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United International Pictures

United International Pictures (UIP) is a joint venture of Paramount Pictures and Universal Pictures that distributes their films outside the United States and Canada. UIP also had international distribution rights to certain Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) and United Artists (UA) films when MGM was part of the venture and also distributed Disney films in certain territories until 1987. In 2001, MGM left UIP, and signed a distribution deal with 20th Century Fox's overseas arm. The company formerly distributed DreamWorks Pictures releases internationally as well until late 2005.

In 2002, 2007, and 2021, the 20 countries overseas reorganized their organizations, and Universal Pictures and Paramount Pictures decided to have independent distribution systems.

Cinema International Corporation (1970–1981)
Paramount's early history with MCA dates back to the 1950s, when part of its talent pool worked for Paramount Pictures; Alfred Hitchcock was among the best known. In 1958, MCA purchased the pre-1950 Paramount sound feature film library. In 1962, MCA purchased Universal Pictures. In 1966, Gulf+Western purchased Paramount.

In a cost-cutting move, in 1970, as a result of American antitrust laws, and due to declining movie-going audiences, both Paramount and Universal agreed to merge their international operations into a new company, Cinema International Corporation, registered in England and Wales. It even operated in Canada and the Caribbean until the late 70s, when those territories were considered part of the "domestic" North American market.

In 1973, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer closed down its distribution offices and became a partner in CIC, which took over international distribution for MGM's films; however, United Artists took over the US, Canadian and Caribbean distribution for MGM's films that time. CIC also entered the home video market by forming CIC Video, which distributed Paramount and Universal titles on video worldwide. MGM however, had its own video unit, which later became a joint venture with CBS as MGM/CBS Home Video (later known as MGM/UA Home Video, which was later renamed to MGM Home Entertainment).

United International Pictures (1981–present)
In 1981, MGM merged with United Artists, which had its own international distribution unit. CIC refused to let MGM drop out of the venture at the time, but let them merge UA's overseas arm into CIC, which led to the reorganization of the company as United International Pictures from November 1, 1981. MGM eventually left the venture in 2001, when it moved its international distribution to 20th Century Fox. The last MGM film to be released through UIP was Return to Me in 2000.

In 1986, Ted Turner purchased MGM/UA, but later resold the company except for its film library, which included the pre-May 1986 MGM film and television library and the pre-1950 Warner Bros. film library (which the latter was sold to Associated Artists Productions in 1956, and got acquired by United Artists in 1958). After that library was acquired by Turner, UIP (through MGM/UA) signed a deal to continue distributing the pre-May 1986 MGM and pre-1950 Warner Bros. film libraries for theatrical release.

CIC's name lived on in its video division, which became directly managed as a joint venture of Paramount Home Video and MCA Videocassette, Inc. (later MCA Home Video and MCA/Universal Home Video). CIC Video survived until 1999, when Universal purchased PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and reorganised its video division (which was a joint venture with what is now Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, and remains so to this day) under the Universal name, while Paramount took over full ownership of CIC Video and merged it under its own video division.

UIP also had a subscription television arm, UIP Pay TV, which distributed Paramount, MGM/UA, and Universal releases to pay TV broadcasters outside the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico and the Anglophone Caribbean. In 1986, Canal+ had signed an agreement with UIP Pay TV to handle up to eighty titles for the French television market. UIP Pay TV was broken up in 1997 after a 4-year investigation by the European Union, as it accused UIP as a cartel-like organisation. The pay TV rights for the films were eventually transferred to Paramount International Television (later renamed CBS Paramount International Television and currently known as Paramount Global Distribution Group; today, the Paramount films are distributed by Trifecta Entertainment & Media), Universal Worldwide Television (currently known as NBCUniversal International Television Distribution) and MGM Worldwide Television.

Buena Vista Pictures Distribution also had a theatrical distribution agreement with UIP since 1982 in which the latter distributed Disney and Touchstone films in Italy, Brazil and West Germany until 1987, when Warner Bros. took over theatrical distribution of Disney material in those territories.

In 1999, Universal Pictures nearly pulled out of UIP when it acquired PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, which had its international division, The division would promptly be rebranded as Universal Pictures International. Only a small handful of films would be released theatrically by Universal Pictures International until the release of Mickey Blue Eyes, when Universal instead opted to merge its international theatrical unit with UIP, and UIP becoming the exclusive theatrical distributor for Universal films, and took some of the planned films released by Universal Pictures International with them, namely The Green Mile and Angela's Ashes. The agreement came in after Universal opted to renew its agreement with UIP until 2006. MGM, meanwhile left UIP and moved its distribution to 20th Century Fox that year, in 1999. The deal, however, was extended up until 2010 due to the MGM's financial crisis in the same year. Subsequently, MGM would revive its theatrical distribution unit in 2018 and licensed their films to Universal Pictures outside of the United States and Canada before Warner Bros. replaced Universal as a new distributor in 2022.

2007 reorganisation and post-reorganisation
As the international box office started to exceed the US box office, Paramount Pictures and Universal Pictures started discussions about the future of United International Pictures under Universal Pictures vice chairman Marc Shmuger and Paramount vice-chairman Rob Friedman. Shmuger completed them with Rob Moore, recently appointed Paramount Pictures president of worldwide marketing and distribution. The two firms agreed on the countries where UIP would continue operating and on a draft system to select countries where that company would take over UIP operations and the other would have to start up operations. Either may sub-distribute films in the other former UIP countries until 2009. Starting January 1, 2007, United International Pictures considerably reduced its international operations. At least 15 key countries are now directly managed separately by Universal, taking over operations in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, South Korea, Spain and Switzerland, and Paramount, taking over operations in Australia, Brazil, France, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. In Russia, Central Partnership took over distribution rights of Paramount Pictures' titles since 2008. UIP was planned to continue in Japan, Korea, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Greece, Hungary, India, Malaysia, Norway, Panama, Peru, Poland, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, Taiwan, Thailand and Turkey. Universal announced in November 2007 their withdrawal from UIP in South Korea to set up its own branch at the same time as the other UIP operation ceased; Paramount announced that in that country, CJ Entertainment would be the company's exclusive distributor until 2015 when Lotte Entertainment took over Paramount's films. UIP president and chief operating officer Andrew Cripps was hired as the head of Paramount Pictures International. In its first year, Paramount Pictures International distributed films that made the 1 billion mark in July 2007, the fifth studio that year to do so.

Though their Japanese operations were initially planned to be kept intact, United International Pictures withdrew from the Japanese market in late 2007. As a result, Paramount Pictures started handling their Japanese distribution of their movies themselves until January 31, 2016, when Toho-Towa took over for Japanese theatrical distribution of their films, starting with The Big Short on March 4, 2016. Universal Pictures Japan also formed distribution alliances with TOHO-TOWA Company, Ltd. for theatrical distribution and Geneon Entertainment (now NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan) for home entertainment distribution.

In the Philippines, United International Pictures films were distributed through Warner Bros. until 2000 (with the exception of Twister where Warner handled theatrical distribution by themselves), when distribution switched to Viva International Pictures. Solar Entertainment Corporation through its Solar Films subsidiary distributed UIP films from 2004 to 2014 and Sony Pictures Releasing International later distributed them from 2014 to 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic causing its cinemas to shutting down, UIP withdrew from the local market, leading to a breakup of the company in the Philippines. In October 2021, it was announced that Universal Pictures International signed a distribution alliance with Warner Bros. for Philippine theatrical distribution of their films, starting with No Time to Die on December 15, 2021, following its success of the alliance for Home Entertainment distribution in North America, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the UK, Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Japan, as well as the success of their theatrical distribution alliance in Australia while distribution of select Focus Features titles went through a local start-up distribution company, UPSTREAM (which reverted to Warner after UPSTREAM's closure) Paramount Pictures meanwhile, has renewed its distribution alliance with Sony Pictures for Philippine theatrical distribution of their films.

Similarly in early 2021, the Brazilian Administrative Council for Economic Defense authorized the Brazilian distribution arm of Warner Bros. Pictures to license Universal's releases in Brazil. The first film under the new deal was Promising Young Woman, released in Brazil in May 2021.

In 2002, United International Pictures withdrew from the Finnish market. As a result, their releases in that country from that point onwards were handled by Buena Vista International Finland until 2006, when distribution passed on to national cinema operator Finnkino.

In 2003, UIP started distributing Sony Pictures films in Poland.

Past organisation
The company was formerly based in London, United Kingdom, though their operations in that country have been taken over by Paramount Pictures. However, as of August 2022, they continue to directly distribute films in 15 countries, Argentina, Colombia, Denmark, France, Hungary, Malaysia, Norway, Panama, Peru, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, Taiwan, Thailand, and Turkey. In addition, the company has distribution agreements with locally owned distribution companies in a further 47 countries. One such example is Bontonfilm in the Czech Republic, who previously distributed material from CIC & UIP in both the Czech and the Slovak markets.

In Denmark, UIP distributed films released by Mis. Label. In Spain, UIP distributed films released by Araba Films. In Turkey, UIP distributed select films released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their Buena Vista International distribution label, Fida Film, TMC Film and Film Pop.

title: United International Pictures


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Lush Life (TV series)

Lush Life is an American sitcom that aired between September and November 1996 on Fox. The series stars Karyn Parsons and Lori Petty as roommates who shared a studio apartment for financial reasons.

Plot
Petty stars as Georgette "George" Sanders, a bohemian artist who was wild and uninhibited. Parsons played Margot Hines, a snooty, airheaded wanna-be businesswoman. The two would get into conflicts generally surrounding one of their crazy schemes. In one aired episode, George fakes her own death to draw attention and higher prices to her paintings. In another, Margot convinces some of George's gay male friends to pose as her boyfriend and frighten off her ex-husband.

Cancellation
The ratings of the first episode were low, and it was canceled after the fourth episode aired at the end of September 1996. It was the first new series of 1996 to be canceled. The remaining three produced episodes were aired later in October and November.

