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Talk:Language acquisition device

Untitled
language acquisition device it is all about language

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Derekrodenbeck.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:11, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Linguistics
Shouldn't this be under linguistics and not psychology? Paxuniv (talk) 03:51, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

 * What do you mean? It's currently categorized under Language acquisition, a subcategory of Psycholinguistics. --D. Monack | talk 17:27, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I just meant that the box that appears to the right of the article gives other psychology links. I think the linguistics template should be there instead. Paxuniv (talk) 04:03, 11 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree and made the switch. Sorry for the delay. —D. Monack talk 20:45, 4 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey everyone, I attempted to add a bit more to this, I used two academic resources to give more weight to this subject. They can be further looked into and added to, both interesting topics that weigh this subject. Not a subject matter expert here but did my best to dictate what I read. Feel free to adjust, edit, and add to. Derekrodenbeck (talk) 20:59, 22 October 2017 (UTC)

Neurology: Last two paragraphs
These have been recently added and as interesting as they may be don't seem to be relevant to the subject of the article. The LAD is abstract, not literally a region of the brain, and so neurology doesn't seem relevant. I'm happy to be proved wrong on this but the contributor needs to give detail to explain how this is relavant. Also no references are cited.

Not2late (talk) 19:54, 18 January 2009 (UTC)

Last Line
Apparently a nueroscientist discovered the source of all human language in the last line of the article. Considering this is, I dunno, kind of a breakthrough, don't you think a source would be in order?

It's kinda like saying that Dr. Steve McBeezle discovered a small brown dwarf star just outside of the oort cloud, which makes our solar system a bianary one, but then citing nothing. such a tease.Jimmyjones22 (talk) 22:53, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

The theory makes absurd predictions.
The nativism called "universal grammar" actually predicts that adaptation to different languages should, by natural selection, have produced groups of humans genetically incapable of learning foreign languages. That racist prediction have been conclusively disproved in lots of studies. Avoiding falsifiability by avoiding extrapolation of theories to their logical extremes is not scientific at all. Furthermore, there is no way to explain why a vast range of redundant linguistic capacities obviously not needed to build a complex language (no language uses the whole worldwide range and some languages only use a very small fraction of it) should have evolved in the first place. This is explained in more detail on the pages "Brain" and "Origin of language" (and to some extent "Piraha"), all on Pure science Wiki, a wiki devoted to the pure scientific method unaffected by academic obsession with status and prestige. 95.209.8.118 (talk) 13:41, 8 January 2013 (UTC)Martin J Sallberg

 * Sallberg, I've never heard of any prediction that a LAD/ universal grammar should produce adaptation to different languages that would result in humans incapable of learning each other's languages. For one thing, there hasn't been sufficient time + isolation for this kind of evolution.  Probably the Australian languages/ peoples were the longest isolated (longer than the speakers of languages of the Americas were from the rest of the world), and that time depth--perhaps 40,000 years?--is just not sufficient time for such biological variation to arise, especially in the absence of any obvious form of selection for it.  (Evolution = variation + selection.)  Also, the mechanisms proposed for universal grammar are generic enough that it's unlikely they could be sufficiently tweaked to produce significant differences, even over much longer periods of isolation.  (Chomsky's recent writings put the UG down to just one thing: recursion.  Hard to tweak that into s.t. that creates major cross-language/ population differences!) Mcswell (talk) 21:51, 28 March 2019 (UTC)

Unenlightening
This page is an abomination. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.22.225.158 (talk) 14:03, 14 March 2021 (UTC)

Saying children learn a language because they have a LAD is the same as saying that children learn a language because children learn a language. It is unenlightening to claim that an imperceptible and un-disproveable "device" exists. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.152.175.206 (talk) 13:00, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Which is probably the reason Chomsky and his followers have abandoned the idea.·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 14:33, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Maunus, not sure where you got that. Chomsky has not abandoned the idea, and he has lots of followers who haven't abandoned it either.  Or maybe you have a citation? And to the User:talk who posted above Maunus, a lot of productive research has gone into what the LAD is, so no; it's not an empty concept, nor is it imperceptible or un-disproveable.  In fact many notions of how the LAD works have been disproven.  Mcswell (talk) 21:37, 28 March 2019 (UTC)

Brain?
This is not quite my field – I'm a linguist, but not a psycholinguist nor a neurolinguist – but I'm fairly certain that Chomsky et al. described the LAD as a component of the mind, not the brain. The only mention I find of "brain" in Aspects is in a quotation from Arnauld's Logic. Chomsky elsewhere described the mind as an abstract understanding of the brain. The link to Human brain in the first sentence is therefore misleading, as is the implication (from the second sentence) that scholars are searching for an LAD region of the brain. Cnilep (talk) 02:25, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Linguistics in the Digital Age
— Assignment last updated by Ian7024 (talk) 07:12, 20 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Language acquisition device


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Vaan River

The Vaan River is a river of central India. It is a tributary of Purna River, which is a major tributary of Tapti River. It is also spelled as Wan or Van. It is also known as Waanganga.

Description
It rises in the Gawilgarh hills of eastern Satpura Range in Amravati District of Maharashtra state, and flows southward, draining Amravati, Akola and Buldhana region before emptying into the Purna River in Buldhana District of Maharashtra. The watershed lies mostly in these three districts of Maharashtra state.

There is a dam on the river, Wan Dam at Wari in Akola. The following villages are located on the banks of Vaan river, Wari Bhairaogad, Warkhed, Sagoda, Danapur, Wadgaon Pr Adgaon, Kolad, Kated, Kakanwada Bk, Kakanwada Kh, Wankhed, Paturda.

The Maharashtra state highways, MH SH 194 cross the river at Wankhed village and MH SH 195 between Kakanwada Bk and Kakanwada Kh village.

Places
There are many places named after the Vaan river. Some of them are:

 * Wan Wildlife Sanctuary - a Wildlife Sanctuary located in Amravati district, is extension of Melghat Tiger Reserve of Project Tiger.
 * Wan Road Railway Station (Station Code: WND) on Akola - Khandwa route of South Central Railway.
 * Wan Dam at Wari in Akola

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vaan River


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User:Peruvianllama/Tasks

Articles that I am currently working on:
 * Expanding Hilbert's thirteenth problem to beyond it's current stub
 * Draft stage - nearly submitted
 * Expanding Hilbert's eleventh problem to beyond it's current stub
 * Research ongoing

title: User:Peruvianllama/Tasks


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Wikipedia:Peer review/Waterfall Gully, South Australia/archive1

Waterfall Gully
Attempting to bring Waterfall Gully (a suburb of Adelaide, South Australia) up to featured article status, but want to be thorough in doing so. Spent considerable time on the web finding references as well as riding around the place with my friends and camera! I believe there may be minor spelling and grammatical issues, if you find them - please edit/fix them! Any advice will be heeded and acted upon, so please comment!

Thanks! G 05:48, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the peer-review is a good idea - to polish the article somewhat - but I don't believe this article will become a feautred article (there's a difference between that, and WP Adelaide's "feature" standards). The standards there are ever-raising, and there seems to be a growing view among some that some topics just shouldn't be features. (I see it as a natural progression, regardless of topic: from stub through feature). Although you've already provided many references, one of the things people will be asking for is footnotes. I'll try to have a proper look at the article later on. The article is fantastic and you're to be commended (especially for actually taking the photographs yourself!).--Cyberjunkie | Talk 14:09, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Footnotes? I'll add them in tomorrow! ;) - G 14:24, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * You might want to look at Footnote3 and Footnote4. The first is now considered the standard style, and it's the one I use. But I know others who use the latter because it better allows for multipal references to a single source.--Cyberjunkie | Talk 14:47, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I've added in a number of footnotes and reorganised the references. When you (or anyone) has a "proper look" at the article could you advise me as to what other points need specific footnotes or referencing? - G 05:47, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

I think this article has a good chance of being featured - it's certainly well along the way there - but there are a few things that need to be fixed. Firstly, it needs to be neutral - there's quite a few instances of personal opinion, and with a bit of a reword, it may be possible to take that out and still keep the general point. Secondly, it'd also be nice to see the prose tightened up a bit - it's pretty good, but could be improved a bit. Thirdly, wonder if the history could be expanded a bit - there's more about the mines as a tourist attraction today, for example, than there is about their importance as part of the area's history. Fourthly, I wonder if the "attractions" section could be made a little less tourist-guideish. Some of the already-featured articles on cities and towns might be of assistance here. Fifthly, a demographics section mightn't be a bad addition. Finally, while the politics section is excellent, would it be possible to base the section on the statistics from the nearest booths, rather than its electorates as a whole? I'm also not sure the member list is necessary, as the electorates have (or should have) their own articles.

I'm sorry to be a bit nitpicky, but these are all things that are likely to get picked up if this was nominated for featured status. It's one of the best examples of a suburb article I've yet seen on Wikipedia. Ambi 13:26, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * If possible would you (or anyone!) be able to list the instances of where it is not as neutral as it should be? I'm well aware that it could be in some parts. In regards to "demographics" I was under the impression that the residents section covered this well enough - nonetheless I'll add one with more specific resident details if that is the consensus. I was looking for more suburb-relevant political data, but had to rely on ABS figures which do not go as far down as "booths".

