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Punisher 2099

The Punisher 2099 is a comic book series following the account of Jake Gallows (the Punisher) in the year 2099 in an alternate Marvel Universe. The majority of the issues were written by Pat Mills and Tony Skinner, with art by Tom Morgan. The rest were written by Chuck Dixon. The series ran from February 1993 through November 1995 with a total of 34 issues.

Fictional character biography
Jacob Gallows, a member of the Public Eye Police Force (a private police protection service owned by Alchemax) and Church of Thor, lost his mother, brother, and sister-in-law (and was himself seriously injured) when they were slain on the orders of Kron Stone, psychotic son of powerful businessman Tyler Stone. After recovering, Jake comes across the original Punisher's war journal, stolen from the archives of the Public Eye. The last page bore the challenge: "You who find this, I charge you to carry on my work." Soon after, he became the new Punisher. Jake would get revenge against Kron Stone or so he believed. After threatening the lives of several children, Kron confronts Jake with a device that stops all high-speed projectiles, such as bullets. Jake pulls a knife and slowly stabs Kron, who seemingly dies. Kron would later take on the mantle of Venom in the pages of Spider-Man 2099.

Jake fought against the unique crimes of the dystopian 2099 future. He kills rogue organ-thieves, those who track down and steal organs from unwilling victims. He tries to protect those who cannot afford their police subscriptions and thus are ignored. Conversely, he also goes after those who use their money to get away with crimes. Jake also deals with a technologically minded partner named Matt Axel, and struggles with the uncaring attitudes of his bosses and colleagues towards the poor and the attentions of a police psychiatrist who believes Jake is up to something. Jake battled such foes as the Street Surgeons, Saucers (who he executed after the death of one of his victims), the Cyber-Nostra, and Multi-Fractor. Over the course of the series, he would deal with a recurring villain who causes grotesque physical transformations with his hand, named the Fearmaster.

For a time, Jake establishes a prison underneath his house (regular prisons have been abolished and instead years are subtracted from people's lives by injection). Occasionally, he would sentence one to death in a molecular destabilizer if he felt their crimes truly horrific. Jake himself ponders the merits of such a facility. After a carefully planned breakout, most of the prisoners died. The prison was rarely seen again.

Jake encounters several "versions" of classic heroes where he arrives to protect a poor neighborhood from a Cyber Nostra land grab. The people, celebrating the old heroes by dressing up like them, reject Jake's violent ways, even when the Nostra kill the "Barrio Man", their leader. When all the Nostra are dead, the new Barrio Man, who seems to be someone else with an identical costume, approaches Jake. He expresses gratitude for Jake's help, but asks that he leave.

Along with other current era heroes, such as Bloodhawk, Spider-Man, and Ravage, the new Punisher would help to bring down the false Norse Gods. He struck the final blows against Thor, his patron deity.

Unlike his predecessor, Jake is completely unwilling to kill corrupt police officers, no matter how heinous their crimes. In one instance, he refuses after several officers try and kill him with a cyborg gladiator. After Jake manages to kill the gladiator, the officers attempt to kill Jake themselves. He hides, refusing to fire, but his suit is over-ridden by his partner Matt, who kills the cops (Matt himself is a policeman, and, as a more sensible, charitable man, usually acts as Jake's conscience). Matt would be involved with several more incidents with the Punisher, sometimes teaming up with others to help him.

Jake later confronts illegal hoverboard racers. These races would result in many deaths, as the riders were not averse to tricking each other into fatal obstacles. Oddly, racers would willingly catch any opponents who fell off their board.

Ultimately, Jake would become the premiere law enforcer under the Doom administration, as the Minister of Punishment, head of the Ministry of Punishment, Federal Law Enforcement for the United States. He creates a new police force with wide-ranging powers. Curfews are enforced. The age of legal responsibility is lowered to seven. Matt Axel joins up with the Punisher again, working out of his mobile base. He literally quits on the spot after believing Jake has gone too far in employing thought-crime devices. In detecting homicidal tendencies in one man, the devices scan the neighbors next door who are simply enjoying spousal activities. It is not confirmed what the activities are, but the Punisher clearly indicates he disapproves of them, that they are not illegal... yet. The homicidal man is confronted and subdued after attacking a S.H.I.E.L.D. officer. The Punisher forces one of his officers to kill the man.

During this time, he confronts an alternate reality version of himself that is much more brutal. Jake Gallows is killed by the Wave Spiders of Herod, after Herod gives an order to kill superheroes as part of his overthrowing of Doom's presidency.

During the "Spider-Verse" storyline, Jake is in fact alive, after he was contacted by Spider-Man when he and Lady Spider traveled back to 2099 A.D. in order to dissect the clone body of the Inheritor Daemos for clues on how to defeat his brethren. At the same time, they had captured the new Daemos and locked him up in a stasis. But this wasn't able to hold him like Miguel originally thought, Daemos used the field to his advantage, he killed himself so another clone could be transported back there with his essence uploaded into it to finish off the two spiders. But as Daemos made his way to Alchemax, he was blasted off the flying vehicle by the Punisher. Jake confronted Daemos with his advanced weapons dealing a good amount of damage to the Inheritor, going as far as beating him repeatedly in the face with a titanium baseball bat and using a plasma gas cannon to burn the ground causing Daemos to fall through. Jake's distraction gave Spider-Man and Lady Spider ample time to transport back to the spider safe zone.

During the third Contest of Champions, Jake is revealed to be the mysterious summoner for the Grandmaster's team. During the final battle, Gallows is killed by an alternate reality version of the original Punisher who states that he never authorized Gallows to wear his symbol.

Skills and abilities
The Punisher 2099 is an athletic man with no superpowers. As a Public Eye Officer, Jake Gallows had received police training in all forms of combat, as well as proficiency in marksmanship and driving.

Equipment
He is also a weapon specialist, collecting most of the best weaponry in his timeline, including smart-targeting grenazers, a plasma gas cannon, and flame sticks. Additionally, he carries some notable firearms from the past, such as a Smith & Wesson .54-caliber Magnum handgun (2015 vintage) and Stark-Fujikawa .48-caliber Street Pacifier. His key weapon is the "power bat" which can vary in density sets from hard rubber to titanium, either injure or kill an opponent. Gallows kept this setting at "soft rubber" as default, a precaution which saves his life on at least one point.

Gallows wears a suit of cybernetic armor built from "heat sink" materials and equipped with multiple technological devices ("face-scrambler" circuitry to avoid detection by many security cameras on the city streets, bio-synergetic capacities for programming with different fighting techniques or styles, turbo kickboots, microwave sensors, and a computer trajectory mapping system). This armor covers his own exo-muscular undersuit that amplifies strength, durability, agility, and reflexes to superhuman levels.

He uses a super-sonic motorcycle for transportation, the H.D. Stealth Stinger 5. This unique motorcycle could run at 800 mi/h speeds and also equipped with an air screen, city traffic system override capability, sound bafflers, inertia brakes, various weaponry, projectile holo-beams, and a wrap-around camouflage system enabling functional invisibility. He also uses the Black Ambulance, capable of preventing prisoner escapes via security support systems.

Secret base
Gallows keeps a secret base in the basement of his home. It contains a complex prison for temporarily detain or interrogate prisoners. When done with the interrogation, he executes them via an electric chair-like molecular disintegrator.

Marvel Knights 2099
In 2004, a different version of "Punisher 2099" was published under the Marvel Knights imprint. In this alternate continuity (Earth-2992), in the early 21st century, the Mutant Registration Act was reinstated and a process to eliminate mutant abilities had been discovered. The X-Men, Avengers, Fantastic Four and most of the well-known superheroes rebelled against the United States Government, and in a final battle at the Baxter Building, the superhumans were defeated. By 2099, superhumans are banned and the United States is a dystopian police state patrolled by Sentinels. Cossandra Natchios (born Cossandra Castle in 2038) is the daughter of Frank Castle and Elektra Natchios, who became the Punisher upon the death of her father. When Cossandra finds out she has incurable cancer, she trains her teenage son Franklin, to succeed her as the Punisher. However, Franklin is a pacifist and refuses to become the next Punisher. Upon Cossandra's death, the Punisher legacy dies with her.

Timestorm 2009-2099
In the 'Timestorm' version of the 2099 universe, Gallows is a loyal officer of the de facto head of America, Alchemax CEO Tyler Stone. Gallows becomes unhinged when his wife and child are killed by what he believes are masked heroes. He does not understand they were his fellow police officers in disguise. Tyler Stone uses this, and Gallows' reference for the Gods of Asgard, to send Gallows to the past to neutralize superheroes and manipulate time for the benefit of Alchemax. However Gallows rebels when hearing Stone speak ill of Thor. In a rage he attacks the man and both kill each other in the battle.