Main cast

 * Karyn Parsons as Margot Hines
 * Lori Petty as Georgette "George" Sanders
 * Fab Filippo as Hamilton Ford Foster
 * Khalil Kain as Lance Battista
 * John Ortiz as Nelson "Margarita" Marquez
 * Sullivan Walker as Hal Gardner

Recurring cast

 * Concetta Tomei as Ann Hines-Davis-Wilson-Jefferson-Ali
 * Derek Chen as Joey White

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lush Life (TV series)


text: User talk:68.57.92.222

title: User talk:68.57.92.222


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May Bumps

The May Bumps (also May Races, Mays) are a set of rowing races, held annually on the River Cam in Cambridge, England. They began in 1887 after separating from the Lent Bumps, the equivalent bumping races held at the end of February or start of March. Prior to the separation there had been a single set of annual bumps dating from its inception in 1827. The races are open to all college boat clubs from the University of Cambridge, the University Medical and Veterinary Schools and the Anglia Ruskin Boat Club. The May Bumps takes place over four days (Wednesday to Saturday) in mid-June and is run as a bumps race.

Structure of the May Bumps

The races are run in divisions, each containing 17 crews. The number of crews in each bottom division varies yearly depending on new entrants. Each crew contains eight rowers and one coxswain. A total of 154 crews took part in 2014, totalling around 1390 participants. There are currently six divisions for men's crews (referred to as M1, M2...M6) and four divisions for women's crews (similarly W1–W4). The divisions represent a total race order with Division 1 at the top. The ultimate aim is to try and finish Head of the River (also said as gaining the 'Headship'), i.e. 1st position in division 1.

At the start, signalled by a cannon, each crew is separated by a distance of about $1 1/2$ boat lengths (approximately 30 m or 90 ft). Once the race has begun, a crew must attempt to catch up with the crew ahead of it and bump (physically touch or overtake) it before the crew behind does the same to them. A crew which bumps or is bumped must pull to the side of the river to allow all the other crews to continue racing. If a crew is able to catch and bump the boat which started three places in front of it, after the two in front have already bumped out, the crew is said to have over-bumped. A crew which neither bumps a crew ahead nor is bumped by a crew behind before crossing the finishing post is said to have rowed over.

After the race, any crew which bumps or over-bumps swaps places with the crew that it has bumped for the following day's racing. A crew which rows over stays in the same position. Crews finishing at the top of a division also start at the bottom of the next division, as the sandwich boat, in an attempt to try to move up into the next division. The process is repeated over four days, allowing crews to move up or down several places in the overall order of boats. The finishing order of one year's May Bumps are then used as the starting order of the following year's races.

Men's May Bumps (1887–2024)
May Bumps were cancelled between 1915 and 1918, and in 1940 due to war, and in 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior to 1946 were two separate rowing clubs: 1st Trinity and 3rd Trinity, hence both separate and combined titles.

Women's May Bumps (1974–2024)
The Women's May Bumps were rowed in coxed fours between 1974 and 1989, changing to coxed eights from 1990 onwards. A new start order was used for the women's 1990 races. May Bumps were cancelled in 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2024 marks the 50th anniversary of Women's May Bumps, in which Caius took headship.

Table of winning boats (1887–2024)
Sixteen boats have been head of the river.

N.B.: Prior to 1946 were two separate rowing clubs: 1st Trinity and 3rd Trinity, hence both separate and combined titles.

Anglia Ruskin, Christ's, Clare Hall, Corpus Christi, Darwin, Girton, Homerton, Hughes Hall, King's, Magdalene, Peterhouse, Robinson, St. Catharine's, Selwyn, Sidney Sussex, St Edmund's, Wolfson, Addenbrooke's and the Veterinary School are the regular entrants never to have finished Head of the River for either the men's or women's events.

Blades, Super-Blades, Technical Blades, and Spoons

Four boat 'awards' are informally/formally recognised by the individual college boat clubs that take part in the Cambridge May Bumps, these accolades are awarded as follows:

 * Blades: The accolade of earning 'blades' (referring to the rowing oars used by crews) is given to crews that bump up at every opportunity: that is, four bumps on each day in usual cicrcumstances, or five if a crew bumps up to "sandwich" boat. Crews that achieve blades are often given the opportunity to purchase decoratory oars from their college boat club, to serve as a reminder of their contribution to the club's success. For most college rowers, who do not attempt to become University Blues rowers, earning blades is the highest rowing related achievement that can be obtained. Obtaining blades is, for any crew, a rare occurrence, though at each bumps several crews generally "blade". Crews who obtain blades are often photographed and recorded on the walls of the college boathouse to serve as a longer term reminder of their success, and to inspire future generations of college rowers. In the occasion that a crew earns blades, they also earn the right to row back to their college boathouse on the last day of the calendar with their college flag raised high; this practise allows for recognition of the achievement by members of other college boat clubs and the general public watching the races.
 * Super-Blades: In the event that a crew bumps up more than four times, including at least one overbump (with no row overs/bumping down) they are said to have earned 'super-blades'. This is rarer because the circumstances leading to the possibility are uncommon.
 * Technical Blades: In the case that a crew does not bump up on each opportunity of rowing, but does manage to bump up net four places in the overall standings over the course of the week, with no bumping down, i.e. 'making up' for any row overs with an overbump or successive bumps into a higher division, then they are said to have qualified (at the discretion of the captain at each college boat club) for 'Technical Blades'. Technical bladed rowers are usually afforded the same opportunity to obtain a ceremonial blade as those crews that obtain regular blades.
 * Spoons: This 'award' is obtained by crews that are bumped down on every day of the May bumps calendar. The awarding of spoons is an informal occasion by the crew captain, often this captain will actually buy a wooden spoon (decorated) for each crew member as a reminder that "at least they tried".

The Pegasus Cup

The Pegasus Cup is a Cambridge rowing prize first awarded in 2006. It was donated by Milton Brewery and will be awarded annually to the most successful college boat club competing in the Cambridge May Bumping Races. The winner is decided by means of a points system, which is described in the Cambridge University Combined Boat Club handbook as follows:

"The Cup is awarded to the Club gaining the most points over the course of the May Bumps. Points are awarded as follows: The total number of points gained over the four days of racing is multiplied by 12 and then divided by the number of boats entered by the Club to give the final score."
 * One point for every place gained by each of a Club’s boats.
 * One point for each night that a Club retains the Men’s or Women’s Headship in Division One.
 * One point deducted for every place lost by each of a Club’s boats.

To be eligible a club must have at least one men's and one women's boat (except in the case of single sex colleges where two boats of the same sex may be permitted). In the coronavirus year of 2020, May Bumps were not held. Instead, the Pegasus Cup was awarded to the Cambridge college boat club whose members raised the greatest sum for charity (per capita)—Lady Margaret Boat Club, who raised over £3500. The year is asterisked on the Pegasus Cup to distinguish this unusual occurrence.

Winners

 * 2006:
 * 2007:
 * 2008:
 * 2009:
 * 2010:
 * 2011:
 * 2012:
 * 2013:
 * 2014: /
 * 2015:
 * 2016:
 * 2017:
 * 2018:
 * 2019:
 * 2020*:

2023 finishing positions (2024 starting positions)

Results:

Men's 1st Division

 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 2)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 1)  II
 * 1)  II

Women's 1st Division

title: May Bumps


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/ANGEL Learning

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete --Cel e stianpower hablamé 13:40, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

ANGEL Learning
Advert for educational software, complete with "MindClick ™ Process Technology". I am excited to learn that its features include "data integration", "application integration", "security", "accessibility", and "scalability". Quale 01:23, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete unless someone can show that this is not ad/corpvanity AND it is cleaned up to not read like an advert AND someone can find an aspect of WP:CORP that they meet. --CastAStone 01:37, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete ad spam. Pureblade 01:36, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - This is an ad. Preaky 03:35, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Ads are one of the best ways to get a delete vote from Qaz  ( talk ) 06:09, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - more advertising!? Kill it! Kill it with fire! Rob Church Talk 09:15, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ad. utcursch | talk 11:46, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - C HAIRBOY (☎) 17:01, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Talk:Peter Christen Asbjornsen

Should not be merged, as they are two distinct persons. See Talk:J%C3%B8rgen_Moe. bjelleklang 01:24, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

Unless I'm missing something, the merge that is up for discussion is between Peter Christen Asbjornsen and Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who are clearly the same individual. The articles should be merged. Caerwine 23:50, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah, sorry, my bad...thought it was a merge with P.C. Asbjørnsen and J.Moe...thanks for noticing! bjelleklang 00:27, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Cleaned up, and rewrote parts of the article
Today. bjelleklang 14:58, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peter Christen Asbjornsen


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Kaluzhskaya (Moscow Metro)

Kaluzhskaya (Калужская) is a station on the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line of the Moscow Metro. It is named after the Russian town of Kaluga. Kaluzhskaya opened on 12 August 1974, replacing a temporary station of the same name (located in a service bay of the nearby Kaluzhskoe Depot) that had been operating since 1964. The new station was built to the column tri-span design with tapered octagonal columns in place of the usual square ones. Also the step of the columns was extended from 4 metres to 6.5, and the height of the ceiling raised. The columns are faced with pink Baikal marble, the walls are tiled with white ceramic and decorated with metallic artworks (works of A. Leonteva and M. Shmakova); the floor is laid with grey granite. The architects of the station were N. Demchinskiy and Yuliya Kolesnikova.

Passengers can transfer to Vorontsovskaya station of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line.

The entrances to the station are spread out along Profsoyuznaya Street north of Obruchev street as well as onto the Academicial Keldysh square. Its daily passenger traffic is 131,000.

title: Kaluzhskaya (Moscow Metro)


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Insert key

The Insert key (often abbreviated Ins) is a key commonly found on computer keyboards.

It is primarily used to switch between the two text-entering modes on a personal computer (PC) or word processor: The insert/overtype mode toggling is not global for the computer or even for a single application but rather local to the text input window in which the Insert key was pressed.
 * overtype mode, in which the cursor, when typing, overwrites any text that is present in the current location; and
 * insert   mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further.

Overview
On early text-based computing environments and terminals, when the cursor is in overtype mode, it was represented as a block that surrounded the entire letter to be overstruck; when in insert mode, the cursor consisted of the vertical bar that is highly common among modern applications, or a blinking underline under the position where a new character would be inserted.

