaux 06:01, 17 October 2005 (UTC)
 * 'Provides for', not 'enacts' (parliaments, not constitutions enact).
 * Is my change to 'human rights' correct?
 * Appointment of PM—this sentence was a mess. How about: 'The President's choice for Prime Minister must be approved by the French National Assembly, the lower house of Parliament; in practice, the Prime Minister is drawn from the majority party in that house.'
 * Then: 'The government includes various bodies checking against possible abuses of power and independent agencies.'
 * Let's be careful to distinguish 'government' (that of a particular President/PM) from the constitutional framework in which governments function. Is there appropriate terminology to do this throughout?
 * Do you mean '... that check abuses of power by the government and its independent agencies.'? What are these 'independent agencies? You've said twice that the judiciary is 'independent', so the reader will wonder whether the statement refers to it.
 * I wonder whether a bullet-pointed list of the basic structure—or even a diagram—is required at the top, so that we're not confused when you first refer to the components.
 * And: 'However, the various legal subdivisions—the régions, départements and communes—have various attributions, and the national government is prohibited from intruding into their normal legal operations.'
 * I've inserted the m dashes, which make sentences with lots of commas a little clearer and easier to read.
 * Are these entities equivalent to 'local goverment'?
 * Why name these categories here if you don't distinguish between them? (Better to use a generic term here, and explain in detail later.) What are 'attributions' in this context? (Powers and responsibilities?)
 * 'Various' appears twice in this sentence.

Do I have time to go through the whole article like this? Tony 03:37, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Re 'social'—presumably you've translated it, so you have a degree of license to get across the intended meaning in English. As it stands, social is vague and ambiguous, and should be removed if the courts need to interpret the word. Here, some readers will take it as 'socialist'; others might think it means 'democratic'. So it can't stand as is. (That's unwise drafting, in my view.) Tony 13:03, 17 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The word social is used in the official English translation. It would be unfair to try and change this.  Social means here that the state is responsible for some welfare system but interpreting further would be original research.  I have changed the head (and cited the source) such that it comes clearer. Vb 15:24, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment I cannot vote because I have not read everything. The article is much too long and should boil down to something more reasonable like 30-35 KB. Vb 15:24, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Object poor flow - needs longer and less paragraphs. Could use another run through peer review probably. Ryan Norton T 02:45, 20 October 2005 (UTC)


text:
Benjamin Widom

Benjamin Widom (born 13 October 1927) is the Goldwin Smith Professor of Chemistry at Cornell University. His research interests include physical chemistry and statistical mechanics. In 1998, Widom was awarded the Boltzmann Medal "for his illuminating studies of the statistical mechanics of fluids and fluid mixtures and their interfacial properties, especially his clear and general formulation of scaling hypotheses for the equation of state and surface tensions of fluids near critical points."

Widom's professional papers are archived at Cornell University.

Academic background
Widom was born in Newark, New Jersey. He graduated from New York City's Stuyvesant High School in 1945, and received his BA from Columbia University in 1949, followed by his PhD from Cornell in 1953. He became an instructor of chemistry at Cornell in 1954, was appointed assistant professor in 1955 and a full professor in 1963. He was chair of the chemistry department between 1978 and 1981. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1974 and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1979.

Publications

 * Theoretical modeling: An introduction. Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 242.
 * Theory of phase equilibrium. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 13190.
 * Lekkerkerker, H.N.W.; Widom, B. An Exactly Solvable Model for Depletion Phenomena. Physica A 2000, 285, 483-492.
 * Barkema, G.T.; Widom, B. Model of Hydrophobic Attraction in Two and Three Dimensions. J. Chem Phys. 2000, 113, 2349-2353.
 * Weiss, V.C.; Widom, B. Contact Angles in Sequential Wetting: Pentane On Water. Physica A 2001, 292, 137-145.
 * Widom, B. Surface Tension and Molecular Correlations near the Critical Point, J. Chem. Phys. 1965, 43, 3892-3897.
 * Widom, B. Equation of State in the Neighborhood of the Critical Point, J. Chem. Phys. 1965, 43, 3898-3905.
 * Widom, B.; Bhimalapuram, P; Koga, K. The Hydrophobic Effect. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. (PCCP) 2003, 5, 3085-3093.

Family
Widom's niece Jennifer Widom is the Frederick Emmons Terman Dean of the Stanford School of Engineering and the Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science.

Awards

 * New York Academy of Sciences Boris Pregel Award in Chemical Physics
 * ACS Langmuir Medal in Chemical Physics, 1982
 * ACS Hildebrand Award in Theoretical and Experimental Chemistry of Liquids
 * Carnegie-Mellon University Dickson Prize for Science, 1987
 * University of Wisconsin–Madison Hirschfelder Prize
 * Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Bakhuys Roozeboom Medal
 * Onsager Lectureship, 1994
 * Boltzmann Medal, 1998
 * IUPAP Commission on Statistical Physics, 1998
 * ACS Award in Theoretical Chemistry, 1999
 * National Academy of Sciences
 * American Philosophical Society
 * American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellow
 * New York Academy of Sciences Fellow

Private life
Widom is father to Michael Widom, a professor of physics at Carnegie Mellon University, Elizabeth Widom, a professor of geology at Miami University, and Jonathan Widom, a professor of biochemistry at Northwestern University. He is brother to Harold Widom, professor emeritus of mathematics at U. C. Santa Cruz.

title: Benjamin Widom


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Edd Kalehoff

Actually, Sheila Cole wrote the original theme to The Price is Right. However, Edd did jazz it up for the 1994 syndicated version. If I was still voting for this, I would say KEEP!


text:
Rice bran wax

Rice bran wax is the vegetable wax extracted from the bran oil of rice (Oryza sativa).