 * Thanks for the advice, though! I'll see to what I can! - G 13:36, 9 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The residents section is essentially a demography section (perhaps change its name?). The AEC provides details on polling places in the Division of Sturt. The State Electoral Commission should provide similar results.--Cyberjunkie | Talk 14:37, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I've rewriten the politics section with the new results, and provided references (cheers for the links Cyberjunkie). What parts of the article are not neutral? I'll concentrate on that next. Thanks for the help so far! - G 15:38, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Though I still haven't read through the article thoroughly yet (I will sometime this week), I can quickly refer you to some pages that might help you decipher "neutral". See Neutral Point of View for an overview of the concept. I suspect Ambi might be refering to language that is a little too glowing. Failing to provide specific examples, this generally comes from the use of weasel words, something that people invariably do. Hyperbole can also be a contributor. --Cyberjunkie | Talk 15:52, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * What he said. It's pretty easy to do. :) Thanks for adding to the politics section - would it be possible to clarify that they are booth results, as opposed to electorate results? It looks like you've changed them, but the text still makes it sound like they're referring to the whole electorate. Ambi 16:00, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I've corrected a number of words and sentences in the article in regards to overly "glowing" language... and the politics section should not be more relevant to the suburb and make it clear that the results are from the closest booth. - G 05:06, 10 October 2005 (UTC)


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Liu Qing (prince)

Liu Qing (78 – 1 February 107 ), formally Prince Xiao of Qinghe (清河孝王) or Emperor Xiaode (孝德皇), was a crown prince of the Han dynasty under his father Emperor Zhang who lost his position and his mother Consort Song due to palace intrigue at the hands of his father's wife Empress Dou. He, however, maintained a strong relationship with his half-brother Emperor He, and was able to avenge himself and his mother in conjunction with his brother. During his lifetime, he saw his son Liu Hu (劉祜) become emperor (as Emperor An) as successor to his nephew Emperor Shang, who died in infancy.

Family background
Liu Qing was born to Emperor Zhang and Consort Song, then one of Emperor Zhang's favourites and also a favourite of Emperor Zhang's mother Empress Dowager Ma, in 78. As Emperor Zhang's wife Empress Dou was sonless, Prince Qing was created crown prince on 23 May 79, while still in infancy.

Tragedy in childhood
Empress Dou was not satisfied with the situation, however, and in 79, after another imperial consort, Consort Liang, gave birth to a son named Liu Zhao (劉肇), she adopted Prince Zhao and intended to make him crown prince instead. After Empress Dowager Ma died later that year, Consort Song was left without anyone to protect her, and Empress Dou began to plot her destruction.

In 82, an opportunity came for Empress Dou. Consort Song had become ill, and in her illness, she craved raw cuscuta, and she requested that her family bring them. Empress Dou seized the cuscuta and falsely accused Consort Song of using it for witchcraft. Emperor Zhang was enraged and expelled Crown Prince Qing from the palace. He had Consort Song and her sister, also an imperial consort, arrested and interrogated by the eunuch Cai Lun. Consort Song and her sister saw that they were in dire straits, and they committed suicide by poison. Crown Prince Qing was deposed and created the Prince of Qinghe instead; he was replaced by Prince Zhao as crown prince. Prince Zhao, however, was friendly to his brother, and they often spent time together.

In April 88, Emperor Zhang died, and Crown Prince Zhao succeeded to the throne as Emperor He. The still-young Prince Qing remained in the capital Luoyang, and he and his emperor brother continued to spend great amounts of time together.

As advisor to his brother
During the first part of Emperor He's reign, the clan of Empress Dowager Dou, particularly her brother Dou Xian, dominated the political scene. That trend continued even as Emperor He grew older and older. Dissatisfied with the autocratic authorities of Dou Xian, Emperor He pondered his options. Apparently encouraged by Prince Qing and the eunuch Zheng Zhong, Emperor He carried out a coup d'état in 92 and toppled the Dous' power. (Prince Qing's involvement in the plot is not completely clear but apparently major, and it is speculated that his motivation was to avenge himself (for being deposed) and his mother (for being forced to commit suicide).)

After Empress Dowager Dou died in October 97, it was finally revealed that Emperor He was born of Consort Liang. Only at that time did Prince Qing dare to request his half-brother to allow him to rebury his own mother Consort Song. Emperor He agreed and further ordered that Prince Qing be supplied with the proper items to worship his mother posthumously. For the rest of Emperor He's reign, Prince Qing remained in the capital and was a close advisor of Emperor He.

After Emperor He's death
When Emperor He died in February 106, Prince Qing was so saddened by his brother's death that he vomited blood and became seriously ill. While he would recover, his health would be poor for the rest of his life. The fact that he was required to report to his Principality of Qinghe (in modern central Hebei) after his brother's death probably did not help. However, Emperor He's wife Empress Dowager Deng Sui, because Emperor He's son Emperor Shang was still an infant, ordered that Prince Qing's wife Consort Geng and his son Liu Hu (by his concubine Consort Zuo Xiao'e (左小娥)) remain in the capital to serve as a potential successor. When Emperor Shang died later in September 106, instead of making Emperor Shang's older brother Liu Sheng (劉勝) the Prince of Pingyuan emperor, Empress Deng made Prince Hu emperor, as Emperor An, due to her concerns that Prince Sheng would bear a grudge for not having been selected first. Empress Deng sent Consort Geng to Qinghe to join Prince Qing and dominated the government, and there was no sign that Prince Qing had significant input into his son's early reign.

On 1 February 107, Prince Qing died, and at his request was buried next to his mother Consort Song. Later, after Empress Dowager Deng's death on 17 April 121, Emperor An posthumously honored him as Emperor Xiaode on 2 May of that year.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Princess consort, of the Geng clan (王妃 耿氏), first cousin
 * Empress Xiaode, of the Zuo clan (孝德皇后 左氏)
 * Liu Hu, Emperor Xiao'an (孝安皇帝 劉祜; 94–125), first son
 * Unknown
 * Liu Huwei, Prince Qinghemin (清河湣王 劉虎威)
 * Liu Changbao, Prince Guangchuan (廣川王 劉常保; d. 108)
 * Princess Nieyang (涅陽公主), personal name Shinan (侍男)
 * Married Cen Xi, Marquis Wuyang (岑熙)
 * Princess Wuyin (舞陰公主), personal name Biede (別得)
 * Married Deng Bao, Marquis Gaomi (鄧褒), and had issue (two sons)
 * Princess Puyang (濮陽公主), personal name Jiuchang (久長)
 * Married Geng Liang, Marquis Haozhi (耿良), and had issue (one son)
 * Princess Pingshi (平氏公主), personal name Zhide (直得)
 * Married Lai Ding, Marquis Zhengqiang (來定)
 * Princess Yincheng (陰城公主; d. 130), personal name Jiande (堅得)
 * Married Ban Shi of Fufeng, Marquis Dingyuan (扶風 班始; d. 130)

title: Liu Qing (prince)


text:
Santa Clara University School of Engineering

Santa Clara University School of Engineering was founded and began offering bachelor's degrees in 1912. Over the next century, as the Santa Clara Valley transformed from a largely agricultural area to an industrial center, the school added master and doctoral programs designed to meet the area's growing need for expert engineers. Today, the Silicon Valley provides a setting for the school's programs offered through a broad range of departments.

Academics
The School of Engineering offers eight undergraduate majors, twelve Master's degrees, nine academic minors, three Doctor of Philosophy degrees, and fourteen graduate academic certificates. They offer a Bachelor of Science and Master of Science Five-Year B.S. and M.S. Degree program through which students may complete some units toward the master’s degree while still enrolled as undergraduates.
 * Bachelor of Science (BS)
 * Degrees in Bioengineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Electrical Engineering, General Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Web Design and Engineering

 * Master of Science (MS)
 * Degrees in Aerospace Engineering, Applied Mathematics, Bioengineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Engineering Management and Leadership, Mechanical Engineering, Power Systems and Sustainable Energy, Robotics and Automation.

 * Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
 * Degrees in Computer Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

The Dean of the School of Engineering is Elaine Scott as of August 2019.

Departments and programs

 * Aerospace Engineering Program
 * Applied Mathematics
 * Bioengineering
 * Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering
 * Computer Science and Engineering
 * Electrical and Computer Engineering
 * Engineering Management and Leadership
 * General Engineering
 * Mechanical Engineering
 * Power Systems and Sustainable Energy Program

Student organizations

 * American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)
 * Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
 * Association for Computing Machinery - Women's Chapter (ACM-W)
 * American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
 * American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 * Associated General Contractors of America (AGC)
 * Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES)
 * Energy Club
 * Engineers Without Borders (EWB)
 * Engineering World Health (EWH)
 * Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 * Maker Club
 * National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE)
 * Pi Tau Sigma (Mechanical Engineering Honor Society)
 * Santa Clara Theta Tau
 * Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers (SHPE-SCU)
 * Society of Women Engineers (SWE)
 * Tau Beta Pi (Engineering Honor Society)
 * Upsilon Pi Epsilon (Honor Society for CSE, WEB, CS, MIS, & AIS Majors)
 * Women in STEM


text:
Snowdrift

A snowdrift is a deposit of snow sculpted by wind into a mound during a snowstorm. Snowdrifts resemble sand dunes and are formed in a similar manner, namely, by wind moving light snow and depositing it when the wind has virtually stopped, usually against a stationary object. Snow normally crests and slopes off toward the surface on the windward side of a large object. On the leeward side, areas near the object are a bit lower than surrounding areas but are generally flatter.

The impact of snowdrifts on transportation can be more significant than the snowfall itself, such as in the US during the Great Blizzard of 1978. Snowdrifts are usually found at or on roads, as the crest of the roadbed or the furrows along the road create the disruption to the wind needed to shed its carried snow. Snow fences may be employed on the windward side of the road to intentionally create a drift before the snow-laden wind reaches the road.

title: Snowdrift


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John Brombaugh

John Burlin Brombaugh (born March 1, 1937) is an American pipe organ builder known for his historically oriented tracker action pipe organs.