Deathlok-dominated future
In the pages of Savage Avengers, there is an unidentified version of Earth where it's 2099 is dominated by Deathloks. Upon arriving here from the Hyborian Age, the Savage Avengers have an encounter with Jake Gallows who is part of a resistance against the Deathloks led by Prime Deathlok (a variation of Ultron). He chases after them due them being accompanied by the Deathlok version of Miles Morales. When the Savage Avengers meet this 2099's version of Lyla, they learn about Jake's history as Agent Anti-Venom states that this Punisher is much crazier than the one they know. When the Deathloks attack the Savage Avengers and the Deathlok version of Miles outside the ruins of Avengers Mansion, Jake Gallows shows up and aids them while noting that the Deathlok with them is not on Deathlok Prime's side. They managed to slay the attacking Deathloks.

title: Punisher 2099


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Talk:Metro Center station

Untitled
To: Schuminweb Why not distinquish the Metrorail system from the Metrobus system a la the Washington Metro article? AnonUser 19:07, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not entirely sure what you're asking me... could you elaborate some more? Schuminweb 03:52, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

Sure. The Washington Metro article states that the overall system includes Metrorail and Metrobus, and that the term Metro usually (but not always) refers to Metrorail. I suggest that we add equivalent language to the Metro Center article to avoid confusion. What do you think? AnonUser 22:23, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Go for it, and be bold. I'll be interested to see what you come up with. Schuminweb 05:03, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Not bad. I've also got some plans to further unify the whole Metro project (including making an overarching Wikiproject), but I'm not there yet. Schuminweb 11:37, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

Great. I look forward to seeing it. 70.109.52.109 15:54, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Me too. AnonUser 15:58, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Silver line
Should some mention of future connection to the Silver line be made in the article? It's mentioned in the infobox, but possibly as a parenthetical alongside Red Orange and Blue? Burndownthedisco talk 15:23, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't see why. No changes are required to be made to Metro Center when the Silver Line eventually comes, and there's no big change in the station's function. Just another color on the lower level is all. The infobox link is probably sufficient for right now. SchuminWeb (Talk) 19:31, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 15:53, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Shady Grove (WMATA station) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 18:45, 23 December 2014 (UTC)

Requested move 24 July 2015

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: No consensus. There are several proposed options that received different levels of support, but it seems clear that this discussion won't result in a consensus. It sounds like there's some tweaking to do at WP:USSTATION: there's a disconnect between the guidelines as written and the community consensus, and between local consensus and the community-wide consensus on article titles. It's likely that solving the problem will require a more comprehensive discussion than this individual page move. Cúchullain t/ c 14:31, 6 August 2015 (UTC)

Metro Center station → Metro Center Station – This discussion covers all the stations of List of Washington Metro stations or Category:Washington Metro. There are currently two types of the word "station", the lowercase titles Greenbelt station and the uppercase titles Potomac Ave Station. What a mess. All the stations of Washington Metro should be moved in one form under the one naming convention. I support this move per evidence File:Metro Center pylon.jpg and commons:Category:Washington Metro station entrance pylons. Refer to Talk:Greenbelt Station, Move review/Log/2014 December, Talk:Greenbelt Station, Move review/Log/2015 April and Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Washington Metro. Sawol (talk) 07:52, 24 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Support per nom, but consistency is more important to me. The current inconsistently is entirely a product of mangled process and does not reflect reality. --BDD (talk) 17:04, 27 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose – this has already been discussed! (see: Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (US stations), etc. at WT:USSTATION) The pylons are not enough of a "reliable source" to be worth anything. The vast majority of U.S. rapid transit and rail stations should use lowercase "s" for "station". Pretty much the only exception are the various "Union Stations", as per the literature. Ergo, nearly all of the Washington Metro stations should be moved to match Greenbelt station, not the other way around! --IJBall (contribs • talk) 06:41, 28 July 2015 (UTC)

 * Note to closer – I would suggest closing this as "No consensus" for now. It seems clear to me that there still needs to be further discussion as to exactly what WP:USSTATION means, and exactly how it should be implemented in cases like these... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 07:16, 2 August 2015 (UTC)

Alternate name proposal

 * Alternate this should be called Metro Center (Washington Metro) because there are several other stations named Metro Center, per MetroCentre (disambiguatoon); this title and the proposed title should redirect to the disambiguation page. -- 67.70.32.190 (talk) 07:05, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Support alternate move - Metro Center (Washington Metro) would be the logical article title. Lamberhurst (talk) 07:49, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Support alternate move - Metro Center (Washington Metro) - Bethayres (talk) 08:55, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Support alternate move to Metro Center (Washington Metro) for disambiguation purposes. --torri2(talk/contribs) 09:36, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Support alternate move - Metro Center (Washington Metro) - the word "Station" is only used for "Union Station" in the list of stations on the authority's website. -- Trödel 14:06, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 *  Support  – in a perfect world, this scheme would be the solution to the naming of all U.S. rapid transit and light rail station articles, but alas an over-attention to following WP:AT to the letter has led us to the current situation. In any case, this alternate proposal is vastly preferable to the current proposal... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 17:00, 29 July 2015 (UTC) Ok, after checking this, I now believe the proper alternate title should be Metro Center station (Washington Metro) – therefore, oppose the current alternate proposal, but support move to Metro Center station (Washington Metro). --IJBall (contribs • talk) 20:29, 29 July 2015 (UTC)

So where does this leave WP:USSTATION? Failed experiment? --BDD (talk) 14:09, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * It doesn't impact WP:USSTATION!! The consensus to capitalize "Station" is not the issue here. The issue here is simply about giving this article a clear name that avoids the need for a disambiguation page.  The name "Metro Center Station" could be anywhere in the world ... this rename is just to make it clear that this is the one in Washington.  The preferred use of "Station" over "station" still applies to other US railroad stations.  The experiment has not "failed" - Bethayres (talk) 16:26, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Uh, NO it doesn't! You have completely mis-characterized the "consensus", which was in fact for lowercase "station" for station names. (See the Summary!) --IJBall (contribs • talk) 17:04, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Don't be dense ... WP:USSTATION clearly states that "... where the word "Station" is part of the proper name, it should be capitalized, which is the case here. Regardless of that, the pertinent point is that the renaming is to avoid a disambig page. Please stay focused on the key issue. Bethayres (talk) 17:20, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * "Metro Center [S/s]tation" is a "proper name"? According to who? You?... Perhaps you'll understand when I take this claim with a grain of salt (or two)... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 17:42, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Metro_Center_(WMATA_station).JPG - Just read the sign! - Bethayres (talk) 18:02, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Thanks for proving that your didn't read the summary of the close of the WP:USSTATION RfC, as I suspected – one of the closing comments there was specifically that the pylons shouldn't be used as "weight" to assign naming, and that preferential weighting should instead be given to the operator's website and other sources... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 18:44, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * I'm not talking about capitalization—I'm talking about all of the editors here advocating for the pre-USSTATION parenthetical disambiguation. "Metro Center station" and "Metro Center Station" are both USSTATION-compliant, even if we disagree on which one it is. "Metro Center (Washington Metro)" is not, for the most part, since it omits "[S/s]tation". The relevant part of USSTATION this would roll back—and it's quite a core one—is "Generally, U.S. station articles should be titled by their common name, followed by 'station' if not already part of the name."
 * If any of these editors want to scrap USSTATION, or at least ignore it here, then that's there prerogative. I just wanted to emphasize that Metro Center (Washington Metro) does that, however. --BDD (talk) 19:03, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * just to clarify, is your position that it should correctly be moved to Metro Center station (Washington Metro)? If so, I could live with that. But as "Metro Center station" is not a unique name, the "extra disambiguation" (i.e. the parenthetical) seems necessary here. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 19:06, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * I suppose it does need further disambiguation. I wish USSTATION prescribed a hierarchy of parenthetical disambiguation options instead of just laying them out. (Washington, D.C.) would probably be my first choice, simply because I like the idea of disambiguating with higher jurisdiction when that's unambiguous. But (Washington Metro) would be fine too. I still prefer uppercase Station, but I can recognize that I'm in the minority there. --BDD (talk) 19:10, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Heh. Well, I just started a topic on something along those lines at WT:USSTATION. So please feel free to post any thoughts about this over there! --IJBall (contribs • talk) 19:17, 29 July 2015 (UTC)

Alternate name #2 proposal and further discussion

 * Alternate #2 to Metro Center (WMATA station). The "Washington Metro" suffix is for the lines, rather than the stations. -User:DanTD (talk) 16:00, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Looking at Category:WikiProject Washington Metro articles, there appear to be more articles that use the suffix "(Washington Metro)" than there are "(WMATA station)". I did see one or two "(Washington Metrorail)".Bethayres (talk) 16:30, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * That's because some other editors decided to eliminate the "WMATA station" suffixes from the station names last December, a move that should never have taken place. -User:DanTD (talk) 21:17, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Just to be clear then, DanTD, you oppose the WP:USSTATION guideline? The WMATA moves were an early attempt to implement it, not some rogue action. --BDD (talk) 13:15, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * No, I was under the impression that the WP:USSTATION guideline encouraged this naming convention especially for rapid transit systems. It was only in recent months that it seemed to be used to eliminate system-specific standards. -User:DanTD (talk) 13:27, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * FWIW, I totally agree with you that for rapid transit and light rail systems, I would absolutely prefer the "named system" parenthetical disambiguation for U.S. station articles (note: in Washington's case, that would seem to need to be "(Washington Metro)" over "(WMATA station)"...). But implementing that would definitely seem to require a "local consensus" at WP:USSTATION that is basically contrary to WP:AT. While I'd certainly be in favor of that, I can certainly understand why most are reticent to take that step and put WP:USSTATION in at least "partial opposition" to WP:AT... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 14:50, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * USSTATION was proposed for a while, but as far as I can tell, the full Naming conventions (US stations) only dates back to last June and, from its earliest form, recommended "Foo station" rather than "Foo (System)". Certainly the latter was the practice prior to USSTATION, but I don't think it was ever codified. I could be wrong. --BDD (talk) 15:04, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * I don't think it was either. I think it was just long-standing practice to use the parentheticals in the stations names (correctly, it should have been, as you say "Foo station (System)", but often, it was the completely awkward "Foo (System station)", like Alternate #2 proposal is, which is just all kinds of wrong...). OTOH, I'm really not sure a full-on RfC about getting rid of the parentheticals in the station name was ever held either, or if it was I don't think it was widely publicized (I certainly never heard about one...). So I'm wondering if it's worth it to try and hold an RfC to see if there's "local consensus" to stick with the use of the parenthetical "system" designation for stations, or not – based on what happened with Dicklyon's RfCs, I'm guessing there's not actually consensus to keep the parentheticals in opposition to WP:AT like that. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 15:24, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I think the core of the problem is that in many stations, such as the Washington Metro, the shortest form is really the common name: Metro Center, NoMa–Gallaudet, etc. I think those would really be the best titles in many cases. NoMa–Gallaudet U is unambiguous. There's the argument that it's opaque, but WP:RECOGNIZABILITY means a title needs to be recognizable to "someone familiar with, although not necessarily an expert in, the subject area". I wonder if there would be consensus for that, resorting to old-style disambiguation when necessary. The descriptive "station" is a good way to avoid unnecessary parenthetical disambiguation, but it really doesn't have too much else to recommend it. --BDD (talk) 15:34, 30 July 2015 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Bold 'station' in lede (not title)
I'm sure someone can fling chapter and verse at me about how bolded 'station' in the lede is Officially Correct, but as a Metro rider it really feels wrong to talk about "Metro Center station" -- much worse than facial equivalents like "Glenmont station” or "Rosslyn station". Maybe the problem is there’s no Metro Center neighborhood, so it's not "the station in Metro Center -> Metro Center station"; maybe the problem is that the first sentence repeats the word "station" so quickly.  Either way I'd like to introduce the station as just "Metro Center" without running into Official Policy objections. PixelatedVolume (talk) 01:46, 2 July 2021 (UTC)