On modern keyboards, the Insert key is only present on the control block between the typewriter keys and the numeric keypad. Originally an insert key was provided in the typewriter key block beside a delete key; both have been removed in favor of a double-sized 'backspace key'. The key was often maligned as unnecessary and more likely to be accidentally than intentionally activated.

When keymapping using Octal code, the desired key may be set by sending \e\161 to perform the "insert" function.

Use in applications
Modern word processing applications operate in insert mode by default, but can still be switched to overtype mode by pressing the Insert key. Some applications indicate overtype mode with a letter-width cursor box, as opposed to the standard narrow cursor; however, others use the narrow cursor for both modes, and indicate overtype with an "OVR" indicator in the status bar.

The Insert key, when pressed along with Control or Shift, can also be used to copy or paste in Microsoft Windows. This behavior comes from the Common User Access standard.

Screen readers use the insert key for hotkeys for reading text, speaking formatting information, or opening the screen reader's configuration menu or window.

title: Insert key


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sales Charts & Achievements

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate wasdelete. Woohookitty 12:05, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Sales Charts & Achievements
Inappropriate redirect SGBailey 01:26, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete per nomination -- SGBailey 01:26, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom. Pureblade 01:34, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per above. --CastAStone 01:36, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - inappropriate redirect. Rob Church Talk 09:15, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment - this ought to have gone through Redirects for deletion, for future reference. Rob Church Talk 09:15, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Perhaps RfD is correct. However Wikipedia is far too administratively heavy and I didn't know RfD existed. The difference betwen speedy and AfD is bad enough. I'm afraid that RfD doesn't get it - too hard - sorry. -- SGBailey 08:58, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. It's an Rfd actually. utcursch | talk 11:47, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Costumbrismo

Costumbrismo (in Catalan: costumisme; sometimes anglicized as costumbrism, with the adjectival form costumbrist) is the literary or pictorial interpretation of local everyday life, mannerisms, and customs, primarily in the Hispanic scene, and particularly in the 19th century. Costumbrismo is related both to artistic realism and to Romanticism, sharing the Romantic interest in expression as against simple representation and the romantic and realist focus on precise representation of particular times and places, rather than of humanity in the abstract. It is often satiric and even moralizing, but unlike mainstream realism does not usually offer or even imply any particular analysis of the society it depicts. When not satiric, its approach to quaint folkloric detail often has a romanticizing aspect.

Costumbrismo can be found in any of the visual or literary arts; by extension, the term can also be applied to certain approaches to collecting folkloric objects, as well. Originally found in short essays and later in novels, costumbrismo is often found in the zarzuelas of the 19th century, especially in the género chico. Costumbrista museums deal with folklore and local art and costumbrista festivals celebrate local customs and artisans and their work.

Although initially associated with Spain in the late 18th and 19th century, costumbrismo expanded to the Americas and set roots in the Spanish-speaking portions of the Americas, incorporating indigenous elements. Juan López Morillas summed up the appeal of costumbrismo for writing about Latin American society as follows: the costumbristas '  "preoccupation with minute detail, local color, the picturesque, and their concern with matters of style is frequently no more than a subterfuge. Astonished by the contradictions observed around them, incapable of clearly understanding the tumult of the modern world, these writers sought refuge in the particular, the trivial or the ephemeral."

Origins

Antecedents to costumbrismo can be found as early as the 17th century (for example in the work of playwright Juan de Zabaleta) and the current becomes clearer in the 18th century (Diego de Torres Villarroel, José Clavijo y Fajardo, José Cadalso, Ramón de la Cruz, Juan Ignacio González del Castillo). All of these writers have, in at least some of their work, an attention to specific, local detail, an exaltation of the "typical" that would feed into both costumbrismo and Romanticism. In the 19th century costumbrismo bursts out as a clear genre in its own right, addressing a broad audience: stories and illustrations often made their first or most important appearance in cheap periodicals for the general public. It is not easy to draw lines around the genre: Evaristo Correa Calderón spoke of its "extraordinary elasticity and variety". Some of it is almost reportorial and documentary, some simply folkloric; what it has in common is the effort to capture a particular place (whether rural or urban) at a particular time.

Sebastián de Miñano y Bedoya (1779–1845) is considered by some a costumbrista, although arguably his writing is too political to properly fit the genre. According to Andrés Soria, the first incontestable costumbristas are the anonymous and pseudonymous contributors to La Minerva (1817), El Correo Literario y Mercantil (1823–33) and El Censor (1820–23). Later come the major figures of literary costumbrismo: Serafín Estébanez Calderón (1799–1867), Ramón de Mesonero Romanos (1803–82), and Mariano José de Larra (1809–37) who sometimes wrote under the pseudonym "Fígaro". Estébanez Calderón (who originally wrote for the abovementioned Correo Literario y Mercantil) looked for a "genuine" and picturesque Spain in the recent past of particular regions; Mesonero Romanos was a careful observer of the Madrid of his time, especially of the middle classes; Larra, according to José Ramón Lomba Pedraja, arguably transcended his genre, using the form of costumbrismo for political and psychological ideas. An afrancesado—a liberal child of the Enlightenment—he was not particularly enamored of the Spanish society that he nonetheless observed minutely.

Costumbrismo was by no means without foreign influences. The work of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele nearly a century earlier in The Spectator had influenced French writers, who in turn influenced the costumbristas. Furthermore, Addison and Steele's own work was translated into Spanish in the early 19th century, and Mesonero Romanos, at least, had read it in French. Still, an even stronger influence came by way of Victor-Joseph Étienne de Jouy (whose work appeared in translation in La Minerva and El Censor), Louis-Sébastien Mercier (especially for Le Tableau de Paris, 1781–88), Charles Joseph Colnet Du Ravel, and Georges Touchard-Lafosse. In addition, there were the travelogues such as Richard Ford's A Handbook for Travellers in Spain, written by various foreigners who had visited Spain and, in painting, the foreign artists (especially, David Roberts) who had settled for a time especially in Seville and Granada and drew or painted local subjects.

While Estébanez Calderón, Mesonero Romanos, and (insofar as he fits the genre) Larra were the major costumbrista writers, many other Spanish writers of the 19th century devoted all or part of their careers to costumbrismo. Antonio María Segovia (1808–74), who mainly wrote pseudonymously as "El Estudiante" and who founded the satiric-literary magazine El Cócora; his collaborator Santos López Pelegrín (1801–46), "Abenámar"; many early contributors to Madrid's Semanario Pintoresco Español (1836-57 ), Spain's first illustrated magazine; and such lesser lights as Antonio Neira de Mosquera (1818–53), "El Doctor Malatesta" (Las ferias de Madrid, 1845); Clemente Díaz, with whom costumbrismo took a turn toward the rural; Vicente de la Fuente (1817–89), portraying the lives of bookish students (in between writing serious histories); José Giménez Serrano, portraying a romantic Andalusia; Enrique Gil y Carrasco, a Carlist from Villafranca del Bierzo, friend of Alexander von Humboldt, and contributor to the Semanario Pintoresco Español; and many other regionalists around Spain.

The Spanish Drawn By Themselves

Much as literary costumbrismo had been influenced by English models, often by way of France, the same occurred with the equivalent in the visual arts, but with far more recent models. In a period when physiognomy was in vogue, Heads of the People or Portraits of the English was serialized in London starting in 1838 and was published in its entirety in 1840–41. It combined essays by such "distinguished writers" (the volume's own choice of words) as William Makepeace Thackeray and Leigh Hunt with pictures of individuals emblematic of different English "types". This was followed in France by a work first serialized as Les Français, Moeurs Contemporaines ("The French, Contemporary Manners", beginning in 1839) and published in a volume in 1842 as ''Les Français peints par eux-mêmes. Encyclopédie Morale du dixneuviéme siécle'' ("The French, drawn by themselves. Moral Encyclopedia of the 19th Century"). The Spanish soon followed with Los españoles pintados por sí mismos ("The Spanish Drawn By Themselves") serialized from 1842 and published in a volume in 1843.

A collective and hence, necessarily, uneven anthology of "types", Los españoles… was a mixture of verse and prose, and of writers and artists from various generations. Illustrators included Leonardo Alenza (1807–45), Fernando Miranda y Casellas, Francisco Lameyer (1825–1877), Vicente Urrabieta y Ortiz, and Calixto Ortega. The writers included Mesonero and Estébanez as well as various less costumbrista writers and many not usually associated with the genre, such as Gabriel García Tassara (1817–75) or the conservative politician Francisco Navarro Villoslada (1818–95). Andrés Soria remarks that, except for the Andalusian "types", everything was from the point of view of Madrid. Unlike later costumbrismo, the focus remained firmly on the present day. In some ways, the omissions are as interesting as the inclusions: no direct representation of the aristocracy, of prominent businessmen, of the high clergy, or of the army, and except for the "popular" classes, the writing is a bit circumspect and cautious. Still, the material is strong on ethnological, folkloric, and linguistic detail.

In an epilogue to Los españoles…, "Contrastes. Tipos perdidos, 1825, Tipos hallados, 1845" ("Contrasts. Types lost, 1825, types found, 1845"), Mesonero on the one hand showed that the genre, in its original terms, was played out, and on the other laid the ground for future costumbrismo: new "types" would always arise, and many places remained to be written about in this fashion. The book had many descendants, and a major reissue in 1871. A particularly strong current came out of Barcelona: for example, José M. de Freixas's Enciclopedia de tipos vulgares y costumbres de Barcelona ("Encyclopedia of vulgar types and customs of Barcelona", 1844) illustrated by Servat, and El libro Verde de Barcelona ("The Green Book of Barcelona", 1848) by "José y Juan" (José de Majarrés and Juan Cortada y Sala. The very title of Los valencianos pintados por sí mismos (Valencia 1859) gave a nod of the hat to the earlier work,

A revival of collective works of costumbrismo in the time of the First Spanish Republic saw the reissue of Los españoles… (1872), as well as the publication of Los españoles de hogaño ("The Spanish these days", 1872), focused on Madrid, and the vast undertaking Las mujeres españolas, portuguesas y americanas… ("Spanish, Portuguese, and American Women…", published in Madrid, Havana, and Buenos Aires in 1872–1873 and 1876). Also from this time was the satiric Madrid por dentro y por fuera ("Madrid from inside and outside, 1873) by Manuel del Palacio (1831–1906).