Personal life and early training
Born in Dayton, Ohio, Brombaugh (related to the Brumbaugh families) first heard a Hammond organ while in the fourth grade and was “mesmerized” by the combination of organ and electronics, a combination that would shape his career. Brombaugh has degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Cincinnati (EE, 1960) and Cornell University (MS-EE, 1963) specializing in the field of acoustics, in particular musical acoustics.

After college graduation, Brombaugh worked as a development engineer for the Baldwin Piano Company. His charge "was to develop a method to produce electronic chiff and to design an artificial reverberation system". For the former, he extensively studied the construction of organ pipes, while the latter included ideas pioneered in the Hammond organ. Brombaugh also secured seven patents with the Baldwin Organ Company.

As a lifelong lover of classical music, especially as he heard ancient European organs on recordings – e.g. E. Power Biggs' The Art of the Organ and Helmut Walcha's of J.S. Bach's music on the Schnitger organ in Cappel – he became an apprentice under the two leading American tracker action pipe organ builders, Fritz Noack (1964–1966) and Charles Fisk (1966–1967) and then served as a journeyman (Geselle) with the Rudolph von Beckerath firm in Hamburg in 1967–68 to complete his training, especially in making reed pipes. While in Hamburg, Brombaugh used every opportunity to study the many historic organs in northwest Germany and the adjacent Netherlands.

In June 1968, he established his own firm, John Brombaugh & Co., in the farmlands west of Germantown, Ohio, his hometown; this sole proprietorship eventually became a partnership including George Taylor, John Boody, Herman Greunke, and others. In 1977, the partnership dissolved in a friendly way when Brombaugh moved his firm to Eugene, Oregon under the new name, John Brombaugh & Associates, Inc., that continued until completing its final instrument in summer 2005. He built 66 organs that are located in 23 states, Canada, Sweden, and Japan, and was a teacher to many upcoming younger builders, including Bruce Shull, Michael Bigelow, Charles Ruggles, Paul Fritts, Munetaka Yokota, Bruce Fowkes, Trent Buhr, Karl Nelson, David Petty, and Aaron Reichert. A grant from the Ford Foundation in spring 1971 enabled Brombaugh to do intense study of about 100 historic organs in Germany, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, and he has continued his studies at all possible times since.

Organ building style
The majority of Brombaugh organs are tuned in a "Well temperament". This enables them to play music composed in any key but, compared with Equal Temperament, favors the central keys used in most organ literature of all periods. Since its introduction in 1978, the "Bach" temperament by Herbert Anton Kellner has become Brombaugh's standard tuning, though several of his organs are tuned in 1/4 Syntonic comma Meantone where their primary intention is for historically oriented performance of the organ literature older than that of Johann Sebastian Bach's. Many of his easily movable small positives have transposition capabilities to facilitate their playability at different pitches; these (excepting his Op. 2 that was made during his apprenticeship with Noack) are his only instruments tuned in Equal Temperament.

Although he has been interested in recovering and using many of the lost concepts from the ancient organ-builders (e.g., the use of only mechanical key action), he also considers himself a builder of this time who is amenable to the use of the best current construction methods and the use of ideas necessary for the convenience required by organists of our time. For example, his Opus 35 – an organ of 3,250 pipes, 3 manuals, and pedal with 46 stops that was dedicated on Pentecost 2001 at the First Presbyterian Church in Springfield, Illinois – is a synthesis of historical and modern techniques.

Among John Brombaugh's contributions to modern organ-building are:

 * The first use in modern times of an unequal temperament for tuning a large pipe organ in North America on his Op. 4 at First Lutheran Church, Lorain, Ohio, that was dedicated by David Boe in June 1970. The temperament used was Andreas Werckmeister's IIIrd temperament, Werckmeister's first inventive departure from the ancient Pythagorean or Meantone tunings. This temperament has since been used on many new organs worldwide.
 * General absence of plywood in the construction of his instruments, especially in the casework, and by the earliest return in 20th century organ-building (beginning in 1968) to using only solid wood for the windchest tableboards.
 * Consistent use of fine architectural concepts and details for his case designs, such as those described by the renowned Renaissance artisan, Andrea Palladio, and those found in instruments made by the late Gothic builders. He has also been interested in developing designs with suitable modern styles where appropriate, not only to making historically governed copies.
 * The first use of hammered pipe metal in modern times in the United States, also done for his Op. 4 for Lorain, Ohio.
 * Beginning in 1970 with his Op. 4 for Lorain, Ohio, consistent use of wedge bellows in all of his work to provide a slightly unstable winding that gives the organ a more musical character or "life". A few of Brombaugh's instruments have the mechanism needed so the organ's wind can be produced by foot pumping its bellows – the norm before electricity (or other energy sources) took over this rather boring job.
 * Beginning in 1970, development and use of an electronic "tuning machine" having a CRT display that can be set for any temperament and a reference pitch variable over a 4:5 ratio; the device provides an accuracy of 1/5 cent or 0.1 Hz and also has a filter settable to observe the various harmonics individually so all pipes of compound stops (such as the Mixtures and Cornets) may be very accurately tuned.
 * The first use worldwide of the high lead content pipe metal alloy such as was found in the work of Hendrik Niehoff in 16th century northwestern Europe in Brombaugh's Op. 19 at Central Lutheran Church in Eugene, Oregon.
 * Among the first uses of Meantone tuning in a major new organ in the United States, (along with Charles Fisk's organ at Houghton Memorial Chapel at Wellesley College and Gene Bedient's organ at Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois) for his Op. 25 organ for Fairchild Chapel at Oberlin College that was dedicated in September 1981 by Harald Vogel. Meantone organs in North America remain very rare.
 * The general use of "vocale" voicing of the pipes to achieve the tonal beauty so common to the organs in and prior to Bach's lifetime.
 * First installation in Continental Europe since the 1930s of a new pipe organ built in the United States – the Meantone organ for the Hagakyrkan in Göteborg, Sweden, dedicated by Harald Vogel on March 8, 1992.
 * First use of the Ruckpositive in a major concert hall organ by using two Ruckpositive divisions to the left and right so the organist is not hidden from view of the audience, in the Toyota City, Japan, Op. 37 instrument inaugurated by Harald Vogel on November 11, 2003.

Awards

 * Montgomery County, Ohio, Brombaugh won the design prize awarded to Montgomery County high school students; his home design was built for 1955 Home Show at the county fairgrounds.
 * Ford Foundation, 1971, awarded for financial support to study historic organs in Europe.
 * University of Cincinnati, College of Engineering Distinguished Alumni Award (1981)
 * Oregon Governor's Arts Award (1996)
 * University of Oregon's Distinguished Service Award (2006)
 * Oberlin Conservatory of Music, Honorary Doctorate (2022)

title: John Brombaugh


text:
Goldsmith, Indiana

Goldsmith is an unincorporated community of Jefferson Township in Tipton County, Indiana, United States, about 40 mi north of Indianapolis.

It is part of the Kokomo, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area.

History
Originally called Green Station, Goldsmith was surveyed in 1876. The original landowners were John Wolford, J.A. Teter, McDonald Teter, and Hiram Fulkerson. The town's name was changed to Goldsmith after the founders discovered another town in Indiana named Green Station. It was named after a contractor who helped build the LaFayette, Muncie and Bloomington Railroad. The first home was built in the village, on the west side, by Solomon Wolford. There was also a blacksmith and a shop. A Methodist Episcopal Church was organized in Goldsmith in 1881. A church was built for the congregation, costing $1,000 to build.

A post office was established at Goldsmith in 1876, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 2001.

As of 1914, the town was known for its high school, which was the most contemporary in the state at the time. The town used to be home to the "old settlers' meeting," in which thousands of early Indiana settlers would unite in Goldsmith to celebrate.

Geography
Goldsmith is located six miles west of Tipton, Indiana.

Demographics
As of January 1914, the village had a population of 200.

Education
The first school in Jefferson Township was built in Goldsmith and began operation in 1842. James Forsythe was the first teacher.

Notable people

 * Beryl H. Potter (1900-1985), astronomical researcher, born in Goldsmith

title: Goldsmith, Indiana


text: User talk:67.184.100.133

title: User talk:67.184.100.133


text:
Sat-Okh

Sat-Okh (c. 1920 – 3 July 2003), also known as Stanisław Supłatowicz, was a soldier in the Polish Resistance during World War II. Purportedly born in Northwest Territories, Canada, he later published autobiographical children's books under the name Sat-Okh. These were translated into several European languages.

He claimed to be Polish-Shawnee and to have grown up in Canada among First Nations people. His mother was Polish and returned with him to Poland before World War II. In the postwar years, he became an important figure in the Polish "indianist" movement. There has been considerable controversy as to whether his accounts were a hoax, as his books reflect culture and customs not associated with the peoples of the Northwest Territories.

Early life
Stanisław Supłatowicz claimed to be born in Canada about 1922 as the son of a Polish mother, Stanislawa Okulska, and a Shawnee father. Poland was within the sphere of the Russian Empire; after the Russian Revolution, Okulska was exiled to Siberia. She escaped to the east, making her way to Canada. There she was taken in by Native Americans, marrying a Shawnee man, and bringing up their three children among his people. The third child was Stanisław Supłatowicz. In the late 1930s Sat-Okh and his mother moved to Poland. Because Supłatowicz, as a Native American, did not have a Canadian citizenship, he had to create a birth certificate to gain the Polish one. In order to do it, his mother changed some of his data to hide his Native American ancestry.