Where do you think the panorama should go?
Do you think that: A: the panorama should go at the top of the article; B: the panorama should go at the bottom, without a section; C: or with a separate section? G13178m (talk) 01:16, 22 January 2023 (UTC)

 * There's no compelling reason for a panorama in the article - it takes up a lot of space and doesn't add much value. The existing Commons link is sufficient. Pi.1415926535 (talk) 01:34, 22 January 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Metro Center station


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Guy Endore

Samuel Guy Endore (July 4, 1901 – February 12, 1970), born Samuel Goldstein and also known as Harry Relis, was an American novelist and screenwriter. During his career he produced a wide array of novels, screenplays, and pamphlets, both published and unpublished. A cult favorite of fans of horror, he is best known for his novel The Werewolf of Paris (1933), which occupies a significant position in werewolf literature, much in the same way that Dracula (1897) does for vampire literature. Endore is also known for his left-wing novel of the Haitian Revolution, Babouk: The Story of A Slave. He was nominated for a screenwriting Oscar for The Story of G.I. Joe (1945), and his novel ''Methinks the Lady. . . (1946) was the basis for Ben Hecht's screenplay for Whirlpool'' (1949).

Early life and education
Endore was born Samuel Goldstein in Brooklyn, New York, to Isidor and Malka Halpern Goldstein. His father was a coal miner, inventor, and investor from Pittsburgh who often had difficulty making ends meet. His mother died by suicide when he was four, possibly due to the family's unstable and often insufficient livelihood. Isidor changed their name in an attempt to move beyond the events of the past, and he placed the children in a Methodist orphanage. During this time, Isidor sold an invention and dreamt that his dead wife willed the children to have a European education, so he sent them to Vienna with the newfound windfall. The children lived in Vienna for five years under the care of a Catholic governess, but when Isidor disappeared and their funds ran short, they returned to Pittsburgh and lived together.

While there Endore attended the Carnegie Technical Institute but would earn his B.A. (1923) and M.A. (1925), both in European languages, at Columbia University. According to his own account, he scraped together the money to attend, even renting out his bed to a wealthier student while he slept on the floor. He unsuccessfully pursued a PhD

Writer
Endore's first novel was The Man From Limbo (1930), about an impoverished college graduate obsessed with acquiring wealth; it was influenced by Robert Louis Stevenson.

His most famous work was The Werewolf of Paris (1933), a violent horror story set during the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune and inspired by the work of Hanns Heinz Ewers, whom Endore had translated. The Werewolf of Paris is described by Stableford as "entitled to be considered the werewolf novel". Endore also wrote what Stableford describes "a few notable horror stories", including "The Day of the Dragon" (1934), in which a scientific experiment returns dragons to the contemporary world and "Lazarus Returns"(1935), about a man who becomes possessed by the dybbuk of his uncle. Another important Endore tale was "Men of Iron" (1940).

After his work as a screenwriter, Endore published several other Freudian-tinged mysteries (Methinks the Lady..., Detour at Night) and also returned to his love of French history for biographical novels on Voltaire (Voltaire! Voltaire! [1961]), the Marquis de Sade (Satan's Saint [1965]) and Rousseau. His only other popular literary success came with King of Paris: A Novel (1956), based on the life of Alexandre Dumas. It became a best-seller and was a Book-of-the-Month Club choice.

Hollywood
After graduating, Guy married Henrietta Portugal and in the 1930s they moved to Hollywood. Despite his eventual blacklisting, Endore had a fairly successful career in Hollywood, working on scripts or story ideas for big name pictures of the time. He made his name in the supernatural arena, with such movies as Mark of the Vampire and The Curse of the Werewolf (based on his novel The Werewolf of Paris). Although many of his films were at the time derided by critics, they have acquired a cult following in recent years.

Throughout his career Endore showed himself to be fascinated with hypnotism and the inability of characters to control their own actions, centering his stories on supernatural maladies such as lycanthropy and hypnosis. Mad Love, Peter Lorre’s American debut, an adaptation of Maurice Renard's novel Les Mains d'Orlac, involves a man who, after an accident, is fitted with the hands of a murderer which try to continue in their gruesome career. His novel Methinks The Lady..., which was made into a movie with Gene Tierney, centered around a woman affected by a quack hypnotist. Even his Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers comedy, Carefree, still includes Rogers being put under hypnosis.

Endore began his movie writing career in 1935, when he wrote the story for Rumba, a star vehicle for George Raft and Carole Lombard, which was given a scathing review in The New York Times. He worked on the screenplay for Mark of the Vampire starring Bela Lugosi. He also wrote the 19-page treatment that eventually became The Raven, for which he was not credited. A number of other horror films followed, interspersed with more mainstream films, including the Oscar-nominated (The Story of G.I. Joe), a John Wayne movie (Lady from Louisiana), and Carefree. His Hollywood career ended in 1969 with a made-for-TV movie entitled Fear No Evil, for which he wrote the story. It was the first US television "Movie of the Week" and a success in the ratings, spawning a sequel a year later.

Leftism
While he attended Columbia, he was drawn to the political left by Whittaker Chambers, who was a fellow student at the time, and by the harsh Great Depression world in which he lived. He would openly describe himself as opposed to capitalist class society and to imperialism, with all its racist foundations. While he lived in Hollywood, Endore was interviewed several times and wrote articles for multiple leftist publications, including Black and White, The New York Clipper and New Masses.

Endore was a member of the Communist Party in Hollywood and was investigated by the House Un-American Activities Committee during its search for Communist infiltration of the film industry. He was, however, never called before a "witch-hunting committee" and did not spend any time in jail. Because of his Communist associations, some studios blacklisted him and he had to sell his screenplays under the pseudonym Harry Relis. (Relis was actually the husband of Endore's wife's eldest sister.) However, he remained defiant, claiming that he was a failure as a human being if he was not subversive to everything that the HUAC stood for. After the release of Khrushchev's Secret Speech (1956), Endore abandoned the fight against the blacklist only a few years before the reinstatement of many leftist sympathizers in the film industry, which has cast him into obscurity among the more prominent pro-Communist writers.

Endore studied and was greatly inspired by Marx. As Joseph Ramsey summarizes, he "called for 'a new school of Marxian historical fiction,' to be based in 'a study of original sources' so as 'to furnish reliable and powerful revolutionary weapons.'" Endore struggled, however, to produce significant works of leftist fiction and he often felt resigned to composing what he believed would sell, especially after the public failure of Babouk, with its more explicitly sympathetic depiction of the Haitian Revolution. He retained his profound interest in historical subjects throughout his career.

He had strong related interests, intellectual and moral, in mysticism, yoga, vegetarianism, theosophy and anti-vivisectionism. In the "About the Author" section that concludes the 1941 Pocket Books edition of The Werewolf of Paris he describes himself as "to a large extent a vegetarian, a teetotaler, a non-smoker. In giving up, with occasional exceptions, the use of meat, liquor, and tobacco, I feel that I have added to the happiness I derive from living." He concludes, "In politics I tend toward communism and the establishment of the classless society."

Activism
Although more famous for his fiction, Endore was a committed activist, attempting to protect with words those who were mistreated by the American culture and legal system and using literature to illuminate what he considered to be historical oversights. A fierce critic, like his friend Lillian Smith, of segregation and Jim Crow, Endore wrote pamphlets for many anti-racist causes, including "The Crime at Scottsboro" about the Scottsboro Boys and their subsequent trial.