Carlos Frontaura carried on costumbrismo in Madrid with Las tiendas ("Shops", 1886) and "Tipos madrileños" ("Madrid types", 1888). Ramón de Navarrete (1822–1897) writing variously as or "Asmodeo" (after Asmodeus, king of the demons), broke with the history of the genre by writing of the upper classes in Madrid during the Restoration, as in his Sueños y realidades ("Dreams and realities, 1878). Enrique Sepúlveda wrote about both Madrid and Barcelona, Narcís Oller (1846–1930) about Barcelona, and Sabino de Goicoechea (1826–1901), known as "Argos", about the Basque Country. Galicia was represented by the collective work El álbum de Galicia. Tipos, costumbres y leyendas ("The album of Galicia. Types, customs and legends", 1897).

Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Poet, journalist and pamphleteer Antonio Flores Algovia (1821–65), one of the contributors to Los españoles... followed up in 1846 with Doce españoles de brocha gorda, que no pudiéndose pintar a sí mismos, me han encargado a mí, Antonio Flores, sus retratos ("Twelve Spaniards with a broad brush, who not being able to portray themselves have put me, Antonio Flores, in charge of their portraits"), subtitled a "novel of popular customs" ("novela de costumbres populares"). Published in 1846 and reissued several times, the book merged the hitherto more essayistic costumbrista form with aspects of the novel (although not a particularly tightly plotted novel). Somewhat more novelistic was his Fe, Esperanza y Caridad ("Faith Hope and Charity"), published serially in La Nación in 1850–1851 and also much reprinted. Flores had been Eugène Sue's translator into Spanish, and Sue's influence is strong in this work. Flores turned to again to custumbrismo, of a sort, in 1853 with Ayer, hoy y mañana o la fe, el vapor y la electricidad (cuadros sociales de 1800, 1850 y 1899) ("Yesterday, today and tomorrow or faith, steam and electricity (social pictures of 1800, 1850, and 1899)") going Mesonero's "types lost" and "types found" one better by projecting a vision of the future influenced by the work of Émile Souvestre. His newspaper El Laberinto continued publishing his costumbrista work even posthumously, such as Tipos y costumbres españolas (1877).

Eugenio de Ochoa (1815–72) carried costumbrismo in a different direction. Born in the Basque country and moving often between Spain and France, his 1860 book ''Museo de las familias. París, Londres y Madrid ("Museum of families. Paris, London, Madrid") created a sort of cosmopolitan costumbrismo''.

Costumbrismo by major Spanish realists
Many of the great Spanish realist writers of the 19th century worked at times in the costumbrista mode, especially at the start of their careers. Fernán Caballero (pen name of Cecilia Francisca Josefa Böhl de Faber) (1796–1877), for example, in the prose portions of her Cuentos y poesías populares andaluzas ("Popular Andalusian stories and poems", collected in 1859 from prior publication in magazines), writes within the genre, particularly in "Una paz hecha sin preliminares, sin conferencias y sin notas diplomáticas" ("A peace made without preliminaries, without conferences, and without diplomatic notes"), with its very specific setting in Chiclana de la Frontera. Pedro Antonio de Alarcón (1833–1891) issued a collection Cosas que fueron, bringing together 16 costumbrista articles. Andrés Soria sees José María de Pereda (1833–1906) as the most successful fusion of costumbrista scenes into proper novels, especially his portrayals of La Montaña, the mountainous regions of Cantabria. His Escenas montañesas (1864) is particularly in the costumbrista mode, with its mixture of urban, rural and seafaring scenes, and sections offering sketches of various milieus. Poet and novelist Antonio de Trueba (1819 or 1821–89) wrote squarely within the genre with Madrid por fuera and De flor en flor. Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836–1870) portrayed Madrid, Seville, and Toledo. José María Gabriel y Galán (1870–1905), best known as a poet, also wrote costumbrista pieces about Salamanca. Armando Palacio Valdés (1853–1938) also essayed the genre in newspaper articles, collected in Aguas fuertes ("Strong waters", 1884). The writer and diplomat Ángel Ganivet (1865–98), seen by some as a precursor to the Generation of '98, wrote costumbrista scenes of Granada.

Elements of costumbrismo, or even entire works in the genre, can be found among major Spanish writers of the 20th century, though to a lesser extent. Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936) worked in the genre for De mi país ("Of my country", 1903) and some stories such as "Solitaña" in of El espejo de la muerte ("The Mirror of Death", 1913), as did Pío Baroja with Vitrina pintoresca ("Picturesque showcase", 1935) and in passages of his novels set in the Basque Country. Azorín (José Augusto Trinidad Martínez Ruíz, 1873–1967) often wrote in this genre; one could comb the works of Ramón Gómez de la Serna (1888–1963) and Camilo José Cela (1916–2002) and find many passages that could come straight from a work of costumbrismo. Although taken as a whole these writers are clearly not costumbristas, they use the costumbrista style to evoke surviving remnants of Spain's past.

20th century literary costumbrismo in Spain
The tradition of costumbrismo in Spain by no means ended at the turn of the century, but it simply did not play as important a role in 20th-century Spanish literature as it did in the century before. As noted above, several of the most important 20th-century Spanish writers at least dabbled in, or were influenced by, the genre. When we go beyond the first string of writers, we see more of a continuation of costumbrismo.

In the course of the century, more and more Spanish regions asserted their particularity, allowing this now established technique of writing to be given new scope. In other regions—Madrid, Andalusia—costumbrismo itself had become part of the region's identity. The magazine España, founded 1915, wrote about some new "types": the indolent golfo; the lower class señorito chulo with his airs and exaggerated fashions; the albañil or construction worker, but with far less sympathy than costumbristas in the previous century had portrayed their predecessors. Other "types" were those who were a caricature of times past: el erudito, with his vast but pointless book-learning, or El poeta de juegos florales ("the poet of floral games").

Andrés Soria describes 20th century regional costumbrismo as more serious, less picturesque, and more poetic than in the 19th century. Among his many examples of the 20th century continuation of costumbrismo are Santiago Rusiñol (1861–1931), writing in Catalan about Catalonia and Mallorca; numerous chroniclers of the Basque Country: José María Salaverría (1873–1940), Ricardo Baroja (1871–1953), Dionisio de Azkue ("Dunixi"), José María Iribarren (1906–1971), and, as mentioned above, Pío Baroja; Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (1867–1928) writing about Valencia; and Vicente Medina Tomás (1866–1937), writing about Murcia.

A strong current of costumbrismo continued in 20th-century Madrid, including in poetry (Antonio Casero, 1874–1936) and theatre (José López Silva, 1860–1925; Carlos Arniches Barreda, 1866–1943). Other writers who continued the tradition were Eusebio Blasco (1844–1903), Pedro de Répide (1882–1947), Emiliano Ramírez Ángel (1883–1928), Luis Bello (1872–1935), and Federico Carlos Sainz de Robles (1899–1983). Similarly, 20th century Andalusia saw work by José Nogales (1860?–1908), Salvador Rueda (1857–1933), Arturo Reyes (1864–1913), José Mas y Laglera (1885–1940), Ángel Cruz Rueda (1888–1961), and Antonio Alcalá Venceslada (1883–1955).

Costumbrismo in the visual arts in Spain

Costumbrismo is an art form developed by Spanish painters. In the 19th century, a wave of nationalistic fervour took hold, providing the stimulus for painters to focus on local customs (or costumbres). As in literary costumbrismo, Madrid and Andalusia (particularly Seville) were Spain's two great centers of costumbrismo in the visual arts. Andalusian costumbrista paintings were mainly romantic and folkloric, largely devoid of social criticism. Much of their market was to foreigners for whom Andalusia epitomized their vision of a Spain distinct from the rest of Europe. The costumbrista artists of Madrid were more acerbic, sometimes even vulgar, in portraying the life of lower class Madrid. More of their market was domestic, including to the often snobbish (and often Europeanizing and liberal) elite of the capital. Among other things, the School of Madrid often used large masses of solid color and painted with a broad brush, while the School of Seville painted more delicately. The Madrid paintings have a certain urgency, while the Seville paintings are typically serene, even misty. The Madrid painters focus more on unique individuals, the Sevillianos on individuals as representatives of a type.

Romantic Andalusian costumbrismo (costumbrismo andaluz) follows in the footsteps of two painters of the School of Cádiz, Juan Rodríguez y Jiménez, "el Panadero" ("the Baker", 1765–1830) and Joaquín Manuel Fernández Cruzado (1781–1856), both associated with Romanticism. The trend was continued by the School of Seville, in a city much more on the path of a foreign clientele. The founding figure was José Domínguez Bécquer (1805–41), father of the poet Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (see above) and painter Valeriano Bécquer (1833–70), who moved to Madrid. Domínguez Bécquer's influence came as an art teacher, as well as an artist. His student and cousin Joaquín Domínguez Bécquer (1817–79) was known for his acute observation of light and atmosphere. Another of José Domínguez Bécquer's students, the bold and forceful Manuel Rodríguez de Guzmán (1818–67), may have been the genre's strongest painter.

Other important early figures were Antonio Cabral Bejarano (1788–1861), best known for paintings of individuals theatrically posed against rural backgrounds, and an atmosphere reminiscent of Murillo, and José Roldán (1808–71), also very influenced by Murillo, known especially as a painter of children and urchins. One of Cabral Bejarano's sons, Manuel Cabral Bejarano (1827–91) began as a costumbrista, but eventually became more of a realist. Another son, Francisco Cabral Bejarano (1824–90), also painted in the genre.

Other painters of the School of Seville were Andrés Cortés (1810–79), Rafael García Hispaleto (1833–54), Francisco Ramos, and Joaquín Díez; history painter José María Rodríguez de Losada (1826–96); and portraitist José María Romero (1815–80).

Typical subject matter included majos (lower class dandies) and their female equivalents, horsemen, bandits and smugglers, street urchins and beggars, Gypsies, traditional architecture, fiestas, and religious processions such as Holy Week in Seville.