Military career
In 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Supłatowicz joined the Polish resistance movement. He was arrested by the Gestapo in 1940 and deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau. He escaped from the train transport on the way to the camp.

Supłatowicz joined the Home Army in Poland, where he gained a nickname Kozak because of his bravery and fighting style based on making traps. During World War II Supłatowicz earned several medals, including the Cross of Valour. After the war he was arrested and imprisoned by the communist regime for his participation in the Home Army. After his release, he enlisted in the Polish Navy, where he served for six years.

Literary career
Under the name Sat Okh, Stanisław Supłatowicz published several autobiographical novels for children in Polish. They were translated into several European languages including Russian and were very popular in the former USSR. The books describe a boy's childhood and coming of age among the Shawnee in the Northwest Territories in the 1930s. Critics and reviewers of his work have noted that many of his descriptions are of First Nations life and customs associated with an earlier time period and with peoples of other geographical locations.

Sat Okh died in Gdańsk on July 3, 2003.

Works

 * Ziemia słonych skał (The Land of Salt Rocks) (1958)
 * Biały mustang (White Mustang) (1959)
 * Dorogi skhodyat'sya (Roads Merge) (in Russian with Antonina Rasulova) (1973)
 * Powstanie człowieka (The Emergence of Man) (1981)
 * Fort nad Athabaską (Fort over Athabaska) (with Yackta-Oya) (1985)
 * Głos prerii (Sounds of the Prairie) (1990)
 * Tajemnica Rzeki Bobrów (The Mystery of Beaver River) (1996)
 * Serce Chippewaya (Chippewa's Heart) (1999)
 * Walczący Lenapa (Fighting Lenapa) (2001)

title: Sat-Okh


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Ancient Greek warfare

Warfare occurred throughout the history of Ancient Greece, from the Greek Dark Ages onward. The Greek 'Dark Ages' drew to an end as a significant increase in population allowed urbanized culture to be restored, which led to the rise of the city-states (Poleis). These developments ushered in the period of Archaic Greece (800–480 BC). They also restored the capability of organized warfare between these Poleis (as opposed to small-scale raids to acquire livestock and grain, for example). The fractious nature of Ancient Greek society seems to have made continuous conflict on this larger scale inevitable.

Along with the rise of the city-states evolved a new style of warfare: the hoplite phalanx. Hoplites were armored infantrymen, armed with spears and shields. Seen in media, the phalanx was a formation of these soldiers with their shields locked together and spears pointed forward. The Chigi vase, dated to around 650 BC, is the earliest depiction of a hoplite in full battle array. With this evolution in warfare, battles seem to have consisted mostly of the clash of hoplite phalanxes from the city-states in conflict. Since the soldiers were citizens with other occupations, warfare was limited in distance, season and scale. Neither side could afford heavy casualties or sustained campaigns, so conflicts seem to have been resolved by a single set-piece battle.

The scope and scale of warfare in Ancient Greece changed as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars, which marked the beginning of Classical Greece (480–323 BC). To battle the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of many city-states, on a scale and scope never seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw diversification of warfare. Emphasis shifted to naval battles and strategies of attrition such as blockades and sieges. Following the defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated Delian League, Ancient Greece fell under the Spartan hegemony. But this was unstable, and the Persian Empire sponsored a rebellion by the combined powers of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos, resulting in the Corinthian War (395–387 BC). Persia switched sides, which ended the war, in return for the cities of Ionia and Spartan non-interference in Asia Minor. The Spartan hegemony would last another 16 years, until, at the Battle of Leuctra (371) the Spartans were decisively defeated by the Theban general Epaminondas.

The Thebans acted with alacrity to establish a hegemony of their own over Greece. However, Thebes lacked sufficient manpower and resources, and became overstretched. Following the death of Epaminondas and loss of manpower at the Battle of Mantinea, the Theban hegemony ceased. The losses in the ten years of the Theban hegemony left all the Greek city-states weakened and divided. The city-states of southern Greece were too weak to resist the rise of the Macedonian kingdom in the north. With revolutionary tactics, King Philip II brought most of Greece under his sway, paving the way for the conquest of "the known world" by his son Alexander the Great. The rise of the Macedonian Kingdom is generally taken to signal the beginning of the Hellenistic period, and certainly marked the end of the distinctive hoplite battle in Ancient Greece.

Hoplite

Along with the rise of the city-state evolved a brand new style of warfare and the emergence of the hoplite. The hoplite was an infantryman, the central element of warfare in Ancient Greece. The word hoplite (Greek ὁπλίτης, hoplitēs) derives from hoplon (ὅπλον, plural hopla, ὅπλα) meaning the arms carried by a hoplite Hoplites were the citizen-soldiers of the Ancient Greek City-states (except Spartans who were professional soldiers). They were primarily armed as spear-men and fought in a phalanx (see below).

Hoplite armor was extremely expensive for the average citizen, so it was commonly passed down from the soldier's father or relative. Alexander’s Macedonian army had spears called sarissas that were 18 feet long, far longer than the 6–9 foot Greek dory. The secondary weapon of a hoplite was the xiphos, a short sword used when the soldier's spear was broken or lost while fighting.

The origins of the hoplite are obscure, and no small matter of contention amongst historians. Traditionally, this has been dated to the 8th century BC, and attributed to Sparta; but more recent views suggest a later date, towards the 7th century BC. Certainly, by approximately 650 BC, as dated by the Chigi vase, the 'hoplite revolution' was complete. The major innovation in the development of the hoplite seems to have been the characteristic circular shield (aspis), roughly 1 m in diameter, and made of wood faced with bronze. Although comparatively heavy, the design of this shield was such that it could be supported on the shoulder. More importantly, it permitted the formation of a shield-wall by an army, an impenetrable mass of men and shields. Men were also equipped with metal greaves and also a breastplate made of bronze, leather, or stiff cloth. When this was combined with the primary weapon of the hoplite, 2 - 3 m long spear (the doru), it gave both offensive and defensive capabilities.

Regardless of where it developed, the model for the hoplite army evidently quickly spread throughout Greece. The persuasive qualities of the phalanx were probably its relative simplicity (allowing its use by a citizen militia), low fatality rate (important for small city-states), and relatively low cost (enough for each hoplite to provide his own equipment). The Phalanx also became a source of political influence because men had to provide their own equipment to be a part of the army.

The hoplite phalanx

The ancient Greek city-states developed a military formation called the phalanx, which were rows of shoulder-to-shoulder hoplites. The Hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The Phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults much more difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank).

The phalanx formed the core of ancient Greek militaries. Because hoplites were all protected by their own shield and others’ shields and spears, they were relatively safe as long as the formation didn't break. When advancing towards an enemy, the phalanx would break into a run that was sufficient to create momentum but not too much as to lose cohesion. The opposing sides would collide viciously, possibly terrifying many of the hoplites of the front row. The battle would then rely on the valour of the men in the front line, while those in the rear maintained forward pressure on the front ranks with their shields. When in combat, the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation; thus, when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match, in which, as a rule, the deeper phalanx would almost always win, with few recorded exceptions.

When exactly the phalanx was developed is uncertain, but it is thought to have been developed by the Argives in their early clashes with the Spartans. The chigi vase, dated to around 650 BC, is the earliest depiction of a hoplite in full battle array. The hoplite was a well-armed and armored citizen-soldier primarily drawn from the middle classes. Every man had to serve at least two years in the army. Fighting in the tight phalanx formation maximised the effectiveness of his armor, large shield and long spear, presenting a wall of armor and spear points to the enemy.

Hoplite warfare
At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their jobs (especially in the case of farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. Armies marched directly to their target, possibly agreed on by the protagonists. Sparta was an exception to this rule, as every Spartiate was a professional soldier. Spartans instead relied on slaves called helots for civilian jobs such as farming.

If battle was refused by one side, it would retreat to the city, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside around, since the campaign season was too limited to attempt a siege. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. These battles were short, bloody, and brutal, and thus required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, hoplites were the primary force; light troops and cavalry generally protected the flanks and performed skirmishing, acting as support troops for the core heavy infantry.

The strength of hoplites was shock combat. The two phalanxes would smash into each other in hopes of quickly breaking the enemy force's line. Failing that, a battle degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in the rear trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy. This maneuver was known as the Othismos or "push." Thucydides described hoplite warfare as othismos aspidon or "the push of shields". Battles rarely lasted more than an hour. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, chased by peltasts or light cavalry if available. If a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome aspis, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, amounting to anywhere between 5 and 15% for the winning and losing sides respectively, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front. Thus, the whole war could be decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the dutch rebellions fireworks back to the defeated, called the 'Custom of the Dead Greeks'..

Other elements of Greek armies
Greek armies also included significant numbers of light infantry, the Psiloi, as support troops for the heavy hoplites, who also doubled as baggage handlers for the heavy foot. These included javelin throwers (akontistai), stone throwers (lithovoloi and petrovoloi) and slingers (sfendonitai) while archers (toxotai) were rare, mainly from Crete, or mercenary non-Greek tribes (as at the crucial battle of Plataea 479 B.C.) Greek armies gradually downgraded the armor of the hoplites (to linen padded thorax and open helmets) to make the phalanx more flexible and upgraded the javelineers to lightly armored general purpose infantry (thorakitai and thyreophoroi) with javelins and sometimes spears. Eventually, these types effectively complemented the Macedonian style phalanx which prevailed throughout Greece after Alexander the Great.