In 1942 Endore involved himself deeply in the defense of those arrested in the "Sleepy Lagoon" case (also known as the "Chicano Scottsboro"), when seventeen Mexican teenagers were incarcerated for a murder. Although there was scant evidence, a complete lack of eyewitnesses and no murder weapon to be found, they were put away in a wave of hysteria spread through the newspapers of LA. Endore became involved when he looked into the case and was startled by the lack of evidence. He proceeded to write a pamphlet entitled The Sleepy Lagoon Mystery which went over in detail the mistakes and oversights involved in the case. Giving a speech on the Al Jarvis radio show, Endore referred to Sleepy Lagoon as "the name of a disgrace which should be on the conscience of every decent American – and especially every decent person who lives in Los Angeles – because we allowed it to happen here." To bring his readers over to his way of thinking Endore used scare tactics, threatening his readers that, should they allow this to happen, they could, in essence, be next. For the next year he corresponded often with the defense, gave interviews and spoke on radio shows in an attempt to help the teens. In the end his attempts were a success and, with the information exposed in his pamphlet and a change in common opinion, the verdict was reversed.

Endore supported non-governmental drug rehab programs and became a devoted proponent of the Synanon Foundation, a controversial southern California commune dedicated to reforming and rehabilitating drug addicts and alcoholics (later, as the Church of Synanon, it started its own utopian social movement). He composed pamphlets and a published history of the commune, Synanon. He also taught fiction writing at the Los Angeles People's Education Center, a CPUSA offshoot of the New York Workers School.

Works
An except from Endore's The Crime at Scottsboro (1938) on the Scottsboro Boys case now appears on the Digital Public Library of America.

Books:

 * Casanova: His Known and Unknown Life (New York: John Day, 1929, biography)
 * The Man from Limbo (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1930)
 * The Werewolf of Paris (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1933) (New York: Pocket Books, 1941)
 * The Sword of God: Joan of Arc (Garden City Publishing Co.: New York, 1933 biography)
 * Babouk, (New York: Vanguard Press, 1934) (Monthly Review: New York, 1991) foreword by Jamaica Kincaid, afterword by David Barry Gaspar and Michel-Rolph Trouillot
 * The Crime at Scottsboro (Hollywood Scottsboro Committee, 1938)
 * The Sleepy Lagoon Mystery (Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, 1944)
 * Methinks the Lady... (New York: Duell, 1946) aka Nightmare (New York:  Dell, 1956)
 * King of Paris : A Novel (Book-of-the-Month Club selection) (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956)
 * Detour at Night (Simon & Schuster, 1958)
 * Detour Through Devon (London: Gollancz, 1959)
 * Voltaire! Voltaire! : A Novel (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961)
 * The Heart and the Mind (W. H. Allen, 1962)
 * Satan's Saint: A Novel About the Marquis De Sade (New York: Crown, 1965)
 * Call Me Shakespeare: A Play in Two Acts (Dramatists Play Service, 1966)
 * Synanon (New York: Doubleday, 1968)
 * The Sleepy Lagoon Mystery (R & E Research Associates, 1972)

Translations:

 * Alraune by Hanns Heinz Ewers (John Day: New York, 1929)
 * An Iceland Fisherman by Julien Viand (P. A. Norstedt, 1931)
 * Alraune by Hanns H. Ewers, edited by R. Reginald and Douglas Menville (Arno, 1976)

External sources

 * "Endore, Samuel (Guy)." Dictionary of Literary Biography.
 * Martin, Carl Grey. "Guy Endore's Dialectical Werewolf."  Le Monde Diplomatique.  September 15, 2014
 * Ramsey, Joseph. "Guy Endore and the Ironies of Political Repression." Minnesota Review 70. Spring/Summer 2008: 141–51
 * Wald, Alan. "The Subaltern Speaks." Monthly Review April 1992: 17–29
 * The Guy Endore Papers 1925–1970
 * A talk given by Guy Endore to a group of librarians
 * "Guy Endore's Dialectical Werewolf" by Carl Grey Martin
 * "Guy Endore and the Ironies of Political Repression" by Joseph G. Ramsey
 * A talk given by Guy Endore to a group of librarians
 * "Guy Endore's Dialectical Werewolf" by Carl Grey Martin
 * "Guy Endore and the Ironies of Political Repression" by Joseph G. Ramsey

title: Guy Endore


text:
Toplica

Toplica may refer to:

People

 * Milan Toplica (died 1389), Serbian knight
 * Toplica Spasojević (born 1956), Serbian football official

Places

 * Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Toplica (Kiseljak), a village in Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Toplica (Srebrenica), a village in Bosnia and Herzegovina

 * North Macedonia
 * Toplica, Prilep, a village in North Macedonia
 * Toplica, Vrapčište, a settlement in Vrapčište Municipality, North Macedonia

 * Romania
 * Toplica, the Hungarian name for Topliţa Mureşului village, Certeju de Sus Commune, Hunedoara County, Romania

 * Serbia
 * Toplica (river), a river in Central Serbia
 * Toplica (region), a region in Serbia around the Toplica River
 * Toplica District

title: Toplica


text:
Rothschild Island

Rothschild Island is a black rugged island 39 km long, mainly ice-covered but surmounted by prominent peaks of Desko Mountains in Antarctica, 8 km west of the north part of Alexander Island in the north entrance to Wilkins Sound.

Geography and wildlife
Lazarev Bay separates Rothschild Island from Alexander Island. There is a mountain range on Rothschild Island, the Desko Mountains, which spans 20 mi from Bates Peak to Overton Peak and rises to about 1,000 m at Enigma Peak, Fournier Ridge. It also contains Goward Peak, Mirnyy Peak, Morrill Peak, Schenck Peak and Thuma Peak.

There are three small outcrops of volcanic rock on the island, with an exposed thickness of around a hundred meters.

An emperor penguin colony is located in a bay between Alexander Island and Rothschild Island, averaging around 700 breeding pairs, a small amount. There are four other emperor penguin colonies in the central and eastern portion of the Bellingshausen Sea; all five were discovered via satellite imagery in the 14 years prior to 2023. As of 2023, the Rothschild Island colony was the only one to have been visited by scientists, in 2015–2016. It was also the only colony of the five not to have suffered total breeding failure in 2022 as a result of ice loss. On 20 November 2022, helicopters from the ship Le Commandant Charcot counted 820 chicks and 228 adults at this location.

History
The island was first sighted in 1825 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, who described three peaks. It was also seen by the French Antarctic Expedition (1908–1910), and named Rothschild Island ("Île E. de Rothschild") by Jean-Baptiste Charcot, in honour of Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild (1868–1949), head of the Rothschild banking family of France and president of de Rothschild Frères.

In the subsequent explorations of the area by the British Graham Land Expedition (c. 1934–1937), the feature was believed to be a mountain connected to Alexander Island. Geologically this might be true—but it has not been proven by any means due to a lack of anything like a complete geological survey of the region.

However, Rothschild Island's insularity was reaffirmed in November 1940 by the United States Antarctic Service Expedition, which photographed and roughly mapped the island from the air, and discovered a strait.

Rothschild Island was mapped in detail from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1946–1948) and by Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960, and from US governmental satellite imagery taken in 1974.

In January 1976, a British Antarctic Survey team became the first to visit Rothschild Island. During five weeks in 1976–1977, B. W. Care, together with a general assistant, mapped the geology of the island. In 1985, researcher Malcolm Hole became the second to the visit the island; a part of it, Hole peninsula, was named in his honour in 2021.

Threats and preservation
Although this very remote part of the world has never been inhabited and is protected by the Antarctic Treaty System, which bans industrial development, waste disposal, and nuclear testing, these fragile ecosystems still face threats from increasing tourism, primarily on cruises across the Southern Ocean from the port of Ushuaia, Argentina.

title: Rothschild Island


text:
Pembroke Dock Harlequins RFC

Pembroke Dock Harlequins Rugby Football Club is a Welsh rugby union team based in Pembroke Dock. The club is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU) and is a feeder club for the Llanelli Scarlets. They are known locally as simply the 'Quins'. The team was founded in 1880, a year before the creation of the WRU and the formation of the Wales national team.

The club joined the Welsh Rugby Union in 1896, making the club one of the earliest teams from the region to gain membership. The clubs records from 1923 to 1999 are presently held by the historical society, Archive Wales.

Homeground
Pembroke Dock play all their home games at the Bierspool Ground located on London Road where they have been located since 1956. There is a stand with seating on the east side of the pitch built onto the side of the clubhouse, changing rooms and function hall. There is also a training pitch located behind the changing rooms. Prior to this they played their home games at the Barrack Hill ground.

Pembroke Dock traditionally play in Black and White colours. The current strip is black and white horizontal bands. The team wear black shorts and black socks. The away strip (and 'seconds' strip) is the same as the home but with red bands in place of the black.

League
Pembroke Dock were promoted from Division Four West at the end of the 2003/04 season after finishing as runners-up in the division. They produced some very good results in the 2004/05 season in order to finish fifth of fourteen in the league and stay in Division 3 West for the 2005/06 season. The 2006/07 season saw the Quins finish ninth, but a poor season in 2007/08 resulted in the club finish eleventh out of twelve teams. The club has managed to remain in Division Four West since, finishing in tenth position in the 2009/10 season.

Notable players
Although no players have won an international cap directly from the club, the Harlequins have produced notable rugby talents that have gone on to represent their country. The most notable was W. J. A. Davies, who was educated at the Naval school in Pembroke Dock, and would eventually go on to captain England. One of the most notable Wales players to play for Pembroke Dock was Ernie Finch. Finch, who was born and educated in the town, played for the Quins in his early years before progressing to first-class team Llanelli. He is best remembered for scoring a try for Llanelli against the 'Invincible' 1924 touring New Zealand team.

Pembroke Dock Harlequins now operate a Senior XV and Development XV and competition is encouraged. Both teams train together on a Tuesday & Thursday at 7 o'clock.