The School of Madrid was united less by a common visual style than by an attitude, and by the influence of Goya rather than Murillo. Notable in this school were Alenza and Lameyer, both contributors to Los españoles pintados por sí mismos. Alenza, in particular, showed a strong influence from the Flemish painters as well as from Goya. A fine portraitist who tended to take his subjects from among the common people, in some ways he epitomizes the difference between the School of Madrid and that of Seville. For him the "official" Romanticism was a topic to satirize, as in his series of paintings Suicidios románticos ("Romantic suicides").

Probably foremost in the School of Madrid was Eugenio Lucas Velázquez (1817–70). An artistic successor to Goya (though a more erratic painter than the master), Lucas Velázquez's work ranged from bullfighting scenes to Orientalism to scenes of witchcraft. His son Eugenio Lucas Villamil (1858–1918) and his students Paulino de la Linde (1837-?) and José Martínez Victoria followed in his tracks; he was also a strong influence on Antonio Pérez Rubio (1822–88) and Ángel Lizcano Monedero (1846–1929).

José Elbo (1804–44) was at least strongly akin to the School of Madrid. Although born in Úbeda in the Andalusian province of Jaén, Elbo studied painting in Madrid under José Aparicio (1773–1838), and was influenced by Goya; he was also influenced by the Central European equivalents of costumbrismo. His painting is rife with social criticism, and often angrily populist.

Also in Madrid, but not really part of the School of Madrid, was Valeriano Bécquer (transplanted son of José Domínguez Bécquer). Although also influenced by Goya (and by Diego Velázquez), his work in Madrid did partake of some of the socially critical aspects of the other painters of that city, but not of the satiric aspects: his portraits of common people emphasize their dignity, seldom their foibles.

The dark vision of 20th-century Madrid painter José Gutiérrez Solana (1886–1945) was influenced by costumbrismo and also directly by the Black Paintings of Goya that had so influenced the costumbristas.

Visual costumbrismo in the Americas

In nineteenth-century Mexico, colonial-era casta paintings, a type of secular genre painting depicting racial categories and hierarchy disappeared at independence when casta categories were abolished, but costumbrismo paintings resonated with the stereotypes of the earlier genre. A number of foreign visitors to Mexico produced images in the costumbrista tradition, including Claudio Linati and Edouard Pingret. The most significant Mexican costumbrista painter is José Agustín Arrieta, whose paintings of a market scene ("La Sorpresa"), a kitchen scene ("La Cocina Poblana"), and a tavern scene (Tertulia de pulquería) are well known. One less famous than Arrieta is Manuel Serrano (ca. 1830-ca. 1870s), about whom little is known. His painting Vendador de buñuelos, depicting a fritter seller in an urban night scene is in the collections of the Mexican government. Another less well known Mexican artist is es:Felipe Santiago Gutiérrez (1824-1904), who was also a writer, teacher, art critic, intellectual, and cultural diplomat."

Argentina

Some of Argentina's most distinguished writers worked in the costumbrista genre in at least some of their writing, though few worked narrowly within the genre. Esteban Echeverría (1805–51) was a politically passionate Romantic writer whose work has strong costumbrista aspects; his El Matadero ("The Slaughterhouse") is still widely read. Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810–84) and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811–1888) both wrote at times in the genre, as did José Antonio Wilde (1813–83), in Buenos Aires desde setenta años atrás ("Buenos Aires from seventy years ago"); Vicente G. Quesada (1830–1913), in Recuerdos de un viejo ("Memories of an old man"); Lucio V. López (1848–94), in the novela La gran aldea ("The big village"); Martín Coronado (1850–1919), playwright; Martiniano Leguizamón (1858–1935), in the novel Montaraz; José S. Alvarez (1858–1903, "Fray Mocho"), in the story "Viaje al país de los matreros" ("A trip to bandit country"); Emma de la Barra (1861–1947), who wrote under the pseudonym César Duayen, in Stella; Joaquín V. González (1863–1923), in Mis montañas ("My Mountains"); Julio Sánchez Gardel (1879–1937), in numerous comedies; and Manuel Gálvez (1882–1962), in such novels as La maestra normal ("The normal school teacher") and La sombra del convento ("The sleep of the convent").

Bolivia
Bolivian costumbristas include Julio Lucas Jaimes (1845–1914), Lindaura Anzoátegui de Campero (1846–98), Jaime Mendoza (1874–1938), Alcides Arguedas (1879–1946), and Armando Chirveches (1881–1926).

Central America
Guatemalan novelist and historian José Milla (1822–82) wrote several costumbrista works and created the character of Juan Chapín, the emblematic Guatemalan. Other Central American costumbristas are José María Peralta Lagos (1875–1944, El Salvador), Ramón Rosa (1848–93, Honduras), Carlos Alberto Uclés (1854–1942, Honduras), and a distinguished line of Costa Rican writers: Manuel de Jesús Jiménez (1854–1916), Manuel González Zeledón (1864–1936), the verse writer Aquileo Echeverría (1866–1909), and, in the 20th century, Joaquín García Monge (1881–1958).

Chile

Costumbrismo enters Chilean literature in some of the writing of José Zapiola (1804–85), Vicente Pérez Rosales (1807–86), Román Fritis (1829–74), Pedro Ruiz Aldea (ca. 1833–70) and especially José Joaquín Vallejo (1811–58), who under the name "Jotabeche" was the supreme Chilean costumbrista.

Strong aspects of costumbrismo can be seen in the novels and other works of Alberto Blest Gana (1830–1920). There are many costumbrista passages in the works of Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (1831–86) and Daniel Barros Grez(1833–1904); Román Vial (1833–1896) entitled one of his books Costumbres chilenas; Zorobabel Rodríguez (1839–1901), Moisés Vargas (1843–98), Arturo Givovich (1855–1905), Daniel Riquelme (1854–1912), Senén Palacios (1858–1927), Egidio Poblete (1868–1940) all wrote in the mode at times. Costumbrismo figures particularly heavily in stage comedies: El patio de los Tribunales ("The courtyard of the tribunals [of justice]", by Valentín Murillo (1841–1896); Don Lucas Gómez, by Mateo Martínez Quevedo (1848–1923); Chincol en sartén ("A sparrow in the pan") and En la puerta del horno ("In the gate of horn"), by Antonio Espiñeira (1855–1907); La canción rota ("The broken song"), by Antonio Acevedo Hernández (1886–1962); Pueblecito ("Little town") by Armando Moock (1894–1942). In prose, costumbrismo mixes eventually into realism, with Manuel J. Ortiz (1870–1945) and Joaquín Díaz García (1877–1921) as important realists with costumbrista aspects.

Colombia

Colombia can claim one of the earliest antecedents to the costumbrismo in El Carnero (written 1636–38, but not published until 1859) by Juan Rodríguez Freile (1566–1638 or 1640). Rodríguez's work begins as a chronicle of the conquest of New Granada, but as it approaches his own time it becomes more and more detailed and quotidian, and its second half is a series of narratives that, according to Stephen M. Hart, give "lip service" to conventional morality while taking "a keen delight in recounting the various skullduggeries of witches, rogues, murderers, whores, outlaws, priests and judges."

Colombia can also claim a particularly rich tradition of costumbrismo in the 19th century and into the 20th: José Manuel Groot (1800–78); novelists Eugenio Díaz (1803–65), José Manuel Marroquín (1827–1908), and José María Vergara y Vergara (1831–72), all of whom collaborated on the magazine El Mosaico, la revista bogotana del costumbrismo (1858–71); Luis Segundo Silvestre (1838–87); and Jorge Isaacs (1837–95), whose sole novel María was praised by Alfonso M. Escudero as the greatest Spanish-language romantic novel.

Other Colombian costumbristas are José Caycedo Rojas (1816–1897), Juan de Dios Restrepo (1823–94), Gregorio Gutiérrez González (1826–72), Ricardo Carrasquilla (1827–86), Camilo A. Echeverri (1827–87), Manuel Pombo (1827–98), José David Guarín (1830–90), Ricardo Silva (1836–87), José María Cordovez Moure (1835–1918), Rafael María Camargo (1858–1926; wrote under the pseudonym Fermín de Pimentel y Vargas), and Tomás Carrasquilla (1858–1940).

Cuba
Cuba's leading costumbristas were Gaspar Betancourt Cisneros (1803–66, known as "El Lugareño"), Cirilo Villaverde (1812–94), and José María de Cárdenas y Rodríguez (1812–82). The patrician Betancourt published a series of Escenas cotidianas que abren camino al costumbrismo en Cuba ("Everyday scenes that pave the way for costumbrismo in Cuba, 1838–40). His work focused often on what he found vulgar or ridiculous about Cuban life, but was written with a fatherly affection. Villaverde, probably Cuba's greatest costumbrista, wrote romantic novels, most notably Cecilia Valdés (the first part of which was published in 1839, although the definitive version was not published until 1882). This costumbrista anti-slavery novel can be seen as an early realist work, and continues to be read in recent times. Villaverde also wrote the prologue for Cárdenas's 1847 collection of costumbristaarticles.

José Victoriano Betancourt (1813–75) was patron to many intellectuals in 1860s Havana; he later went into exile in Mexico. He is best remembered today as a costumbrista writer, as is another Betancourt, José Ramón Betancourt (1823–90), author of Una feria de caridad en 183… (ellipses in original title), set in Camagüey in the late 1830s.

Dominican Republic
In the Dominican Republic, Francisco Gregorio Billini (1844–94) stands out for his novel Baní o Engracia y Antoñita (1892). Still, in some ways, his vision was narrow. J. Alcántara Almánzar remarks that "black people are practically absent as important characters, and this absence is very significant in a country whose majority is 'mulatto'." Blacks are more present in the costumbrista works of Cesar Nicolas Penson (1855–1901), but he is far more sympathetic to his white characters, portraying Haitians as fierce beasts.

Ecuador
Ecuadorians who wrote at least part of the time in the costumbrista mode include Pedro Fermín Cevallos (1812–93), Juan León Mera (1832–94), José Modesto Espinosa (1833–1915), Carlos R. Tobar (1854–1920), Honorato Vázquez (1855–1933), Víctor M. Rendón (1859–1940), J. Trajano Mera (1862–1919), and Luis A. Martínez (1868–1909). Another Ecuadorian was Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno (1859–1951), a novelist and later president of the country.