Cavalry had always existed in Greek armies of the classical era but the cost of horses made it far more expensive than hoplite armor, limiting cavalrymen to nobles and the very wealthy (social class of hippeis). During the early hoplite era cavalry played almost no role whatsoever, mainly for social, but also tactical reasons, since the middle-class phalanx completely dominated the battlefield. Gradually, and especially during the Peloponnesian war, cavalry became more important acquiring every role that cavalry could play, except perhaps frontal attack. It scouted, screened, harassed, outflanked and pursued with the most telling moment being the use of Syracusan horse to harass and eventually destroy the retreating Athenian army of the disastrous Sicilian expedition 415-413 B.C. One of the most famous troop of Greek cavalry was the Tarantine cavalry, originating from the city-state of Taras in Magna Graecia.

Though ancient Greek historians made little mention of mercenaries, archeological evidence suggests that troops defending Himera were not strictly Greek in ancestry. Though the victory at Himera is widely seen as a defining event for Greek identity, analysis of the DNA of 54 corpses found in graves unearthed in Himera's west necropolis traced professional soldiers to regions near modern Ukraine, Latvia, and Bulgaria.

Agricultural and Economic Impacts
Campaigns were often timed with the agricultural season to impact the enemy's or enemies' crops and harvest. The timing had to be carefully arranged so that the invaders' enemy's harvest would be disrupted, but the invaders' harvest would not be affected. Late invasions were also possible in the hopes that the sowing season would be affected, but this, at best, would have minimal effects on the harvest.

One alternative to disrupting the harvest was to ravage the countryside by uprooting trees, burning houses and crops, and killing all who were not safe behind the walls of the city. Uprooting trees was especially effective given the Greek reliance on the olive crop and the long time it takes new olive trees to reach maturity. Ravaging the countryside took much effort and depended on the season because green crops do not burn as well as those nearer to harvest.

War also led to the acquisition of land and enslaved people, which would lead to a greater harvest that could support a larger army. Plunder was also a large part of the war, and this allowed for pressure to be taken off of the government finances and allowed for investments to be made that would strengthen the polis. War also stimulated production because of the sudden demand for weapons and armor. Shipbuilders would also experience sudden increases in their production demands.

Battle formations
In open sea, the Greek navy would sail in an upside-down ship formation, led by the commander's ship. However, at first sight of enemy ships, the Greek navy would turn to starboard or port to form its line for battle. The battle line consisted of ships lined up side by side, facing the enemy. This abreast formation acted as both an offensive and defensive tactic. Offensively, it allowed the ancient ships' main weapon, the ram, to be easily accessible. With the entire fleet alongside each other, there were more rams available to attack the opponent. This formation also provided the Greek fleet with protection by shielding the most vulnerable parts of the ships, which were the sides and the stern.

The abreast formation was used in almost all of the naval battles, except during the Battle of Naupactus. During this battle, the Athenian navy was attacked before it could transition into its battle formation. This battle formation was also so successful for the Greek navy that their opponents began to utilize it as well. In order to continue being successful, the Greek navy had to create new tactics and technology to be able to conquer its opponents.

Diekplous
The diekplous was an ancient Greek naval operation used to infiltrate the enemy's line-of-battle. The maneuver consisted of Greek ships, in line abreast, rowing through gaps between its enemy's ships. After the galley successfully crossed the opponent's line, the Greek ships would turn around and attack the susceptible side of the opponent's vessel.

Although the diekplous is considered to be one of the most effective maneuvers in naval warfare, it was only successfully used in three battles: Lade, Chios, and Side. One reason why the tactic became less useful was that enemies quickly developed defensive tactics against it. One way opponents countered the diekplous was by retreating their fleet into a tight circle with the prows of their ships facing outward. This defensive maneuver was known as the hedgehog counter-formation. The tight circle prevented the Greek navy from infiltrating its opponent's squadron because if the navy used the diekplous, the galley would be encircled by its enemy and rammed. This counter formation was used by Themistocles in the Battle of Artemisium.

Periplous
Another naval tactic used by the ancient Greeks was the periplous. The periplous consisted of the Greek navy "sailing around" the enemy's line. Like the diekplous, the periplous' purpose was to expose the enemy's stern for an easy ramming target. An example of this tactic is described by Thucydides during the second battle between the Athenians and Peloponnesians in the Gulf of Corinth. During this engagement, a single Athenian galley was being pursued by a Peloponnesian ship until the Athenian ship circled around a merchant ship and rammed the Peloponnesian vessel and sank it. The Athenian ship was successful in this maneuver because it was the faster of the two ships, which is a key element in the periplous.

Ramming
The ram on the trireme was the Greek navy's most successful weapon. A trireme was equipped with a large piece of timber sheathed in an envelope of bronze, located in the front of the ship. Although each ship had a ram, the ship needed to have a skilled crew to be successful with this tactic. The oarsman rowing the ship needed to accurately hit the target, and then be able to quickly dislodge the weapon before the enemy ship sunk. The usual target during this attack was the stern, where the steering oars were located, or the side of the ship where the rowing oars were. While the ramming itself may have caused only a few casualties to the enemy, the majority of the casualties occurred later as the vessel began to sink, forcing its crew into the water.

Shearing
During an attack using the ram, the crew also sheared the enemy. Shearing occurred when the oars of one ship collided with any part of the opposing ship. During the collision, the wooden paddles shattered and often skewered the rower and the men surrounding him. In addition to maiming, if not immediately killing, the enemy, the attacker was given another advantage to ram the opponent. This opportunity occurred while the attacked vessel stopped rowing to evaluate the strength of each side of oarsman, leaving it in a standstill. The temporarily inoperative ship would become victim to more ramming and spearing attacks.

Marines and archers
Marines, or epibatai, were the secondary weapon for the Greek navy after the ram. During battles, marines were responsible for both attacking the enemy's ship, and preventing their own ship from being boarded. The number of marines on the trireme fluctuated based on each battle. For example, during the Peloponnesian War, there were 4 archers and 10 marines on the deck of a vessel. However, Cimon had forty marines aboard each ship during the battle of Eurymedon. The difference in numbers between these two battles is because commanders used the marines for different purposes based on the circumstance of the battles. If the battle was being fought in confined waters, there would be more marines on the trireme. The ships would require more marines because the constricted water would prevent the use of typical tactics, and would increase the risk of the ship being boarded by the enemy.

Archers were also important in naval battles. The arrows of the seagoing archers were deadly and efficient and could decrease the enemy’s fighting power considerably by picking off officers and men on the enemy ship. The arrows had an effective range of 160–170 meters. When fired from a ship executing a diekplous or a ramming blow, the arrows had a greater velocity.

Hoplites
Soldiers of the Greek army were called hoplites. They were known for their courage and strength. Stories like the Battle of Thermopylae demonstrate the strength and skill Greeks had in land battle. From the moment Greeks started fighting with "bronze shields and in the phalanx," they must have regularly been drawn up in rank and file and not just crowded together. They had a specific formation in order to execute all of their military maneuvers. The Athenian army was typically divided into ten taxeis, or tribal regiments, and subdivided into lochoi. These subunits worked as smaller pieces of an overall picture of military power. Trained thoroughly, the hoplites were as skilled at their melee combat as the Athenian oarsmen were at their precision ramming and rowing.

Phalanx
The phalanx was an army tactic the Greeks performed with shields. Each soldier carried a shield in his left arm, which he used to protect both himself and the man on his left. The depth of the phalanx differed depending on the battle and commander, but the width of the formation was considerably greater than its depth. For example, during the battle of Syracuse, the depth of the Athenian army's phalanx was 8 men, while its opponent, the Syracusan army, had a depth of 16 men.

Melee
Melee, or hand-to-hand combat, occurred most often after the tight formation of the phalanx dispersed. This fighting was also often referred to as dorarismos, meaning "spear-fighting" because the hoplites would use small swords in the fighting. One example of melee combat is described by Herodotus during a battle at Thermopylae. Herodotus reports that after the Spartans had lost their spears and swords during the dorarismos, they continued fighting "with their hands and teeth."

Ambuscade
An uncommon tactic of Ancient Greek warfare, during the hoplite battles, was the use of ambush. When light-armed forces began to be used, ambushing became a recognized scheme. The most known version of this tactic occurred during the Battle of Dyme in 218 BC, when one side pretended to retreat from the fighting and enticed their enemy to follow them into an ambush. This tactic became so well known that in 217 BC the Stratian army declined to pursue the Akarnanians during their retreat in fear that they would face an ambush.

The Greco-Persian Wars
The scale and scope of warfare in Ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of many city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labour. Although alliances between city states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before.

The Greco-Persian Wars (499–448 BC) were the result of attempts by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great, and then his successor Xerxes I to subjugate Ancient Greece. Darius was already ruler of the cities of Ionia, and the wars are taken to start when they rebelled in 499 BC. The revolt was crushed by 494 BC, but Darius resolved to bring mainland Greece under his dominion. Many city-states made their submission to him, but others did not, notably including Athens and Sparta. Darius thus sent his commanders Datis and Artaphernes to attack Attica, to punish Athens for her intransigence. After burning Eretria, the Persians landed at Marathon.

An Athenian army of c. 10,000 hoplites marched to meet the Persian army of about 25,000 troops. The Athenians were at a significant disadvantage both strategically and tactically. Raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any attack in the Athenian rear would cut off the Army from the City. Tactically, the hoplites were very vulnerable to attacks by cavalry, and the Athenians had no cavalry to defend the flanks. After several days of stalemate at Marathon, the Persian commanders attempted to take strategic advantage by sending their cavalry (by ship) to raid Athens itself. This gave the Athenian army a small window of opportunity to attack the remainder of the Persian Army.