Current Senior Squad 2013/2014

Props

Chad Monk Dai Moseley Brendan O'Driscoll Jack Davies

Hookers

Carl Williams Jacob Newman

Second Row

Mike Davis Neil Harries Phil Kay

Back Row

Barry Parsons (Captain) Joe Powell Alex Pearce Nathan George Hywel Baker

Scrum Half

Dai Rees

Fly Half

Adam Cawley

Centre

Rhys Marchant Chad Mayer Adrian John

Wing

Ryan Nielson Sam Richards Harley watts Chris Harries

Fullback

Paul Jonker luke Barrett

Coaching/management Staff

Head Coach        Jeff Newman

Assistant coach   Phil Hughes

Management committee

Gavin Lloyd, Tony Manning, Keith Harris

title: Pembroke Dock Harlequins RFC


text:
Kårböle stave church

Kårböle stave church (St Olav's sacrifice church) is a reconstructed stave church in Kårböle, Ljusdal municipality, Gävleborg County, Sweden.

The church is from 1989. It's built at a site where pilgrims stopped to perform ritual sacrifice on their long walk to Nidarosdomen in Norway, during pilgrimage in the 12th century.

title: Kårböle stave church


text:
Dyer Plateau

Dyer Plateau (-70.5°N, -65°W) is a broad ice-covered upland of north-central Palmer Land, bounded to the north by Fleming Glacier and Bingham Glacier, and to the south by the Gutenko Mountains. It is buttressed by Goettel Escarpment.

The plateau was first explored on land and photographed from the air by the US Antarctic Service (USAS), 1939–41. It was named after J. Glenn Dyer, a surveyor with the then United States General Land Office, Department of the Interior. He was leader of the USAS surface party which sledged from Fleming Glacier southeast across the plateau to the Welch Mountains, and U.S. observer with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions during the 1956–57 season.

title: Dyer Plateau


text:
Fallières Coast

The Fallières Coast is that portion of the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula between the head of Bourgeois Fjord and Cape Jeremy and lies on Marguerite Bay and the Wordie Ice Shelf. On the south it is joined by Rymill Coast, and in the north by Loubet Coast. Fallières Coast was first explored in January 1909 by the French Antarctic Expedition under J.B. Charcot, who named it for Armand Fallières, then President of France.

title: Fallières Coast


text:
Haitian Workers Party

Haitian Workers Party (in French: Parti des Travailleurs Haïtiens, abbreviated PTA) was a communist party in Haiti. It was founded in 1966.

title: Haitian Workers Party


text:
West Surrey Racing

West Surrey Racing is a UK-based motorsport team run by New Zealander Dick Bennetts. He is responsible for masterminding the careers of such names as Ayrton Senna, Mika Häkkinen, Jonathan Palmer, Rubens Barrichello, Maurício Gugelmin and Eddie Irvine with his involvement in F3 and a racing academy in the 80s and 90s. Founded in 1981, WSR has won more than 70 races in Formula 3 and more than 100 class and outright wins in the BTCC.

Ford
WSR moved to the BTCC in 1996 having been chosen to run the works Ford team, with Andy Rouse having left running the team to attempt to establish his own Nissan team. WSR worked in cooperation with Reynard Motorsport, who built the chassis while WSR ran the race team itself. The 1996 season was one of limited success, with Ford stalwart Paul Radisich partnered by Steve Robertson. The Mondeo had never really lived up to its hype since its inception in 1993, and Radisich ended the season 13th with 27 points, and Robertson 20th, with a paltry 2 points, even finishing lower than Independents Gary Ayles, Owen McAuley, Lee Brookes and Richard Kaye. The peak of this disappointment was possibly achieved at Round 1, when Radisich, who was running well down the order, crashed into teammate Robertson at turn 1, after Robertson had spun the car.

WSR Ford finished seventh in the Team's Championship, just ahead of the factory Peugeots of Tim Harvey and Patrick Watts.

For 1997, Radisich was partnered by departing Renault no. 2 Will Hoy, the 1991 British Touring Car Champion. Initially, an improved facelifted Mondeo was far from competitive. However, as the year continued, Hoy and Radisich were consistently fighting for points, and Radisich ended with 41 points to finish 13th, and Hoy 15th with 27 points in a mildly competitive season.

The team finished seventh in the Manufacturers' Championship, with 113 points.

Still working with Reynard, the 1998 season was much more promising. Paul Radisich left the team at the end of 1997, to join MSD Peugeot. The man who filled the vacant seat was fellow New Zealander Craig Baird, but after poor performances, Baird was occasionally replaced by Nigel Mansell, who at round 12 at a rain soaked Donington, provided one of the best races the Championship had ever witnessed. Having crashed off in race 1, and languishing at the back in race 2, Mansell gained his focus and charged through the field, and thanks to a safety car, was briefly leading. Eventually, Mansell finished fourth having allowed Derek Warwick through at the final corner, but was subsequently demoted to fifth, having passed under waved yellows. For Will Hoy, 1998 was a much improved year. In the still unfancied Mondeo, Hoy managed to finish in the top 10 of the Championship with 69 points, which included a brilliant race win at round 4, which was to be his last before his semi-retirement at the end of the season, and shock death in 2002. This was WSR's first win in Touring Cars, but it was not to be their last. Mansell and Baird finished 18th (7 points) and 20th (6 points) respectively, with WSR rounding off their 3-year stint running the Ford team with their best ever season.

Honda
1999 and 2000 saw WSR running works Honda Accords, taking over from Prodrive, who in turn ran the Ford Team that West Surrey Racing had just run.

The 1999 season saw no changes to the driver line up, with James Thompson and Peter Kox keeping their drives. Thompson made an excellent start to the season, winning the opening race of the season from pole position. This was Kox's second full season in the championship, having made his debut in select races for BMW in 1996, and struggling the previous year. Nonetheless, both drivers had successes during the year; Thompson claiming three further victories at Donington, Croft and Oulton Park, with Kox winning his only victory in the BTCC at Round 16 in the first night race at Snetterton.

Thompson ended fourth in the Driver's Championship with 174 Points and three victories, and Kox finished seventh with 113 Points and one victory. West Surrey Racing finished second in the Manufacturers' Championship [as Honda] with 296 points: Pipping Volvo by one point, but a long way off Nissan which cruised away with 464 points.

In the Year 2000, the last to be run under the Supertouring regulations, many of the previous year's teams dropped out leaving Ford, Honda and Vauxhall as the sole works entries. In order to beef up the grid, each team ran three cars. WSR partnered with JAS Motorsport to run the factory Honda team. James Thompson stayed on for his fourth year driving for Honda, whilst Peter Kox was replaced with contracted JAS drivers Tom Kristensen and Gabriele Tarquini, the 1994 Champion who partnered Thompson at Honda in 1997, and made four guest appearances in 1999. The season was a bit of a lost cause for WSR, with Ford romping away with superstars Alain Menu, Rickard Rydell and Anthony Reid, with Vauxhall the only (if distant) challenger. Tarquini was the strongest Honda driver, claiming victories at round 8 at Knockhill and round 18 at Donington Park and finishing more consistently. Thompson was replaced for rounds 3–4 and 5–6 by Peter Kox and David Leslie respectively, after a shunt at the second race kept him out of action for a few weeks, but this did not stop him from winning round 11 at Silverstone. Kristensen claimed three victories over the course of the season – the feature race at Oulton Park and the final two races of the Supertouring era under the floodlights at Silverstone.

Tarquini finished sixth in the championship on 149 points, Kristensen seventh on 143 points with Thompson equal eighth on 129 points (shared with Matt Neal).

West Surrey Racing ended the Supertouring era second in the Manufacturers' Championship, ahead of Vauxhall with 411 points.

MG
After a brief hiatus WSR returned to the BTCC late in the 2001 season running the works MG team. 2000 runner-up Anthony Reid and Warren Hughes were signed to drive for the British marque, and despite only contesting six races Reid took a victory in the penultimate race of the year (the only non-Vauxhall win of 2001). The 2002 season saw the team continue with Reid and Hughes in addition to running Colin Turkington and Gareth Howell in a 'satellite' independent MG squad backed by the pop group Atomic Kitten. MG finished second in the manufacturers' and teams' championships, and Reid was the top driver, coming fourth overall. In 2003 "Team Atomic Kitten" was dropped, and the MG works team expanded to three cars to accommodate Turkington, although MG slipped to third at the end of the season behind Vauxhall and Honda. The 2004 BTCC season saw the team lose official MG backing but they continued running Reid and Turkington to some success: the drivers finished fourth and sixth respectively overall, Reid took the Independent's title and WSR claimed third in the team's championship. A single car was entered for Rob Collard in 2005, in which he took his first win at Knockhill.

In 2006 WSR ran two MG ZSes in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) having secured title sponsorship from the RAC. Collard remained with the team, and Colin Turkington rejoined after a year driving for Vauxhall. The team switched to bio-ethanol fuel for the final nine races of the 2006 season.

BMW
In 2007 the team ran BMW E90 320si cars with Colin Turkington and 2006 Clio Cup champion Tom Onslow-Cole employed as drivers, using the name Team RAC following a continued sponsorship deal with The RAC.

Onslow-Cole left the team at the end of the 2007 season to join rivals VX Racing.

A possible replacement for Onslow-Cole was Duncan Huisman who raced for WSR alongside Turkington in the 2007 World Touring Car Championship event in Macau as part of Team Aviva. However, in March 2008, Stephen Jelley was announced as Turkington's partner at WSR for the 2008 BTCC Jelley and Turkington continued with the team for 2009. A third car was entered at the final few rounds of the season, driven by the returning Anthony Reid. In the final race of the season, Turkington clinched the Drivers' Championship, the first BTCC Driver's title for the team.