Mexico
Mexican costumbrismo can claim one of the longest lineages to be found in the Americas. In the same era in which the genre was gaining an identity in Spain, José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827) Mexico's first novelist (and perhaps Latin America's first novelist) wrote works that had many similar aspects, including Periquillo Sarniento (1816), recently translated into English as The Mangy Parrot. Other Mexican costumbristas are Guillermo Prieto (1818–97) and José Tomás de Cuéllar (1830–94). In addition, José López Portillo y Rojas (1850–1923), Rafael Delgado (1853–1914), Ángel del Campo (1868–1908) and Emilio Rabasa (1856–1930) can be seen as costumbristas, but their work can also be considered realist.

Paraguay
Paraguayan costumbristas include Teresa Lamas de Rodríguez Alcalá (1887–1976) and Carlos Zubizarreta (1904–72).

Peru
Peruvian costumbrismo begins with José Joaquín de Larriva y Ruiz (1780–1832), poeta and journalist and his younger, irreverent, Madrid-educated collaborator Felipe Pardo y Aliaga (1806–68). A more festive and comic note was struck by Manuel Ascensio Segura (1805–71). Manuel Atanasio Fuentes (1820–29) wrote verse under the name El Murciélago ("the Bat"), a name which he also gave to a magazine he founded.

Ricardo Palma (1833–1919), best known for the multi-volume Tradiciones peruanas, was a man of letters, a former liberal politician and later the director of the National Library of Peru, who rebuilt the collection of that library after the War of the Pacific. He referred to his works in this mode as tradiciones, rather than costumbrismo.

Other Peruvian costumbristas are satirist and verse writer Pedro Paz Soldán y Unanue (1839–1895), Abelardo M. Gamarra (1850–1924), and the nostalgic José Gálvez (1885–1957).

Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico, Manuel A. Alonso (1822–89) published El gibaro: cuadro de costumbres de la isla de Puerto Rico (The Jíbaro [modern spelling]: picture of customs of the island of Puerto Rico", 1849), Puerto Rico's most important contribution to the genre. Manuel Fernández Juncos (1846–1928), born in Asturias, Spain, emigrated at age eleven to the island and wrote Tipos y caracteres y Costumbres y tradiciones ("Types and characters and customs and traditions").

Uruguay
Prominent Uruguayan costumbristas include Santiago Maciel (1862–1931), Manuel Bernárdez (1867–1942), Javier de Viana (1868–1926), Adolfo Montiel Ballesteros (1888–1971), and Fernán Silva Valdés (1887–1975). Most of these writers also did significant work outside of the genre.

Venezuela
Venezuelan costumbristas include Fermín Toro (c.1807–65), Daniel Mendoza (1823–67), Francisco de Sales Pérez (1836–1926), Nicanor Bolet Peraza (1838–1906), Francisco Tosta García (1845–1921), José María Rivas (1850–1920), Rafael Bolívar Alvarez (1860–1900), and Pedro Emilio Coll (1872–1947).

title: Costumbrismo


text:
Dihydrouridine

Dihydrouridine (abbreviated as D, DHU, or UH2) is a pyrimidine nucleoside which is the result of adding two hydrogen atoms to a uridine, making it a fully saturated pyrimidine ring with no remaining double bonds. D is found in tRNA and rRNA molecules as a nucleoside; the corresponding nucleobase is 5,6-dihydrouracil.

Because it is non-planar, D disturbs the stacking interactions in helices and destabilizes the RNA structure. D also stabilizes the C2’-endo sugar conformation, which is more flexible than the C3’-endo conformation; this effect is propagated to the 5’-neighboring residue. Thus, while pseudouridine and 2’-O-methylations stabilize the local RNA structure, D does the opposite.

The tRNAs of organisms that grow at low temperatures (psychrophiles) have high 5,6-dihydrouridine levels (40-70% more on average) which provides the necessary local flexibility of the tRNA at or below the freezing point.

title: Dihydrouridine


text: User talk:68.106.20.160

title: User talk:68.106.20.160


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USS Tacoma

USS Tacoma may refer to the following ships of the United States Navy:

 * USS Tacoma (1893) (sometimes spelled as Takoma), a harbor tugboat built 1893 as Sebago; purchased by U.S. Navy during the Spanish–American War renamed Tacoma in 1898; reverted to original name, 1900; sold for scrapping, 1937
 * USS Tacoma (CL-20) (originally Cruiser No. 18), a Denver-class protected cruiser launched in 1903 and struck in 1924
 * USS Tacoma (PF-3), lead ship of Tacoma-class of patrol frigates; launched, 1943; transferred to the Republic of Korea as Taedong (PF-63), 1951; struck in 1973 and currently a museum ship
 * USS Tacoma (PG-92), an Asheville-class gunboat launched in 1968 and struck in 1995

title: USS Tacoma


text:
Elasti-Girl

Elasti-Girl (also known as Elasti-Woman) is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, primarily as a member of the Doom Patrol. Created by writer Arnold Drake and artist Bruno Premiani, the character first appeared in My Greatest Adventure #80 (June 1963).

Elasti-Girl has appeared in numerous cartoon television shows and films. She made her first live-action appearance on the DC Universe and Max series Titans, played by April Bowlby, who reprised the role for the series Doom Patrol.

Publication history
Elasti-Girl was created by Arnold Drake and Bruno Premiani. She first appeared in My Greatest Adventure #80 (June 1963). According to Drake, the issue's co-writer Bob Haney was not brought on to the project until after Elasti-Girl was created.

Fictional character biography
Rita Farr is an Olympic swimming gold medalist turned Hollywood actress who is exposed to unusual volcanic gases while shooting a film in Africa. When Farr recovers, she discovers that she can expand or shrink her body at will—from hundreds of feet tall to mere inches in height. When she gains greater control of her powers, she discovers that she can enlarge one limb at a time.

Although not physically disfigured, Rita initially has no control over her size changes, is considered a freak and a menace, and becomes a recluse, leaving her Hollywood career in ruins. However, Rita is approached by Dr. Niles Caulder (also known as The Chief) who offers her a place among fellow "freaks" attempting to use their powers for good. As Elasti-Girl, she joins Caulder's team, the Doom Patrol. Rita falls in love with, and marries, Steve Dayton, the hero Mento. Later on, the couple adopts young Gar Logan, who would become the Teen Titans' Beast Boy.

In the JLA: Year One storyline, the Martian Manhunter tells Rita that he was something of a fan of her "chiller pictures" and that he was disappointed that she did not continue making films. Flattered, she kisses him on the cheek and later tells him that she has met Alien actress Sigourney Weaver and that she is sure he would approve of her.

Tragedy strikes when the Doom Patrol's enemies, the Brotherhood of Evil, threaten a small New England fishing village. The Patrol members elect to sacrifice themselves to save the innocents and are killed in an explosion. It is later revealed that several members of the team cheated death (to appear in Doom Patrol revivals), although Elasti-Girl would remain "dead" until Infinite Crisis.

"Infinite Crisis"
I remember the explosion on the island. And then nothing but darkness. Am I supposed to be dead?
 * —Elasti-Girl, Teen Titans #32, March 2006.

In John Byrne's Doom Patrol run, Elasti-Girl was resurrected due to Superboy-Prime disrupting the barrier of reality. The Patrol members retain no memories of their previous lives—until Superboy-Prime breaks the Phantom Zone barrier during his battle with the Teen Titans and their allies. At that moment, their minds discern visions of the previous Doom Patrols, and Rita remembers everything—her family and death.

Rita appears in Infinite Crisis as one of the many heroes defending the city of Metropolis from the army calling themselves the Secret Society of Super Villains. She personally battles the giant villain Giganta.

Rita makes a cameo in issue #50 of the 2006-07 series 52, fighting Black Adam next to the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

Infinite Crisis ultimately retconned Byrne's reboot out of continuity.

One Year Later
Following the "One Year Later" storyline, the Doom Patrol changes considerably, losing several members and gaining Beast Boy, Bumblebee and Vox.

Rita is resurrected once more by the Chief salvaging a piece of her skull and using his technology to regrow her entire body due to its malleable form. Consequently, Elasti-Girl is very docile and is reluctant to question the Chief. The Chief hints that her malleable form hampers her thinking abilities, leading to her lack of personal initiative which makes her dependent upon Caulder (a.k.a. The Chief). As he observes her interaction with the Chief, Robin suspects that the Chief has brainwashed Rita and the other Patrol members. Rita's husband, Mento, is under the control of his Mento-helmet and believes that his wife would never love him without it.

Following their battle against the Brotherhood, the Titans and the Doom Patrol witness the Chief working to convince Kid Devil that he is a freak and that the Titans actually dislike him. This pushes the teams to confront the Chief: Mento finally removes his helmet and pointedly tells the Chief that he is no longer the leader of the Patrol and if he ever again insults his wife and son, he will use his powers to destroy the Chief's intellect. Rita firmly stands behind her husband, breaking out of the Chief's control.

In the most recent Doom Patrol series, Rita changed her codename to "Elasti-Woman". It was revealed that when the Chief regrew her he did so using protoplasm to eliminate "weaknesses" such as bones and internal organs and therefore Rita is no longer human. When she sleeps, Rita loses her human shape and reverts to a puddle of goo, having to reshape herself daily.

Powers and abilities
Rita has the ability to expand and shrink her body. Her powers of expansion allow her to become as large as a skyscraper. She has the ability to shrink to mere inches (during one adventure, she was exposed to a gas that caused her to reduce to a microscopic scale and enter a sub-atomic universe; that experience has not been repeated). Rita can selectively shrink or expand parts of her body. As depicted in John Byrne's Doom Patrol (retconned out of existence), Elasti-Girl could change the size of objects and people by touching them; when she'd release them, they'd revert to their normal size. Because of her protoplasmic physiology, Rita can regenerate any part of her body. She can reconstruct a half-blown-off face or a torn leg and regrow severed limbs.

In Doom Patrol #95 (May 1965), Elasti-Girl swaps powers with Negative Man to become Negative Girl.

Other versions
In Teen Titans: Earth One, Rita Markov of STAR Labs is the mother of Tara Markov.

Reception
Elasti-Girl was ranked 88th in Comics Buyer's Guide's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list.