This was the first true engagement between a hoplite army and a non-Greek army. The Persians had acquired a reputation for invincibility, but the Athenian hoplites proved crushingly superior in the ensuing infantry battle. To counter the massive numbers of Persians, the Greek general Miltiades ordered the troops to be spread across an unusually wide front, leaving the centre of the Greek line undermanned. However, the lightly armored Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armored hoplites, and the Persian wings were quickly routed. The Greek wings then turned against the elite troops in the Persian centre, which had held the Greek centre until then. Marathon demonstrated to the Greeks the lethal potential of the hoplite, and firmly demonstrated that the Persians were not, after all, invincible.

The revenge of the Persians was postponed 10 years by internal conflicts in the Persian Empire, until Darius's son Xerxes returned to Greece in 480 BC with a staggeringly large army (modern estimates suggest between 150,000 and 250,000 men). Many Greeks city-states, having had plenty of warning of the forthcoming invasion, formed an anti-Persian league; though as before, other city-states remained neutral or allied with Persia. Although alliances between city-states were commonplace, the scale of this league was a novelty, and the first time that the Greeks had united in such a way to face an external threat.

This allowed diversification of the allied armed forces, rather than simply mustering a very large hoplite army. The visionary Athenian politician Themistocles had successfully persuaded his fellow citizens to build a huge fleet in 483/82 BC to combat the Persian threat (and thus to effectively abandon their hoplite army, since there were not men enough for both). Amongst the allies therefore, Athens was able to form the core of a navy, whilst other cities, including Sparta, provided the army. This alliance thus removed the constraints on the type of armed forces that the Greeks could use. The use of such a large navy was also a novelty to the Greeks.

The second Persian invasion is famous for the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. As the massive Persian army moved south through Greece, the allies sent a small holding force (c. 10,000) men under the Spartan king Leonidas, to block the pass of Thermopylae whilst the main allied army could be assembled. The allied navy extended this blockade at sea, blocking the nearby straits of Artemisium, to prevent the huge Persian navy landing troops in Leonidas's rear. Famously, Leonidas's men held the much larger Persian army at the pass (where their numbers were less of an advantage) for three days, the hoplites again proving their superiority.

Only when a Persian force managed to outflank them by means of a mountain track was the allied army overcome; but by then Leonidas had dismissed the majority of the troops, remaining with a rearguard of 300 Spartans (and perhaps 2000 other troops), in the process making one of history's great last stands. The Greek navy, despite their lack of experience, also proved their worth holding back the Persian fleet whilst the army still held the pass.

Thermopylae provided the Greeks with time to arrange their defences, and they dug in across the Isthmus of Corinth, an impregnable position; although an evacuated Athens was thereby sacrificed to the advancing Persians. In order to outflank the isthmus, Xerxes needed to use this fleet, and in turn therefore needed to defeat the Greek fleet; similarly, the Greeks needed to neutralise the Persian fleet to ensure their safety. To this end, the Greeks were able to lure the Persian fleet into the straits of Salamis; and, in a battleground where Persian numbers again counted for nothing, they won a decisive victory, justifying Themistocles' decision to build the Athenian fleet. Demoralised, Xerxes returned to Asia Minor with much of his army, leaving his general Mardonius to campaign in Greece the following year (479 BC).

However, a united Greek army of c. 40,000 hoplites decisively defeated Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea, effectively ending the invasion. Almost simultaneously, the allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian navy at Mycale, thus destroying the Persian hold on the islands of the Aegean.

The remainder of the wars saw the Greeks take the fight to the Persians. The Athenian dominated Delian League of cities and islands extirpated Persian garrisons from Macedon and Thrace, before eventually freeing the Ionian cities from Persian rule. At one point, the Greeks even attempted an invasion of Cyprus and Egypt (which proved disastrous), demonstrating a major legacy of the Persian Wars: warfare in Greece had moved beyond the seasonal squabbles between city-states, to coordinated international actions involving huge armies. After the war, ambitions of many Greek states dramatically increased. Tensions resulting from this, and the rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during the war led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics.

The Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), was fought between the Athenian dominated Delian League and the Spartan dominated Peloponnesian League. The increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale, and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during this war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on naval warfare, and strategies of attrition such as blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society.

Whatever the proximal causes of the war, it was in essence a conflict between Athens and Sparta for supremacy in Greece. The war (or wars, since it is often divided into three periods) was for much of the time a stalemate, punctuated with occasional bouts of activity. Tactically the Peloponnesian war represents something of a stagnation; the strategic elements were most important as the two sides tried to break the deadlock, something of a novelty in Greek warfare.

Building on the experience of the Persian Wars, the diversification from core hoplite warfare, permitted by increased resources, continued. There was increased emphasis on navies, sieges, mercenaries and economic warfare. Far from the previously limited and formalized form of conflict, the Peloponnesian War transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states, complete with atrocities on a large scale; shattering religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside and destroying whole cities.

From the start, the mismatch in the opposing forces was clear. The Delian League (hereafter 'Athenians') were primarily a naval power, whereas the Peloponnesian League (hereafter 'Spartans') consisted of primarily land-based powers. The Athenians thus avoided battle on land, since they could not possibly win, and instead dominated the sea, blockading the Peloponnesus whilst maintaining their trade. Conversely, the Spartans repeatedly invaded Attica, but only for a few weeks at a time; they remained wedded to the idea of hoplite-as-citizen. Although both sides suffered setbacks and victories, the first phase essentially ended in stalemate, as neither league had the power to neutralise the other. The second phase, an Athenian expedition to attack Syracuse in Sicily achieved no tangible result other than a large loss of Athenian ships and men.

In the third phase of the war however the use of more sophisticated stratagems eventually allowed the Spartans to force Athens to surrender. Firstly, the Spartans permanently garrisoned a part of Attica, removing from Athenian control the silver mine which funded the war effort. Forced to squeeze even more money from her allies, the Athenian league thus became heavily strained. After the loss of Athenian ships and men in the Sicilian expedition, Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst the Athenian league, which therefore massively reduced the ability of the Athenians to continue the war.

Athens in fact partially recovered from this setback between 410 and 406 BC, but a further act of economic war finally forced her defeat. Having developed a navy that was capable of taking on the much-weakened Athenian navy, the Spartan general Lysander seized the Hellespont, the source of Athens' grain. The remaining Athenian fleet was thereby forced to confront the Spartans, and were decisively defeated. Athens had little choice but to surrender; and was stripped of her city walls, overseas possessions and navy.

Mercenaries and light infantry
Although tactically there was little innovation in the Peloponessian War, there does appear to have been an increase in the use of light infantry, such as peltasts (javelin throwers) and archers. Many of these would have been mercenary troops, hired from outlying regions of Greece. For instance, the Agrianes from Thrace were well-renowned peltasts, whilst Crete was famous for its archers. Since there were no decisive land-battles in the Peloponnesian War, the presence or absence of these troops was unlikely to have affected the course of the war. Nevertheless, it was an important innovation, one which was developed much further in later conflicts. Sileraioi were also a group of ancient mercenaries most likely employed by the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse

Spartan & Theban hegemonies
Following the eventual defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated Delian League, Ancient Greece fell under the hegemony of Sparta. The peace treaty which ended the Peloponnesian War left Sparta as the de facto ruler of Greece (hegemon). Although the Spartans did not attempt to rule all of Greece directly, they prevented alliances of other Greek cities, and forced the city-states to accept governments deemed suitable by Sparta.

However, from the very beginning, it was clear that the Spartan hegemony was shaky; the Athenians, despite their crushing defeat, restored their democracy but just one year later, ejecting the Sparta-approved oligarchy. The Spartans did not feel strong enough to impose their will on a shattered Athens. Undoubtedly part of the reason for the weakness of the hegemony was a decline in the Spartan population.

This did not go unnoticed by the Persian Empire, which sponsored a rebellion by the combined powers of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos, resulting in the Corinthian War (395–387 BC). This was the first major challenge Sparta faced.

The early encounters, at Nemea and Coronea were typical engagements of hoplite phalanxes, resulting in Spartan victories. However, the Spartans suffered a large setback when their fleet was wiped out by a Persian Fleet at the Battle of Cnidus, undermining the Spartan presence in Ionia. The war petered out after 394 BC, with a stalemate punctuated with minor engagements. One of these is particularly notable however; at the Battle of Lechaeum, an Athenian force composed mostly of light troops (e.g. peltasts) defeated a Spartan regiment...

The Athenian general Iphicrates had his troops make repeated hit and run attacks on the Spartans, who, having neither peltasts nor cavalry, could not respond effectively. The defeat of a hoplite army in this way demonstrates the changes in both troops and tactic which had occurred in Greek Warfare.

The war ended when the Persians, worried by the allies' successes, switched to supporting the Spartans, in return for the cities of Ionia and Spartan non-interference in Asia Minor. This brought the rebels to terms, and restored the Spartan hegemony on a more stable footing. The peace treaty which ended the war, effectively restored the status quo ante bellum, although Athens was permitted to retain some of the territory it had regained during the war. The Spartan hegemony would last another 16 years...

The second major challenge Sparta faced was fatal to its hegemony, and even to its position as a first-rate power in Greece. As the Thebans attempted to expand their influence over Boeotia, they inevitably incurred the ire of Sparta. After they refused to disband their army, an army of approximately 10,000 Spartans and Pelopennesians marched north to challenge the Thebans. At the decisive Battle of Leuctra (371 BC), the Thebans routed the allied army. The battle is famous for the tactical innovations of the Theban general Epaminondas.

Defying convention, he strengthened the left flank of the phalanx to an unheard of depth of 50 ranks, at the expense of the centre and the right. The centre and right were staggered backwards from the left (an 'echelon' formation), so that the phalanx advanced obliquely. The Theban left wing was thus able to crush the elite Spartan forces on the allied right, whilst the Theban centre and left avoided engagement; after the defeat of the Spartans and the death of the Spartan king, the rest of the allied army routed. This is one of the first known examples of both the tactic of local concentration of force, and the tactic of 'refusing a flank'.