RAC reduced its backing of the team for 2010, and the team failed to find a replacement title sponsor. This meant that Turkington did not have the necessary funding to continue driving for the team and retain his title. Instead, they re-signed Rob Collard from Motorbase Performance and Andy Neate, a director of team sponsors Ceravision, to replace Jelley. However, Turkington signed a deal to compete in the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) from Portimão onwards driving a 320si with sponsorship from eBay Motors. Collard was joined by former Mini Challenge racer Nick Foster for the 2011 season, but neither driver won a race. Collard finished eighth in the Drivers' Championship, taking six podiums during the season, and Foster finished fourteenth with his best result being second at Croft.

For the 2012 season, eBay Motors rejoined the team as title sponsors. The cars were fitted with NGTC spec turbocharged engines and were by driven by Collard and Foster who were also joined by Tom Onslow-Cole, who had driven for the team in 2007. The team enjoyed a competitive season, eventually finishing as runners-up in the Teams' Championship. Collard won the opening race at Brands Hatch, followed by two more wins at Knockhill later in the year, taking him to fifth place in the final drivers' standings.

For 2013, WSR once again retained Collard and Foster in their line-up. The 2009 champion Colin Turkington managed to secure a comeback for the team, replacing Onslow-Cole. The team also replaced the BMW 320i with the BMW 125i M Sport. Turkington fought until the final meeting at Brands Hatch before ultimately finishing in fifth place.

For 2014, WSR retained Turkington, Collard and Foster for the second year in a row. Turkington won the championship with eight wins in thirty races, Collard ended sixth and Foster sixteenth.

Andy Priaulx and Sam Tordoff joined WSR for the 2015 BTCC season. The team secured their first ever 1–2–3 finish at Croft Circuit in Round 13.

Jack Goff joined WSR for the 2016 BTCC season, along with teammates Rob Collard and Sam Tordoff. Goff drove under the Team IHG Rewards Club banner while Collard and Tordoff raced as Team JCT600 with GardX. A successful season brought the Teams' Championship for Team JCT600 with GardX and the Manufacturers'/Constructors' title for WSR while Tordoff was second in the Drivers' points table.

For 2017, WSR became the manufacturer entrant on behalf of BMW. Colin Turkington and Andrew Jordan joined the team to partner Rob Collard. Turkington and Collard combined to help BMW become Manufacturers' Champion and to make Team BMW the Teams' title winner. Turkington was second in the Drivers' Championship and Collard - who had to miss the final five races following a high-speed accident at Silverstone not of his own making - finished fifth. Three wins for Jordan brought him to eighth in the Drivers' table for BMW Pirtek Racing.

For the 2018 Championship the team retained the trio of Turkington, Collard and Jordan for a second year. Turkington would go on to win round 11 at Oulton Park on the way to his third BTCC Drivers Championship win with Jordan and Collard also picking up a win each on their way to 5th and 19th in the championship respectively. Rob Collard was replaced by his son, Ricky Collard, after round 18 at Snetterton Circuit. Ricky Collard would go on to finish in 25th place in the drivers standings and 13th in the Jack Sears trophy standings. The team would win both the constructors and the teams championships for the second season in a row.

For 2019 the team switched to fielding 3 BMW 330i M sports while retaining Turkington and Jordan and adding Tom Oliphant to replace Collard. Turkington would win 5 times on his way to his 2nd Drivers Championship in a row and 4th of his career, while Andrew Jordan would win 6 times on his way to 2nd in the drivers standings, 2 points of Turkington's total of 320. Oliphant would finish 11th in the standings at the end of the year achieving a career high of 3rd in race 1 at Donington Park. The Team finished 1st in the Constructors Championship and Team BMW finished 2nd in the teams championship with BMW Pirtek Racing finishing 6th.

Another championship double followed in 2020 with Teams' and Manufacturers' titles claimed by Turkington and Oliphant in a COVID-affected season. Two more Manufacturers' titles arrived over the next two seasons - the 2022 crown a record-breaking eighth in a row for BMW. The BMW 330i M Sport also became the 330e M Sport during this phase as hybrid power units were adopted by the series.

A1 Grand Prix
WSR were selected by A1 Team New Zealand to run their car for the inaugural 2005–06 A1 Grand Prix season, taking the "Black Beauty" machine to 4th overall. Despite New Zealand contracting SuperNova to run their car for the 2006-07 A1 Grand Prix season WSR remained in A1GP running A1 Team USA and the new Singapore team.

 * T.C. = Teams' Championship position.

Formula 3000
West Surrey Racing competed in International Formula 3000 in 1986, running a single car for Maurício Gugelmin. Although performances improved throughout the year, results were unspectacular and the team returned to Formula 3 for 1987.

title: West Surrey Racing


text: User talk:72.224.10.116

title: User talk:72.224.10.116


text:
Talk:Motorized bicycle

Gearbox For 4 stroked bike engines.
That should be an interesting incorporation into the article. GO HERE TO FIND info on THE TOP GEAR BOX http://www.staton-inc.com/default.asp

BTW how does the gearbox work, and how do you change gears, and operate the gearbox, And what are the advantages/uses of a gearbox. I want to get a 4 stroked bike conversion kit, thus I'm very intrested to know. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.61.26.49 (talk) 17:23, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Should this be removed? Advertising Discussion Kallog (talk) 06:55, 12 July 2008 (UTC)

SORRY TO KEEP POKING IN HERE BUT AGAIN I DO NOT KNOW HOW TO DO WIKI (I APPRECIATE THE INFO ADD IN THE ARTICLE WHOEVER DID THAT). HOW ABOUT SOME INFO ON HOW A READER CAN MAKE A MOTORIZED BIKE. THERE IS A BIT TO MOUNTING ONE OF THE KITS. ALSO THE MOTORED BIKE FORUM SHOULD BE NOT ONLY LINKED BUT EXTENSIVELY QUOTED AND CITED, IT IS THE LARGEST MOTORED BIKE FORUM ON THE INTERNET AND VERY VALUABLE INFO CAN BE FOUND THERE. AS IT IS THIS ARTICLE IS NOT USEFUL TO THE READER (I KNOW BECAUSE I READ IT WHILE TRYING TO GET INFO ON MOTORED BIKES). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.104.207.115 (talk) 07:13, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Powabyke.jpg
Image:Powabyke.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 07:21, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Motor bike
Any special reason why Motor bike redirects to this article, but Motorbike redirects to Motorcycle? I would expect them both to redirect to Motorcycle, and Google also seems to think this is what "Motor bike" means. What do other people think? Vadmium (talk) 22:25, 14 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I've often heard about people that ride a bicycle refer to themself as a biker. The difference between a biker and a cyclist is that the biker will use brute force and try to keep his bicycle in top gear, whereas a cyclist will generally keep his performance in a peak ranger with an average RPM. I believe Bike may refer to cycle and hence refer to bicycle. Whereas motorbike is a term often used for the motorcycle which may have an related etymological link to this article. Let's just say, for me, I couldn't really care at this point since the more you become experienced in a subject the more you question it and wonder what is the true answer. --CyclePat (talk) 20:26, 24 March 2008 (UTC)

I changed it so they both to point to Motorcycle. Vadmium (talk) 11:41, 24 April 2008 (UTC) I DO NOT KNOW HOW TO DO WIKI VERY WELL, BUT THIS ARTICLE IS FULL OF INACCURACIES. ELECTRIC BIKES ARE NOT AS COMMON AS GAS BIKES. YOU REALLY MUST MAKE MENTION OF HAPPY TIME, STATON (CHAIN AND FRICTION DRIVE), GOLDEN EAGLE (BELT DRIVE). POPULAR MOTOR MANUFACTURES INCLUDE ROBIN SUBARU, HONDA, AND TANAKA.

PLEASE RESEARCH THIS INFORMATION HERE: http://www.motoredbikes.com/search.php?searchid=322898 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.104.207.115 (talk) 08:35, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

2-stroke description
I'd say slighty biased and off topic, but mostly accurate; however, is it accurate to say that 2-stroke motors are inefficient ? Granted they do not burn cleanly or completely, but they are efficient in the thermodynamic sense and in power-to-weight (compared to 4-stroke). This is the meaning I think most people would use when discussing motor efficiency.