In other media

 * Elasti-Girl appears in the Teen Titans two-part episode "Homecoming", voiced by Tara Strong.
 * Elasti-Girl appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "The Last Patrol!", voiced by Olivia d'Abo. Following a failed mission and the Doom Patrol disbanding, this version wallowed in self-pity until the Doom Patrol's enemies form an alliance to seek revenge. She joins forces with Batman and her former teammates to stop them before the Doom Patrol sacrifice themselves to save a town being threatened by the villains.
 * Elasti-Girl appears in the "Doom Patrol" segment of DC Nation Shorts, voiced by Kari Wahlgren.
 * Elasti-Girl appears in Teen Titans Go!, voiced by Cree Summer. This version is an African-American who the Chief fused with clay so she could gain acting roles outside of the B-list films she previously worked in.
 * Rita Farr appears in the Titans episode "Doom Patrol", portrayed by April Bowlby.
 * Elasti-Woman appears in the Young Justice: Outsiders episode "Nightmare Monkeys", voiced by Hynden Walch. This version starred in the fictional sitcom Hello, Megan! and was Beast Boy's godmother before she and most of the Doom Patrol were killed while on a mission years prior to the series.
 * Rita Farr / Elasti-Woman appears in Doom Patrol, portrayed again by April Bowlby as an adult and by Lana Jean Turner as a child.
 * Farr also appears in the Arrowverse crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths" via archival footage of a deleted scene from a first-season episode.

title: Elasti-Girl


text: User talk:69.143.247.28

title: User talk:69.143.247.28


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Leo Kolber

Ernest Leo Kolber, (January 18, 1929 – January 9, 2020) was a Canadian businessman, philanthropist and Senator, serving from 1983 to 2004.

Early life and career
Kolber was born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Luba (Kahan) and Moses Kolber, a doctor. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1949 and a Bachelor of Law in 1952 from McGill University. He was called to the Bar of Quebec in 1952.

Business
Kolber was President of Cemp Investments, a family holding company for the children of Samuel Bronfman. In the 1960s, Kolber played a key role in the construction of the Toronto Dominion Centre, a landmark building complex designed by Mies van der Rohe that is credited with helping to elevate Toronto to the status of a world class city. Kolber was also instrumental in two major Bronfman deals: Seagram's purchase of a stake in DuPont and the sale of the Cadillac-Fairview real estate company at the height of its value in 1987. In the process, Kolber acquired considerable wealth in his own right, including $100 million for arranging the Cadillac-Fairview sale.

Author Peter C. Newman wrote in his 1975 book The Canadian Establishment that Kolber was so close to the Bronfman family that "Sam [Bronfman] treated him as a son and Leo worshipped Sam as a father." Newman calls Kolber "the non-Bronfman Bronfman with the big brain" and "a tough cookie," but goes on to say that Kolber "was always honest and had a sense of humor about himself." A character based on a caricature of Kolber appears in the Mordecai Richler novel Solomon Gursky Was Here; the portrait is highly unflattering.

For many years, Kolber was the chief fundraiser for the Liberal Party of Canada. He also served on the boards of many companies, including Seagram, MGM, and the Toronto-Dominion Bank.

Personal life
Kolber's late wife Sandra was a published poet and film executive who served on the board of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and was a recipient of the Governor General's Performing Arts Award in 1994. Sandra and Leo Kolber were among Montreal's most active philanthropists. Causes included The Montreal Symphony Orchestra, McGill University and The Jewish General Hospital.

Kolber's close friendship with former Israeli President and Prime Minister Shimon Peres dates back to the 1950s. Kolber's son Jonathan is an Israeli citizen who was chairman of Koor Industries Ltd., an Israeli investment firm.

Senate Tenure
In 1983, Kolber was appointed to the Senate of Canada representing the senatorial division of Victoria, Quebec. He was the Chairman of the Standing Senate Committee on Banking, Trade and Commerce. Kolber played a role in reducing Canada's capital gains taxes. He advocated a change in government policy to permit bank mergers, but did not prevail.

In December 2000, the National Assembly of Quebec condemned Yves Michaud, a former Parti Québécois delegate-general to Paris, for repeating on the radio angry remarks he had made to Kolber in a Montreal barber shop. Michaud had said that Jews weren't the only people in the world to have suffered. The controversy escalated into what became known as l'Affaire Michaud. Quebec Premier Lucien Bouchard subsequently resigned, citing support for Michaud within the Parti Québécois as one of his reasons.

Controversy
In November 2017 an investigation conducted by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalism cited his name in the list of politicians named in "Paradise Papers" allegations.

Retirement and death
Kolber retired from the Senate shortly before his 75th birthday in 2004. In 2005, he was appointed Chair of the Advisory Council on National Security.

In 2007, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.

On January 8, 2020, Kolber died at his home in Montreal from Alzheimer's disease at age 90.

title: Leo Kolber


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American Camp Association

The American Camp Association (ACA), formerly known as the American Camping Association, is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit that serves the United States. It is an association for camp owners, camp professionals and others interested in summer camps and similar camp programs.

Since 1948, the ACA has offered the only nationwide external professional peer-review accreditation program for camps. According to ACA, to become accredited, camps must meet up to 300 health and safety standards, which are considered best practices throughout the industry. The accreditation process is voluntary, and ACA currently accredits more than 2,500 camps nationwide.

ACA claims a diverse 12,000 plus membership. It has membership types for individuals, camps, and businesses. The American Camp Association has 23 local offices throughout the country. Annual conferences are held across the country by local chapters, in additional to the ACA National Conference.

History
The American Camping Association® (ACA) was founded in 1910 under the original name, Camp Directors Association of America (CDAA). CDAA was founded in 1910 by Alan S. Williams. Founder Alan S. Williams created a model and standardizing influence for the organized camp experience for the young. The CDAA merged with the National Association of Directors of Girls' Camps in 1924 and changed its name to the Camp Director Association (CDA). In 1935, the name was changed to the American Camping Association, Incorporated (ACA). This name would stay the same until 2004, when it was changed to the American Camp Association®.

The Gunnery Camp is considered the first organized American camp. Frederick W. Gunn and his wife Abigail operated a home school for boys in Washington, Connecticut. In 1861, they took the whole school on a two-week trip. The class hiked to their destination and then set up camp. The students spent their time boating, fishing, and trapping. The trip was so successful, the Gunns continued the tradition for twelve years.

Leadership
Governed by a board of directors, the organization's mission is advanced through a partnership with governance volunteers, staff, and grass-roots volunteers located throughout local offices.

Chief Executive Officer

 * Maurice B. Stein, former president
 * Tom Rosenberg, current CEO

title: American Camp Association


text:
Sychrov Castle

Sychrov Castle (zámek Sychrov) is a castle in Sychrov in the Liberec Region of the Czech Republic. It is a unique example of Neo-Gothic castle architecture from the second half of the 19th century. A large park surrounds the castle.

History
Since the 15th century, a fort existed in the place now occupied by Sychrov. During the years between 1690 and 1693, a small baroque castle was constructed here.

In 1820, the castle was bought by the Rohan family, French aristocrats exiled by the French Revolution who decided to stay in the Austrian Empire. The 125-year-long ownership by the Rohans proved to be the most important in the castle's history.

In 1945 the castle was nationalized because of the Beneš decrees. Since 1950, it has been open to the public to a small extent. Since the 1970s, however, large parts of the castle were open to the public. Since the beginning of the 1990s, an extensive reconstruction and restoration of the castle exteriors, interiors, and the park have been underway, the object of which is to make Sychrov look as close to its original form at the time of its biggest boom, i.e., its condition in the second half of the 19th century, as possible. In 1995 it came under the protection of the state as a national cultural heritage site.

Architecture
A small dilapidated Baroque castle was rebuilt by the Rohans and finished in 1834. The second reconstruction (1847–1862) put romantic neogothic style into the castle, and this style remains today. The reconstruction was carried out according to the plans of Bernard Grueber, and all works were facilitated by domestic artists and craftsmen.

The owner paid specific attention to the Castle Park, designed in the English style. The park became a model for the establishment of many now-important arboreta such as in Průhonice and Konopiště. During this period, a rare harmonising of the castle exterior, interior, and the park was accomplished. During the late 1920s/early 1930s, the castle interior was renovated. Especially valuable are the interior carvings by Petr Bušek, who worked in the castle for 38 years.

Collections
The castle boasts a collection of around 250 portraits of the Rohans, related families, and French kings. It is the largest collection of French portrait paintings in Central Europe. Sychrov hosts unique glass paintings by Jan Zachariáš Quast.

Park
The English park has an area of 23 ha. The older, classical park was remodeled into the romantic style. Since botany was a hobby of the castle owner, the park received a lot of attention: There are rich dendrological and botanical collections. Unique beech (Fagus silvatica Rohani) was cultivated in the park. See www.zamek-sychrov.cz/en/apark.asp for more information.

Since 2001, Scottish Highland Games (Skotské hry) take place in the park every summer.

Legacy
Today Sychrov is a popular tourist attraction.

The composer Antonín Dvořák visited the castle several times (he was a friend of its administrator), and several of his works were inspired by its beauty. In honor of Dvořák, a classical music festival takes place there every year in June.

The castle is often used as a film location for Czech films and foreign films.

The 1997 comedy film The Beautician and the Beast, starring Fran Drescher and Timothy Dalton, and the 2022 war film All Quiet on the Western Front, were shot at the castle.

The castle is also a popular place for wedding ceremonies.

title: Sychrov Castle


text:
Chatarina Larsson

Ingrid Chatarina Larsson is a Swedish actress born on 2 April 1947 in Stockholm.

Career
Larsson's first appearance was with her father, in Lisebergsteatern in 1964, in the variety show Far i luften. She studied at drama school in Malmö from 1967-1970, and later worked at the Stockholm City Theatre from 1970-1976, and later at a Scanian theatre.

She has worked as a teacher at a theatre school in Stockholm. In 1979, she was awarded the Theater Society's Daniel Engdahl scholarship. She is daughter of actor and artist Egon Larsson and singer Gun Larsson.