Following this victory, the Thebans first secured their power-base in Boeotia, before marching on Sparta. As the Thebans were joined by many erstwhile Spartan allies, the Spartans were powerless to resist this invasion. The Thebans marched into Messenia, and freed it from Sparta; this was a fatal blow to Sparta, since Messenia had provided most of the helots which supported the Spartan warrior society. These events permanently reduced Spartan power and prestige, and replaced the Spartan hegemony with a Theban one. The Theban hegemony would be short-lived however.

Opposition to it throughout the period 369–362 BC caused numerous clashes. In an attempt to bolster the Thebans' position, Epaminondas again marched on the Pelopennese in 362 BC. At the Battle of Mantinea, the largest battle ever fought between the Greek city-states occurred; most states were represented on one side or the other. Epaminondas deployed tactics similar to those at Leuctra, and again the Thebans, positioned on the left, routed the Spartans, and thereby won the battle. However, such were the losses of Theban manpower, including Epaminondas himself, that Thebes was thereafter unable to sustain its hegemony. Conversely, another defeat and loss of prestige meant that Sparta was unable to regain its primary position in Greece. Ultimately, Mantinea, and the preceding decade, severely weakened many Greek states, and left them divided and without the leadership of a dominant power.

The rise of Macedon and the end of the hoplite era
Although by the end of the Theban hegemony the cities of southern Greece were severely weakened, they might have risen again had it not been for the ascent to power of the Macedonian kingdom in northern Greece. Unlike the fiercely independent (and small) city-states, Macedon was a tribal kingdom, ruled by an autocratic king, and importantly, covering a larger area. Once firmly unified, and then expanded, by Philip II, Macedon possessed the resources that enabled it to dominate the weakened and divided states in southern Greece. Between 356 and 342 BC Phillip conquered all city states in the vicinity of Macedon, then Thessaly and then Thrace.

Finally Phillip sought to establish his own hegemony over the southern Greek city-states, and after defeating the combined forces of Athens and Thebes, the two most powerful states, at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, succeeded. Now unable to resist him, Phillip compelled most of the city states of southern Greece (including Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos; but not Sparta) to join the Corinthian League, and therefore become allied to him.

This established a lasting Macedonian hegemony over Greece, and allowed Phillip the resources and security to launch a war against the Persian Empire. After his assassination, this war was prosecuted by his son Alexander the Great, and resulted in the takeover of the whole Achaemenid Empire by the Macedonians. A united Macedonian empire did not long survive Alexander's death, and soon split into the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals). However, these kingdoms were still enormous states, and continued to fight in the same manner as Phillip and Alexander's armies had. The rise of Macedon and her successors thus sounded the death knell for the distinctive way of war found in Ancient Greece; and instead contributed to the 'superpower' warfare which would dominate the ancient world between 350 and 150 BC.

The innovations of Phillip II
One major reason for Phillip's success in conquering Greece was the break with Hellenic military traditions that he made. With more resources available, he was able to assemble a more diverse army, including strong cavalry components. He took the development of the phalanx to its logical completion, arming his 'phalangites' (for they were assuredly not hoplites) with a fearsome 6 m pike, the 'sarissa'. Much more lightly armored, the Macedonian phalanx was not so much a shield-wall as a spear-wall. The Macedonian phalanx was a supreme defensive formation, but was not intended to be decisive offensively; instead, it was used to pin down the enemy infantry, whilst more mobile forces (such as cavalry) outflanked them. This 'combined arms' approach was furthered by the extensive use of skirmishers, such as peltasts.

Tactically, Phillip absorbed the lessons of centuries of warfare in Greece. He echoed the tactics of Epaminondas at Chaeronea, by not engaging his right wing against the Thebans until his left wing had routed the Athenians; thus in course outnumbering and outflanking the Thebans, and securing victory. Alexander's fame is in no small part due to his success as a battlefield tactician; the unorthodox gambits he used at the battles of Issus and Gaugamela were unlike anything seen in Ancient Greece before.

title: Ancient Greek warfare


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360 Crescent kick

The 360 Crescent kick is a martial arts kick that received its name from the motion of the kick itself. It is also sometimes called, 360 kick, or Jump spin kick. The practitioner jumps into the air and executes a 360 degree turn while keeping his or her body perpendicular to the ground. As soon as the kicker leaves the ground the kicking leg should be extended as straight and high as possible. The kicking leg is normally the same side as the direction that the practitioner is spinning. For example, it will be the right leg if the practitioner is spinning to the right or the left leg if the practitioner is spinning to the left.

Variations
The different variations depend solely on the position of the hips and the direction the toes of the kicking foot are pointing. The mechanics to all the variations are basically unchanged from what is described above.

 * 360 Crescent
 * Here the toes are pointing either directly up or straight forward. If aiming for a target, the target is hit with either the blade of foot (outer edge from heel to pinky toe) or with the side of the heel. The hips rotate completely around, generating a good amount of power and speed, however the reach is somewhat shortened by the position of the body.

 * 360 Hook
 * Here the toes are pointing in the direction opposite of the direction the heel of the foot is moving. If aiming for a target, the target would be hit with the heel of the foot, maybe the flat of the foot depending on the material of the target. The hips do not rotate as much a crescent, but it is easier to obtain farther reach this way. Because of the way the hips rotate, the body bends towards the direction opposite of the kick, sometimes making it difficult for beginners to maintain balance on the landing. This kick is sometimes called a Jumping reverse roundhouse kick

 * 360 Split Hook Kick
 * Also known as Helicopter Kick, the distinguishing feature to this kick is that the practitioner does the splits in midair. After completing approximately 180 degrees of the rotation, both legs are kicked outward in opposite directions. Because the legs are thrown in opposite directions, a stall in the rotation is created which can give the appearance of floating. Once the legs are brought back in the rotation can be partially recovered to finish the landing. Some practitioners do not recover the rotation for stylistic purposes. Jean-Claude Van Damme was well known for executing this kick in many of his movies.

 * Split Kick to Hook
 * Though not widely practiced or even officially named, the Split kick to Hook kick still shares some similarities to a traditional 360 kick. First the practitioner will jump and execute a basic split kick where both legs are kick out like snap kicks in opposite directions. Immediately afterwards, the practitioner will then begin to rotate their body in order to swing one of their legs around into a hook kick. Though the body does not rotate a full 360 degrees, it has to rotate much more than 180 degrees to be properly executed. This move was developed by Anthony Atkins.

 * 360 to the Splits
 * All variations of the 360 can be landed in the splits, however the more the hips rotate, the easier it is to set it up. Once the kicking leg has executed the kick, it is swung back while the other leg is maneuvered forward.

 * 360 Gyro
 * This is simply a normal 360 kick where an additional 360 degrees of spinning is executed after the kick, effectively spinning 720 degrees. A 360 Gyro is normally executed as a crescent, mainly because of the easier rotation of the hips after the kick. This is comparable to a 720 kick.

720 kicks
A derivative of the 360 kick is the 720 kick. The mechanics to 720s are all but identical to 360s. The only real difference is that the amount of torque and height needed to execute a 720 is greater than that necessary for a 360. Although the name implies 720 degrees of rotation, the move is usually done with approximately 540 degrees of rotation. This happens cause the tricking terms often count the step in part of the move as actual rotation. The 720 also has some variants.

 * 720 Crescent
 * Also known as simply a 720, this is very similar to a 360 gyro in that the degree of rotation is the same. The main difference is that the spinning is executed first, then kick is thrown out (which is normally a hook kick due to the smaller amount of rotation needed). Many tricksters execute a Cheat 720 or a 540 wheel in place of this move due to the extra amount of rotation needed.

 * 720 Double
 * The distinguishing feature to this move is that the crescent and/or hook kick is thrown twice, once after the during the first rotation of 360 degrees and another during the last rotation. Because the kick is thrown with the same leg, the difficulty of this move comes from retracting the leg towards the body just enough to throw the second kick.

 * 720 Triple
 * Three kicks are executed much like a 720 double. The third kick is actually added in between the two from the 720 double. After the first kick is thrown, the opposite leg will throw either a crescent or roundhouse kick. This is then followed by the second hook kick. The order and appearance of the kicks is very comparable to those of a 540 triple. The main and definitively distinguishing feature is that a 720 triple's take off is done by jumping off of both legs.

1080 kicks
Yet another derivative of the 360 kick is the 1080 kick. It is the same principle as a 720 except that there are two and a half spins plus the step in, instead of one and a half, hence the name "1080". While theoretically all the variations of the original 360 kick are applicable to a 1080 kick, there are actually few variations of a 1080 that have actually be successfully executed. Some of them include the 1080 Double and the Cheat 1080. Some tricking practitioners as Gary Ip already broke the mark of the 1260 kick, which involves approximately three spins in the air executing a round/crescent kick before the non-kicking feet hits the ground. Because of the difficulty of this move, it is often performed only by those who already have years of kicking/Martial Arts training.

title: 360 Crescent kick


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User talk:Vuto99

Dung cai nay de chia se thong tin cung duoc do. Anh em co' noi de thao luan voi nhau.

Huong dan su dung
Click vao dau (+) ben phai menu 'edit this page' de post thong tin len.