Chemical composition
The main components of rice bran wax are aliphatic acids (wax acids) and higher alcohol esters. The aliphatic acids consist of palmitic acid (C16), behenic acid (C22), lignoceric acid (C24), other higher wax acids. The higher alcohol esters consist mainly of ceryl alcohol (C26) and melissyl alcohol (C30). Rice bran wax also contains constituents such as free fatty acids (palmitic acid), squalene and phospholipids.

Uses
Rice bran wax is edible and can serve as a substitute for carnauba wax in most applications due to its relatively high melting point. It is used in paper coatings, textiles, explosives, fruit and vegetable coatings, confectionery, pharmaceuticals, candles, moulded novelties, electric insulation, textile and leather sizing, waterproofing, carbon paper, typewriter ribbons, printing inks, lubricants, crayons, adhesives, chewing gum and cosmetics.

In cosmetics, rice bran wax is used as an emollient, and is the basis material for some exfoliation particles. It has been observed that rice bran wax at concentrations as low as 1 wt% in triglycerides can crystallize to form stable gels.

Physical properties
Melting point = 77 - 86 °C

Saponification value = 75 - 120

Iodine number = 11.1 - 17.6

Free fatty acids = 2.1 - 7.3%

Phosphorus = 0.01 - 0.15%

Color: Off-white to moderate orange/brown

Odor: typical fatty, crayola-ish

Rice bran wax bleaches and deodorizes readily

INCI name: Oryza Sativa (Rice) Bran Wax.

title: Rice bran wax


text:
User:David.c.h/sandbox

Start of sandbox

title: User:David.c.h/sandbox


text:
California State Route 108

State Route 108 (SR 108) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that runs from the Central Valley and across the Sierra Nevada via the Sonora Pass. It generally runs northeast from downtown Modesto near the SR 99/SR 132 interchange, to U.S. Route 395 near the Nevada state line. The route was once recommended to continue south of Modesto to Interstate 5, although today that portion exists as a county road. Parts of SR 108 are closed annually during the winter due to inclement weather along the summit.

Route description
State Route 108 begins in downtown Modesto at the junction of SR 99 and SR 132, overlapping SR 132 northeast on L Street from 6th Street to 9th Street. There, it splits into a short one-way pair, with eastbound SR 108 turning southeast with SR 132 on 9th Street to K Street and then northeast to Needham Street; the westbound direction remains on L Street to Needham Street. After several blocks eastward on Needham Street, SR 108 reaches McHenry Avenue, which it follows north out of the city. There are no route markers eastbound indicating where the route turns left from 9th Street to K Street, nor are there route markers indicating where the westbound traffic turns left from Needham Street to L Street.

From Modesto, SR 108 runs north along McHenry Avenue for about 7 mi before turning eastward on Patterson Road to follow the Stanislaus River east-northeast. In Riverbank, County Route J7 comes from the north and departs to the south after about a one-mile (1.6 km) co-routing. After following the river about 10 mi, SR 108 passes straight through the heart of downtown Oakdale.

At the main intersection in Oakdale, SR 120 joins SR 108 from the north and they are co-signed as they continue northeast, climbing into the foothills and passing just south of Knights Ferry. SR 120 brings with it the title Northern Yosemite Highway for this segment; with State Route 140 being the middle route from the west and State Route 41 being the southern route to Yosemite. Just past Knights Ferry, SR 108 crosses from Stanislaus County into Tuolumne County, and the road changes from two lanes to four-lane separated highway for about 6 mi. This is advantageous as steep grade is located along this stretch of the road and the extra lanes are useful as passing lanes both ascending and descending the mountain range. About a mile after the end of the separated pavement, La Grange Road (County road J59) heads south, passing just west of Lake Don Pedro and meeting SR 132 near the town of La Grange. Another 3 mi eastward, at Yosemite Junction, SR 120 finally separates from SR 108 and heads southward toward to a co-routing with State Route 49 through Chinese Camp and across the upper end of Lake Don Pedro. Another 3 mi eastward, SR 49 joins from the south and is co-routed with SR 108 through Jamestown and into Sonora, where SR 49 departs to the north. SR 108 continues eastward and gains elevation as it passes through Twain Harte, Mi-Wuk Village, Long Barn, Cold Springs, Strawberry-Pinecrest Lake and Dodge Ridge Ski Area, then on to Dardanelle and Kennedy Meadow. SR 108 passes through Alpine County for approximately 0.8 miles immediately west of the Sonora Pass. At the pass, the highway crosses the summit of the Sierra Nevada and enters Mono County, then descends past the Mountain Warfare Training Center at Pickel Meadows, finally reaching the eastern terminus at Sonora Junction where it meets U.S. Route 395. Sonora Pass usually closes during the winter months, often from November through as late as May.