Selected filmography

 * En kille och en tjej (1975)
 * Den allvarsamma leken (1997)
 * Hitler och vi på Klamparegatan (1997)
 * Waiting for the Tenor (1998)
 * S:t Mikael (TV series, 1998)
 * Vägen ut (1999)
 * Innan frosten (2005)
 * Carambole (2005)
 * Kommissionen (TV series, 2005)
 * Cockpit (2012)
 * A Man Called Ove (2015)
 * Veronika (2024)

title: Chatarina Larsson


text:
Talk:Peace of Callias

Untitled
If Thucydides doesn't mention it, and Plutarch thinks it happened at a different time (for whatever that's worth...), where do we get our information about it from? Diodorus? john k 01:33, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I got it from a text book called A History of Ancient Greece by Nancy Demand. She doesn't say who else mentions it, just "some sources..." and "many historians...". Adam Bishop 02:45, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Most notably, the Athenian Tribute Lists (ATL), by Wade-Gery, Meritt, and Mitchell argues that the Peace of Callias was both a real treaty and extremely important. However, their conclusions from their findings is extremely disputed and there really is no definitive conclusion about the Peace. Joel Weinberger 7:52, 10 May 2006

references and article structure
Fornara 95 contains all the relevant ancient sources on this topic. For discussion see Meiggs' chapter on this topic in Athenian Empire (1972) as well as Badian From Plataea to Potidaea (1993) chapter 1. This article should be aware that there is no scholarly consensus on this topic. No peaces, one peace or two peaces are all arguable stances to have. The article should give reference to the main primary evidence and outline possible solutions. Since there is no agreement on whether there was a peace, the 'effects of the peace' content (towards the end of the current text) should be presented rather as 'developments a peace with Persia could be used to explain'. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.67.43.239 (talk) 23:57, 10 February 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peace of Callias


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Members of the Covenant

The Members of the Covenant were a proto-monastic group in early Syriac Christianity. The first record of them is found in the fourth century. The practice is in the process of being revived today in the Syriac churches and there exists communities of monks part of this.

Overview
Before the advent of true monasticism (which developed in the desert of Egypt), most Syriac churches consisted of a community focused around the "members of the covenant": men and women who had committed themselves to celibacy and the service of the church.

With only a few exceptions, Syrian monks learned to live among the people, both Christian and non-Christian, living the strict ascetic lifestyle while still maintaining full cohesion in the world. The eastern ascetics saw their spiritually disciplined life as a journey of steps, each finding oneself on a stairway of godliness that led ultimately towards eternity with God.

Etymology
The name is the English translation of the Syriac bnay qyāmâ ( ܒܢܝ ܩܝܡܐ ) (or benai qyama), literally sons of the covenant. A male member of the covenant was called bar qyāmâ ( ܒܪ ܩܝܡܐ ) (or Bnay Qyām), son of the covenant; a female member was bat qyāmâ ( ܒܪܬ ܩܝܡܐ ) or Bnāt Qyāmā), daughter of the covenant. Members were also known as ihìdaye, or ‘single-minded ones’.

Third Century
From its beginning, Syriac Christianity was intrinsically an ascetical faith built on its reactions to, and adoptions from Marcionism and Manichaeism, among other cultural influences, which promoted the Christian faith as one of radical dedication and sacrifice. Where many Egyptian monks saw Anthony the Great as their figurehead and felt they needed to escape Roman rule in order to live ascetic lives, Syriac ascetics remained enmeshed in the church and the ‘lost’ culture that surrounded them.

The overwhelming presence of Western monasticism was not foreign to Syrian Christians seeking ascetic life. Theodoret gives historians a rendition of the early individualistic tendencies of Syrian monks in his book about their history. Notable examples of extreme asceticism included the βοσκοί boskoi "grazers", monks who lived in the wild and were often mistaken for strange animals. Wrapped in goatskins or straw mats, they avoided all forms of artificial clothing or shelter and only ate what they were given or they found growing on the ground. St Ephrem, writing in the mid-4th century, gave a very similar description of the Syriac ascetics who rejected all forms of civilization and lived out in the open in a primeval manner.

During the early centuries of Christianity, Christian groups in the regions of the Sasanian Empire were developing and expressing themselves in radically different ways as there was no overarching rule for the new faith (unlike Christians living in Roman Empire). In contrast to the staunch individualistic faith seen in the rural wildernesses around them, Christians in Persian urban areas were more intent on creating a community of believers by creating and transforming it through Christian discipleship. "From the earliest times asceticism played an integral and affirming role in the communities and the faith of Syrian Christians ... discipleship to Christ, lived out by laymen and women through varying degrees ... constituted the highest expression of Christian life." Communal monasticism became more and more common during the early part of the fourth century, leaving behind the influences of the Egyptian ascetic paradigm.

Fourth Century
During the fourth century and beyond, the image of Christians as "strangers" emerged. Monks of this lineage acted as a missionary to their communities, building a life around hospitality to others, serving the poor such as by becoming service personnel in hospitals. The Qeiama were listed together with the priests and deacons, and were instructed to "remain continually in the worship service of the church and not cease the times of prayer and psalmody night and day." Moreover, the Sons of the Covenant had administrative duties; no one was permitted to be a rabbaita ("steward") of the church unless no qeiama was available. "We must be reminded that the first Christian impulses in the lands of the Euphrates and Tigris did not come from Hellenistic Christianity via Antioch but from Palestinian Jewish Christianity ... these archaic conditions, which understood the qeiama as the whole congregation of celibates who alone were admitted to baptism and sacramental life, were tenacious and were able to last for generations.". St Aphrahat, writing between 337 and 345, described the ascetic life as being a separation from the world, noting in his 6th Demonstration: "We should be aliens from this world, just as Christ did not belong to this world." He equated the term "holiness" with "virgin" in both a literal sense and to symbolize uncontamination from the world.

During this time historical records of the Syrian church indicate that they began to initiate Roman concepts of church into their practice. This led to divisions between the benai and benat qeiama and the married and vocational members of the church who were also active participants in society. However, the two groups were able to merge and adopted a syncretism of belief in which they understood their spiritual growth as steps.

Practical Life
From the beginning of the fourth century, the Sons and Daughters of the Covenant saw their mission as deeply interwoven with the congregational church. The members of the qeiama understood themselves to be equivalent to modern-day deacons. These individuals, sworn to an ascetic and celibate life, served liturgical and public functions within Syriac churches and communities.

Members usually lived together or with family members, but there are instances of the benat qeiama living in convents and other communal organizations where they could live and study together. Each of them took the vow of chastity in becoming a member of the covenant, and through this vow they saw themselves as "brides of Christ". They followed strict rules that did not allow them to be out after dark or for the benat to live with a man. Other rules included avoiding meat, wine, and any wealth beyond their basic needs. They were also forbidden from demanding money from non-members, and were instead to look after the welfare of poor people. They had a judicial law that sent dysfunctional covenanters to a secluded monastery and renamed them bart qeiama, denoting their failure to live up to the life-covenant to which they were called.

Functionally the qeiama were students and servants of the clergy. There were certain rules against a Son or Daughter becoming a hireling or staff for a farmer, or any other vocation; they were to be completely devoted to the works and ministries of the church. Members of the qeiama were also directly involved with the worship service itself. Outside of the worship service, the benai and benat qeiama were set to the task of serving and blessing others in the congregation, as well as those not connected to a place of Christian faith.

A hospital was built from the efforts of one congregation's Covenant Group. "Active believers and energetic deacons were appointed to direct the work, but for the actual service, Rabbula employed the benai qeiama." Roles were mirrored for the women's hospital built nearby. Qeiama also established charities for lepers in their villages and built shelters for the poor and destitute.

Qeiama were seen as vital to the Christian community. One source remarking on the necessity of the Covenant members states, "the churches and monasteries will be constituted (or will have their existence) through them."

Legacy
Aphrahat was a Syriac Christian author in the Persian/Sasanian Empire who composed his Demonstrations around 340AD. It is believed that he was a Member of the Covenant and Demonstration No 6 concerned this group. He noted that originally the term ‘covenant’ designated the entire baptized community, who had also undertaken certain ascetic vows at baptism; however, by the time he knew them, the ‘sons and daughters of the covenant’ represented an smaller group within the baptized community, consisting of people who were either celibate or married couples who had renounced intercourse. Saint Ephrem (also Ephraim or Ephream) is also believed to have been a member of the group. He is the only Syriac Christian to be proclaimed as a Doctor of the Church.

As with many Christian groups, the Members found themselves under persecution. Widespread persecution of Christians in the Persian Sasanian Empire started in the early 340s under Shapur II (r. 309-379), a period which coincided with renewed conflict against the newly-Christian Roman Empire.

By the medieval period much of the community had become assimilated into members of the clergy as priests and monks. The community had largely disappeared by the tenth century. Today, most Syriac Christians follow either the West Syriac Rite (following the Divine Liturgy of Saint James) or the East Syriac Rite (following the Divine Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari).

title: Members of the Covenant


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Yeti Photography

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was DELETE. Linuxbeak | Talk 18:42, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Yeti Photography
Appears to be advertising for a small photographic company. Unencyclopedic. Alex.tan 01:36, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

It is the most popular photographic company in Smithers, the article was intended as a stub to the Smithers article. --J7 01:39, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * It may well be the most popular photographic company in Smithers, British Columbia but that town has a population of only 4500 according to the article. If an article about this company is encyclopedic for just this one reason, there will be millions of articles about companies in all sorts of small towns around the world soon. Alex.tan 05:25, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete as per nom. --Dvyost 06:04, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. See also David Jennings, Yeti's owner, AfDed below, and Nancy Simister, for whom I'm suggesting a speedy. --Dvyost 06:05, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete spam. __earth 10:34, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ad. utcursch | talk 11:47, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text: User talk:69.235.192.161

title: User talk:69.235.192.161


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Nochaa

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete --Cel e stianpower hablamé 13:43, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Nochaa
Vanity page for a band whose notability has not yet been shown. Alex.tan 01:37, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Btw, they do not meet WP:MUSIC guidelines for notability. Alex.tan 05:22, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete for failing wp:music Qaz  ( talk ) 06:12, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - notable chiefly for not being signed and not having a bassist. Chick Bowen 22:48, 13 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Nochaa