Mot so truong co the tham khao
http://www.thptbc-ntto-tthue.edu.vn/trang_hs.asp

Kiem them mot so trang nua post len di Chu' Tien, de anh em tham khao

title: User talk:Vuto99


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Kearneysville, West Virginia

Kearneysville is an unincorporated community in Jefferson and Berkeley Counties, in the U.S. state of West Virginia's Eastern Panhandle in the lower Shenandoah Valley. According to the 2000 census, Kearneysville and its surrounding community has a population of 6,716.

title: Kearneysville, West Virginia


text:
User:Vuto99

Testing

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title: User:Vuto99


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1985 CFL season

The 1985 CFL season is considered to be the 32nd season in modern-day Canadian football, although it is officially the 28th Canadian Football League season.

CFL News in 1985
The CFL adopted a regular season overtime format that will consist of two-minute halves (no sudden death), which would be implemented for the 1986 season. In addition, the CFL changed the playoff overtime format from two ten-minute halves (with no sudden death) to two five-minute halves (no sudden death).

Final regular season standings
Note: GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PF = Points For, PA = Points Against, Pts = Points

 * Bold text means that they have clinched the playoffs.
 * BC and Hamilton have first round byes.

Grey Cup playoffs
The BC Lions are the 1985 Grey Cup champions, defeating the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 37–24, at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. This was BC's first Grey Cup victory since 1964. The Lions' Roy Dewalt (QB) was named the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player on Offence and James "Quick" Parker (DE) was named Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player on Defence, while Lui Passaglia (K/P) was named the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Canadian.

CFL Leaders

 * CFL Passing Leaders
 * CFL Rushing Leaders
 * CFL Receiving Leaders

Offence

 * QB – Matt Dunigan, Edmonton Eskimos
 * RB – Willard Reaves, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * RB – Keyvan Jenkins, BC Lions
 * SB – Joe Poplawski, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * TE – Ray Elgaard, Saskatchewan Roughriders
 * WR – Mervyn Fernandez, BC Lions
 * WR – Jeff Boyd, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * C – John Bonk, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * OG – Dan Ferrone, Toronto Argonauts
 * OG – Nick Bastaja, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * OT – John Blain, BC Lions
 * OT – Chris Walby, Winnipeg Blue Bombers

Defence

 * DT – Mike Gray, BC Lions
 * DT – James Curry, Toronto Argonauts
 * DE – Grover Covington, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DE – James "Quick" Parker, BC Lions
 * LB – Ben Zambiasi, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * LB – Tyrone Jones, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * LB – Kevin Konar, BC Lions
 * DB – Darnell Clash, BC Lions
 * DB – Less Browne, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DB – Ken Hailey, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * DB – Howard Fields, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DB – Paul Bennett, Hamilton Tiger-Cats

Special teams

 * P – Ken Clark, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * K – Trevor Kennerd, Winnipeg Blue Bombers

Offence

 * QB – Ken Hobart, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * RB – Bob Bronk, Toronto Argonauts
 * RB – Lester Brown, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * SB – Mike McTague, Montreal Concordes
 * TE – Nick Arakgi, Montreal Concordes
 * WR – Terry Greer, Toronto Argonauts
 * WR – Steve Stapler, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * C – Marv Allemang, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * OG – Dan Ferrone, Toronto Argonauts
 * OG – Lloyd Fairbanks, Montreal Concordes
 * OT – Roger Cattelan, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * OT – Kevin Powell, Ottawa Rough Riders

Defence

 * DT – Doug Scott, Montreal Concordes
 * DT – James Curry, Toronto Argonauts
 * DE – Grover Covington, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DE – Lloyd Lewis, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * LB – Ben Zambiasi, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * LB – Rick Sowieta, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * LB – William Mitchell, Toronto Argonauts
 * DB – Carl Brazley, Toronto Argonauts
 * DB – Less Browne, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DB – Ricky Barden, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * DB – Howard Fields, Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * DB – Paul Bennett, Hamilton Tiger-Cats

Special teams

 * P – Ken Clark, Ottawa Rough Riders
 * K – Bernie Ruoff, Hamilton Tiger-Cats

Offence

 * QB – Matt Dunigan, Edmonton Eskimos
 * RB – Willard Reaves, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * RB – Keyvan Jenkins, BC Lions
 * SB – Joe Poplawski, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * TE – Ray Elgaard, Saskatchewan Roughriders
 * WR – Mervyn Fernandez, BC Lions
 * WR – Jeff Boyd, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * C – John Bonk, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * OG – Leo Blanchard, Edmonton Eskimos
 * OG – Nick Bastaja, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * OT – John Blain, BC Lions
 * OT – Chris Walby, Winnipeg Blue Bombers

Defence

 * DT – Mike Gray, BC Lions
 * DT – Rick Klassen, BC Lions
 * DE – Tony Norman, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * DE – James "Quick" Parker, BC Lions
 * LB – Dan Bass, Edmonton Eskimos
 * LB – Tyrone Jones, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * LB – Kevin Konar, BC Lions
 * LB – Glen Jackson, BC Lions
 * DB – Darnell Clash, BC Lions
 * DB – Dave Shaw, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * DB – Ken Hailey, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * DB – Wiley Turner, Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * DB – Melvin Byrd, BC Lions
 * DB – Scott Flagel, Winnipeg Blue Bombers

Special teams

 * P – Tom Dixon, Edmonton Eskimos
 * K – Trevor Kennerd, Winnipeg Blue Bombers

1985 CFL Awards

 * CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award – Mervyn Fernandez (WR), BC Lions
 * CFL's Most Outstanding Canadian Award – Paul Bennett (DB), Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * CFL's Most Outstanding Defensive Player Award – Tyrone Jones (LB), Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * CFL's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award – Nick Bastaja (OT), Winnipeg Blue Bombers
 * CFL's Most Outstanding Rookie Award – Mike Gray (DT), BC Lions
 * CFLPA's Outstanding Community Service Award – Tyrone Crews (LB), BC Lions
 * CFL's Coach of the Year – Don Matthews, BC Lions

title: 1985 CFL season


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Enfield, South Australia

Enfield is a suburb in Adelaide, Australia. The suburb is about a 10-minute drive north from Adelaide city centre. The suburb is bordered by Gepps Cross to the north, Blair Athol to the west, Clearview to the east, and Prospect, Sefton Park and Broadview to the south.

History
Enfield was established as a village in 1843 by George Hickox as group of 44 quarter-acre blocks. Hickox named the village after his birthplace, Enfield in Middlesex, United Kingdom. The name "Enfield" is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word enedfeld meaning "duck field".

Heritage listings
Two houses, a church and a reserve in Enfield are listed on the South Australian Heritage Register.
 * Pine Forest in Gurney Terrace, was built in the 1850s by colonist Charles French Folland Snr.
 * Barton Vale in Walker Court was the first "grand home" built by pastoralist Edmund Bowman, who arrived in the colony in 1839. The house was originally part of a farm, and was occupied by the Bowman family until 1922. After being acquired by the Salvation Army, it became Barton Vale Girls' Home. Taken over by the state government in 1947, it was renamed Vaughan House Training School for Girls, named after Adelaide social reformer Dorothy Vaughan (1881–1974 ), and used as a government-run reformatory ("home for wayward girls" ) and known as Vaughan House until 1979. From then until 1993 it was renamed the South Australian Youth Remand and Assessment Centre. Singer-songwriter Ruby Hunter was placed in this home after having an argument with her foster brother in the family in which she had been previously placed.
 * St. Clement's Anglican Church on Main North Road had its Foundation Stone laid on 27 July 1858 but the Church was not opened for worship until 1867. The church was designed by James William Cole in the Gothic Style on land donated by William Bartley. In 1878 the boundaries of the parish extended ‘from Prospect Village, north of North Adelaide to within 12½ miles of Gawler, including the districts of Enfield, Salisbury and Virginia’. It become known as the "Little Church on the Hill" and it was a landmark for ships coming into port. For many years the Emblem of the City of Enfield depicted St. Clement's Church in the top right hand corner. In 1969 urgent repairs were needed to maintain the old building. Advice from independent sources, including the National Trust, agreed that major restorations needed to be carried out to preserve the old church. Services are still conducted at the church each Sunday.
 * Folland Park on Turnbull Road represents an important area of remnant vegetation.

Government
Enfield is governed by the City of Port Adelaide Enfield council (seated at Port Adelaide) at the local government level. The council has one of its main offices located in the Enfield Public Library, the site of the seat of the former City of Enfield, which amalgamated with the City of Port Adelaide in 1996.

At state government level, Enfield is contained in the state electoral district of Enfield.

The Enfield electorate was first created in 1956-1970 and then later re-established as a part of the 1998 electorate redistributions. Another redistribution in 2003 resulted in the alteration of the southern border.

Education
Enfield has two public schools, Enfield High School and Enfield Primary School. Enfield High (now merged with Roma Mitchell Secondary College) is located on Grand Junction Road. Enfield Primary is located nearby.

St Gabriel's School in Whittington Street is a Catholic primary school with enrolments from Reception to Year 7. It is the parish school of the Good Shepherd Church in Clearview.

Shopping
Enfield has a small shopping centre located near the library, which includes Enfield Post Office. The southern end of Enfield is well serviced by Northpark Shopping Centre, Regency Plaza and Sefton Plaza, located in the neighbouring suburbs of Prospect and Sefton Park.

Transport
Several bus routes travel from Adelaide CBD to various destinations in the northern suburbs via Main North Road, on Enfield's western boundary. Circle Line route 300 services Regency Road on the southern boundary of Enfield and links the suburb with various destinations, such as Arndale Shopping Centre and Norwood. Bus routes 237 and 361 travel along Grand Junction Road on the northern boundary of Enfield to Port Adelaide, Valley View and Tea Tree Plaza.

title: Enfield, South Australia