SR 108 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and west of the eastern junction with SR 49 is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 108 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation.

title: California State Route 108


text:
Kwun Chung

Kwun Chung, or Koon Chung in early documents, is an area of Hong Kong, Yau Ma Tei or Tsim Sha Tsui located in the Yau Tsim Mong District.

In 1979, the MTR station running through Kwun Chung was named Jordan since it intersected Jordan Road and nearby bus stops were also relabelled Jordan. This resulted in the area being called Jordan by residents, since most MTR stations are named after the district or area in which it serves.

History
Its Chinese name literally means "government creek", which was named for the pre-19th century presence of Imperial China's military in defence against pirates and foreigners. Since Hong Kong was sparsely populated during the time, this referenced name may have superseded any local name. In early British maps, Kwun Chung was a river valley north of a series of hills called Napiers Range with a namesake village and cultivation. The valley extended from the shore to the middle of the Kowloon Peninsula. In the middle of the valley was a hill where two rivers ran west to the sea.

Kwun Chung Fort
The area between Austin Road and Jordan Road was originally used as a fortification by the military of the Qing dynasty during the 19th century. In 1839, Qing official Lin Zexu ordered the construction of a fortification in the area to defend against possible British attacks. When the First Opium War broke out, the fortification, along with another fort in Tsim Sha Tsui, saw action against British forces during the Battle of Kowloon.

On 4 November 1839, British troops engaged in repeated attacks in the Battle of Kwun Chung. Lin Zexu fought back head-on, winning six skirmishes over the next 10 days.

The fort, along with the hill it was based on, were both demolished for development during the early period of British rule in Kowloon; the rock and sand leftover from the demolition were used for land reclamation in the area situated northwest of Jordan Road. Due to its strategic position, the British garrison in Hong Kong chose the hill south of Austin Road to build the Whitfield Barracks and Kowloon West II Battery. Battery Street was probably named after it.

Demography
While the majority population is Cantonese and other ethnic Chinese, Kwun Chung also contains Nepalese, mostly from ex-Gurkhas, and other South Asian populations.

Arts and culture
Residents of Kwun Chung maintain practice of the Ghost Festival.

Landmarks

 * King George V Memorial Park, Kowloon
 * Kwun Chung Market

title: Kwun Chung


text:
Talk:Annie (singer)

Birth year
Havardk reports that Annie's birth year is listed as 1977 in the Norwegian tax records. However, Annie has reported her birth year as 1978, and her age has been listed as 26 in various pre-November 2005 publications. - Carolyn81 07:13, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Pop Till You Drop
Also, I am unclear on whether Pop Till You Drop was just a club night, or an actual nightclub. Carolyn81 01:52, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Pop till you drop was a club night at the nightclub Agora in Bergen. Havardk 11:03, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for clearing that up! I was checking the PTYD posters by Silje Heggren and saw the name Agora so I figured it was a club night, and was going to change that today. Carolyn81 21:50, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

Maintainer
I have added a Maintained template to this page with my name. I wrote the bio part of this article a while back and I am hoping to make some improvements soon. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you want to discuss this article. - Carolyn81 07:21, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Just explaining a minor change
As I haven't done any changes to Wikipedia in a long time and now, out of convinience, do it without registering, I'll explain why I thought my changes were appropriate. Timo is a common Finnish given name, while Timothy is not. The 'real' name Timothy is mentioned only on a handful of websites, and they have probably gotten this name from a single source. Also, on sites where Op:l Bastards is mentioned the stage name and real name of Vilunki 3000 there, while the other members appear to use their regular names as performers. As a probable source for assumption that his first name is Timothy is the Ministry of Sound, it is quite likely that someone simply made a slightly anglocentric mistake. And so, as I was not able to find any confirmation to Timothy being Mr. Kaukolampi's given name and plenty of proof for it being Timo before (in the finnish media) and after(online) this mention in the article cought my eye, I saw the edit as appropriate. And yes, I am procrastinating writing this long explanation :).

Oh, and the article as it was after I edited is [here]. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.153.113.240 (talk) 12:55, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

New images available
Just noting: 3 new images are available at Commons:Category:Annie. Feel free to add them to the article. –Quibik (talk) 22:44, 24 December 2009 (UTC)

Outdated
Generally outdated is fine but since she is contemporary and there are claims about her releasing new stuff a while ago, I have to wonder are there any news articles on her progress? I'm starting to think her projects have been scrapped, I could find nothing myself. So to sum up: is there any MORE RECENT NEWS on what her deal is with these claims of new releases? It should be mentioned ErdoSa (talk) 22:54, 26 February 2013 (UTC)

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The Guest
Her song "Anthonio" was featured in the 2014 film "The Guest" by Adam Wingard starring Dan Stevens. It would be nice if someone would include this information in proper etiquette. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 167.57.82.246 (talk) 02:22, 19 May 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Annie (singer)