--Noah (talk) 21:39, 24 July 2008 (UTC)

Can we have seperate pages for electric (or E-bikes)
There appears to be a bias in favor of "e"bikes in this article. The clear solution is to create 2 pages (one for "e"bikes one for internal combustion bikes). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.104.245.126 (talk) 00:19, 15 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It seems to me a bit early to split this article up, maybe once it's matured a bit, and has more information. --Keithonearth (talk) 01:48, 15 October 2008 (UTC)
 * But eventually it probably should be done. Vmenkov (talk) 02:32, 15 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I believe that there was originally a separate page for e-bikes, but that it got combined with this one. Given the global popularity of e-bikes, I think they deserve an entry of their own at this point. Fbagatelleblack (talk) 02:35, 16 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I agree that ebikes deserve a good entry of their own, but don't think that the present content is enough to give them that by simply splitting it now. Build content first, once it's enough quality and quantity then do it.--Keithonearth (talk) 05:45, 16 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Having a separate article will encourage more content creation.149.99.63.218 (talk) 20:58, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * There should be an article for combustion cycles separate from electric cycles. I think between the articles for mopeds, motorized bicycles, and Electric bicycle laws we could easily reapportion them. Executorvs (talk) 23:38, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

Specifications for Motor bicycle
Hello

Can you please provide specification for Motor bicycle —Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.46.233.23 (talk) 08:48, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

The classification of Mofa and Moped is mixed up and the electric bycicle is not onyl distinguished by a motorbike by it´spedal but alos legal requirements according speed and other classifications related with drivers licence.

referrer is the law which is astunningly similar in key points on most countries. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.113.121.24 (talk) 13:35, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

Does title refer to Electric or Internal Combustion???
As of July 23, 2009, this first paragraph is completely contradicting itself regarding whether this article refers to Electric or I.C.E. powered vehicles: "A (electric) motorized bicycle, sometimes referred to as a light electric vehicle (LEV), is a bicycle with an attached motor used to assist with pedaling. Generally considered to be a vehicle, sometimes as a motor vehicle or a class of hybrid vehicle, motorized bicycles are usually powered by electric motors or small internal combustion engines" (Once again, people are coming up with too many names for the same thing... This seems like an issue in all kinds of subjects...) Spettro9 (talk) 15:40, 23 July 2009 (UTC)

electric bike into separate article
Electric bikes are popular. 120 million in China. http://green.autoblog.com/2010/01/19/china-not-feeling-the-love-for-electric-bicycles-any-more/#continued. People are interested in these e-bikes and don't want to filter out irrelevant bikes with engines. What do you think about creating a dedicated article for e-bikes? Thx, Daniel.Cardenas (talk) 03:07, 20 January 2010 (UTC)
 * See the discussion two or three threads up. I think that ebikes should absolutely have their own article at this point.  We would probably need to flesh it out a bit before proceeding.  Fbagatelleblack (talk) 04:43, 20 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Notice: Unless there is further discussion on this issue, I plan to re-create a separate article on electric bicycles and move appropriate content from this article into that one. If you would prefer that I did not do this, please post your concerns here ASAP.  Thanks.  Ebikeguy (talk) 16:35, 5 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I've created a working copy of the Electric bicycle article. I simply cut and pasted the electric bicycle sections of this article into a sandbox on my user page.  Please look at it, edit as you will, and/or let me know what you think in general.  I'll work on cutting out the electric bicycle sections of this article and adding a link to the new electric bicycle article ASAP.  Once we have consensus (or if I don't get any feedback at all), I will make the split official.  Ebikeguy (talk) 00:52, 13 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I've also created a first cut at a working copy for the Motorized bicycle article with most of the electric bicycle references pulled out and links to the main electric bicycle article added. Please take a look and let me know if you have input.  Again, once we have consensus, I will publish this as the main artilce.  Ebikeguy (talk) 21:24, 13 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Looks good, thanks! Daniel.Cardenas (talk) 17:43, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Agree with the split. Vmenkov (talk) 02:15, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

 * The split is complete. See the new article Electric bicycle.  If you have any questions, complaints or ideas, please discuss them here.  Ebikeguy (talk) 23:50, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Bravo! I applaud the success. But, 5 long years (a halft a decade) later... (from the time the article was first created in 2005) Where the heck where you guys all this time? LOL.  Okay seriously though: the article electric bicycle needs some work. One of which includes properly referencing this article and not simply regurgitating a copyright-violation. Yes!  Despite the fact that everything was writen in this article "motorized bicycle", and on Wikipedia, one must still give due respect to the orginal authors, (I believe that's part of GFDL licencing), such as myself and other valiant and persistant contributors. --CyclePat (talk) 03:10, 9 April 2010 (UTC)
 * P.S.: What a discusting mess on referencing this has made. And, the legal definition section... yuck. The canadian term is PAB power assisted bicycle.... that doesn't belong in the "motorized bicycle" section anymore because it is specific to electric bicycle, yet it does belong in the article because it pertains to a confusing definition which is similar to the motorized bicycle. I trust you understand the paradox and the conflict behind this and the level of attention that is require when removing information. Currently, I must express my disatisfaction with the afformentions points I have just highlighted... Referencing and moving key elements of the article.--CyclePat (talk) 03:21, 9 April 2010 (UTC)
 * p.p.s: If electric bicycles are so important and deserve it's own article, why isn't it mentioned in the lead section of this article? --CyclePat (talk) 03:25, 9 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Please, by all means, edit the article to correct the problems you point out. Ebikeguy (talk) 04:45, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

The Title of this page should be MOPED not motorized bike
The common legally accepted term for a motorized bicycle is Moped. The difference between a motorized bicycle and a motorcycle is this: . It's a moped of a certain power level that must be licensed.
 * A Moped has pedals to start the motorized bicycle moving. A moped engine cannot started a from standstill.
 * A Motorcycle does not have pedals, it starts while standing still and moves without any assist from the rider.
 * Another category exists in the USA which is Motor Driven Cycle

The Reitwagen of 1885 is a motorcycle, it does not have pedals and as such cannot be the progenitor of the Moped. It was the first IC engined two wheeler. The Roper machine is typically dated 1868 and BEHIND the 1868 Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede. As an aside, Roper killed himself riding his machine.

Three wheeled motorized vehicles are automobiles if the driver sits on them, and motorcycles if the rider sits astride them.

Various legal authorities have additional criterion as well. The engine in a Moped is NOT the prime mover, it is an assist engine. The engine in a motorcycle is.

The word bike is a diminutive and should not be used. The proper term is bicycle.

 * We've been over this 20 quazilion time. No. Your solution is not a good option. The desire of Wikipedia is to represent the views of proponents in a fair manner. MOPED is discussed fairly. Also, please read the history of what previous editors have talked about regarding this "electric"/"motorized" bicycle article. The spliting of this article and removal of some of the information regarding electric bicycles, leaves to desire. I hope, you're not another person pushing to split out and remove all information on "MOPED" now. What a mockery of fairly representing view if you still think you should remove information on MOPED, which has it's own article. There is an article on Laws of electric bicycles preciselly because of this. --CyclePat (talk) 04:29, 27 June 2010 (UTC)
 * In short, you will never avoid the conflict of reciprocating, or vary close/similar definitions but different words for the same thing (prety much). IT'S OUR JOB to properly and fairly demonstrate this within the article. I've expressed dissent on the split of this article towards electic bicycle precisely because of this frustrating removal or lack thereof attention to maintain the status of these conflicts. --CyclePat (talk) 04:40, 27 June 2010 (UTC)

Canadian Legality info is incorrect
The information on legality in Canada is entirely incorrect. Motor Vehicles are under provincial legislation, not federal. For example, the NS MVA Section 2 c) ii says anything under 50cc and incapable of providing assistance past 30km/h is legally a "bicycle" (see )

A "Moped" is a pedal capable vehicle AT OR OVER 50cc which is regulated like a full motorcycle. 24.224.205.177 (talk) 17:39, 1 June 2013 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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Looks like another article about Mopeds with a different title
Why not merge this with mopeds as that is what they are? Motors plus Pedals. 120.21.19.52 (talk) 20:02, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Motorized bicycle


text:
Samuel Issacharoff

Samuel Issacharoff (born 1954) is an American legal scholar. His scholarly work focuses on constitutional law, voting rights and civil procedure. He is the Bonnie and Richard Reiss Professor of Constitutional Law at New York University School of Law.

Education
Issacharoff earned his Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in 1983, where he also served as an editor for the Yale Law Journal. He completed his B.A. with a major in History at the State University of New York at Binghamton in 1975.

Career
Issacharoff graduated from Binghamton University in 1975 and Yale Law School in 1983. Issacharoff was born in Argentina in Buenos Aires. He is currently the Bonnie and Richard Reiss Professor of Constitutional Law at New York University School of Law. He served as a visiting professor at Harvard Law School for the Fall 2008 semester. Prior to joining NYU Law's faculty, he taught at Columbia Law School and The University of Texas School of Law.

In 2017, Issacharof was interviewed by Suraj Patel for Talks on Law on the topic of gerrymandering.

Professional Service
Issacharoff serves on the Council of the American Law Institute, having previously been the lead Reporter for the ALI’s Principles of the Law of Aggregate Litigation. In addition to his academic work, Issacharoff has argued dozens of cases in the federal courts of appeals, including in the U.S. Supreme Court.

Publications

 * The Supreme Court, 2012 Term — Comment: Beyond the Discrimination Model on Voting, 127 Harv. L. Rev. 95 (2013).
 * The Supreme Court, 2009 Term — Comment: On Political Corruption, 124 Harv. L. Rev. 118 (2010).
 * Fragile Democracies, 120 Harv. L. Rev. 1405 (2007).
 * Party Funding and Campaign Financing in International Perspective with Keith Ewing (eds.) (2006) ISBN 1-84113-570-4
 * Civil Procedure (2005) ISBN 1-58778-034-8 (pbk. : alk. paper).
 * The Law of Democracy: Legal Structure of the Political Process with Pamela S. Karlan, Richard H. Pildes. (1998) ISBN 1-56662-462-2 (alk. paper).
 * The State of Voting Rights Law (1993).
 * When Elections Go Bad: The Law of Democracy and the Presidential Election of 2000 with Pamela S. Karlan, Richard H. Pildes. Rev. ed. (2001) ISBN 1-58778-233-2 (alk. paper)

Books

 * Democracy unmoored: populism and the corruption of popular sovereignty,
 * (Oxford University Press, 2023).
 * Fragile democracies: contested power in the era of constitutional courts, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2015).
 * Civil procedure (Foundation Press, 5th edition, 2022).
 * The law of democracy: legal structure of the political process (with Pamela Karlan, Richard Pildes, Nathaniel Persily and Franita Tolson) (Foundation Press, 6th. edition, 2022).
 * Party funding and campaign financing in international perspective (with K.D. Ewing) (Hart Press, Oxford, 2006).

Personal life
His wife, Cynthia Estlund, is a labor and employment-law professor, also at New York University School of Law.

title: Samuel Issacharoff


text:
Kurchatov Institute

The Kurchatov Institute (Национальный исследовательский центр «Курчатовский Институт», National Research Centre "Kurchatov Institute") is Russia's leading research and development institution in the field of nuclear energy. It is named after Igor Kurchatov and is located at 1 Kurchatov Square, Moscow.

In the Soviet Union it was known as I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy (Институт Атомной Энергии им. И.В. Курчатова), abbreviated KIAE (КИАЭ). Between 1991 and 2010, it was known as the Russian Scientific Centre "Kurchatov Institute" (Роcсийский научный центр «Курчатовский Институт») before its name was changed to National Research Centre "Kurchatov Institute".

History
Until 1955 known under a secret name "Laboratory No. 2 of the USSR Academy of Sciences", the Kurchatov Institute was founded in 1943 with the initial purpose of developing nuclear weapons. The majority of Soviet nuclear reactors were designed in the institute, including the on-site F-1, which was the first nuclear reactor outside North America to sustain criticality.

Since 1955 it was also the host for major scientific experimental work in the fields of thermonuclear fusion and plasma physics. In particular, the first tokamak systems were developed there, the most successful of them being T-3 and its larger version T-4. T-4 was tested in 1968 in Novosibirsk, conducting the first quasistationary thermonuclear fusion reaction ever.

In the 1980s Kurchatov Institute employees and computer engineers played a very important role in establishing computer culture through participating in the development of the DEMOS operating system. It led to the spread of the internet in Russia and contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Until 1991, the Ministry of Atomic Energy oversaw the Kurchatov Institute's administration. After the transformation into the State Scientific Center in November 1991, the institute became subordinated directly to the Russian government. According to the institute's charter, its director is appointed by the prime minister based on recommendations from Rosatom. In February 2005 Mikhail Kovalchuk was appointed director of the institute; since 2015 he has been president of the institute, and the position of a director was occupied by V. Ilgisonis, D. Minkin and (from November 2018) Alexander Blagov. In February 2007, the Kurchatov Institute won the tender to be the main organization coordinating efforts in nanotechnology in Russia.

The Kurchatov Institute is also in charge of coordinating Russia's participation in international large-scale projects such as the X-ray laser research facility European XFEL in Hamburg and the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) in Darmstadt, both Germany, the international fusion reactor project ITER in Cadarache and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble (both France) and the particle physics research center CERN in France and Switzerland.

Shortly after the start of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the institute issued a statement which endorsed the invasion, claiming that the neighboring country had been transformed "primarily due to the efforts of our Western partners, into a neo-Nazi bridgehead" and that the invasion was justified because it was aimed at "preventing the threat of a direct attack on our country from its territory."

Projects
The institute is involved in:

 * ITER
 * FAIR
 * IGNITOR

Reactors
Reactors were designed by researchers of the institute, such as:

 * GT-MHR
 * RBMK
 * EGP-6
 * ELENA
 * T-15
 * F-1
 * Romashka reactor
 * VBER-300
 * VVER

title: Kurchatov Institute


text:
Iwan

An iwan (,, also romanized as ivan or ivān/īvān, إيوان, ) is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open. The formal gateway to the iwan is called , a Persian term for a portal projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs. Since the definition allows for some interpretation, the overall forms and characteristics can vary greatly in terms of scale, material, or decoration.

Iwans are most commonly associated with Islamic architecture; however, the form is pre-Islamic Iranian in origin and was invented much earlier and fully developed in Mesopotamia around the third century CE, during the Parthian period.

Etymology
Iwan is a Persian word that was subsequently borrowed into other languages such as Arabic and Turkish. The New Persian form is eyvān and its etymology is unclear.

A theory by scholars like Ernst Herzfeld and Walter Bruno Henning proposed that the root of this term is Old Persian, but this is no longer taken for granted. The word appears in what modern scholars call the Apadana palace at Persepolis, where king Darius I declares in an inscription: "I, Darius, ... had this  constructed". In this case, the word denoted a type of structure, the iwan proper and not the palace.

The term in Old Persian means "unprotected", and the design allows the structure to be open to the elements on one side. At Persepolis, however, the takes the form of a veranda (a flat roof held up by columns rather than a vault) but is still open to the elements on only one side.

By the time of the Parthian and the Sasanian Empires, the iwan had emerged as two types of structure: the old columned one and a newer vaulted structure; both, however, carrying the same native name of apadana/iwan, because both types are open on one side to the elements.

Ivan is an alternative form of the name, used in Iran, reflecting the Persian pronunciation.

Origins
Many scholars, including Edward Keall, André Godard, Roman Ghirshman, and Mary Boyce, discuss the invention of the iwan in Mesopotamia, the area around today's Iraq. Although debate remains among scholars as to how the iwan developed, there is a general consensus that the iwan evolved locally, and was thus not imported from another area. Similar structures, known as "pesgams", were found in many Zoroastrian homes in Yazd, where two or four halls would open onto a central court; however, it is not known whether these spaces were vaulted.

The feature which most distinctly makes the iwan a landmark development in the history of Ancient Near Eastern architecture is the incorporation of a vaulted ceiling. A vault is a ceiling made from arches, known as arcuated, usually constructed with stone, concrete, or bricks. Earlier buildings would normally be covered in a trabeated manner, with post and lintel beams. However, vaulted ceilings did exist in the ancient world before the invention of the iwan, both within Mesopotamia and outside it. Mesopotamian examples include Susa, where the Elamites vaulted many of their buildings with barrel vaults, and Nineveh, where the Assyrians frequently vaulted their passages for fortification purposes.

Outside Mesopotamia, a number of extant vaulted structures stand, including many examples from Ancient Egypt, Rome, and the Mycenaeans. For example, the Mycenaean Treasury of Atreus, constructed around 1250 BCE, features a large corbelled dome. Ancient Egyptian architecture began to use vaulting in its structures after the Third Dynasty, after around 2600 BCE, constructing very early barrel vaults using mud bricks.

Iwans were a trademark of the Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224) and later the Sassanid architecture of Persia (224–651), later finding their way throughout the Arab and Islamic architecture which started developing in 7th century AD, after the period of Muhammad (c. 570–632). This development reached its peak during the Seljuki era, when iwans became a fundamental unit in architecture, and later the Mughal architecture. The form is not confined to any particular function, and is found in buildings for either secular or religious uses, and in both public and residential architecture.

Parthian iwans
Although some scholars have asserted that the iwan form may have developed under the Seleucids, today most scholars agree that the Parthians were the inventors of the iwan. One of the earliest Parthian iwans was found at Seleucia (Seleucia-on-the-Tigris), located on the Tigris River, where the shift from post-and-lintel construction to vaulting occurred around the 1st century CE. Other early iwans have been suggested at Ashur, where two buildings containing iwan-like foundations were found. The first building, located near the ruins of a ziggurat, featured a three-iwan façade. The proximity of the building to a ziggurat suggests that it may have been used for religious preparations or rituals. It could also indicate a palatial building, as it was common for the ziggurat and palace to be situated next to one another in the Ancient Near East. What seems to be a palace courtyard had iwans on each side, which remained a common features well into Islamic times.

The second iwan building is located across a courtyard, and Walter Andrae, a German archaeologist, suggested that it served as an administrative building rather than as a religious center because there is no evidence of inscriptions or wall carvings. Although the absence of inscriptions or carvings does not equate necessarily to a civic function, it was not uncommon for iwans to serve a secular use, as they were frequently incorporated into palaces and community spaces. Other early sites including Parthian iwans include Hatra, the Parthian ruins at Dura Europos, and Uruk.

Sasanian iwans
The Sasanian Persians also favored the iwan form, and adopted it into much of their architecture; however, they transformed the function. The Parthian iwan led to other spaces, but its primary function served as a room itself. In contrast, the Sasanian iwan served as a grand entranceway to a larger, more elegant space which was usually domed. Both the Parthian and Sasanian iwans were often elaborately decorated with inscriptions and sculpted reliefs including scenes of hunting, vegetal motifs, abstract, geometric patterns, and animal scenes. The reliefs’ style shows a blend of influences including other Near Eastern cultures, Roman, and Byzantine decorative traditions. For instance, the rock-cut iwan at Taq-i Bustan features Roman style figures, Eastern-inspired vegetal patterns and crenellations, and wide-eyed, stylized Byzantine-esque angels and mosaic interiors.

Iwan of Khosrau

The most famous example of a Persian Sassanid iwan is the Taq-i Kisra ("Iwan of Khosrau"), part of a palace complex in Mada'in which is the only visible remaining structure of the ancient Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. It is near the modern town of Salman Pak, Iraq, on the Tigris River about twenty-five miles south of Baghdad. Construction began during the reign of Khosrau I after a campaign against the Eastern Romans in 540 AD. The arched iwan hall, open on the facade side, was about 37 meters high 26 meters across and 50 meters long, the largest vault ever constructed at the time. Early photographs and 19th-century drawings show that the remaining part of the hall has reduced since then.

The dating for the Taq-i Kisra has been debated throughout history; however, a variety of documents detailing the arrival of Byzantine sculptors and architects sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, suggest that the correct date for the construction is around 540 CE. The 540 CE date suggests that the construction of the Taq-i Kisra, and perhaps Justinian's “help” was in response to the victory of Sasanian king Khosrau I over Antioch in 540 CE, which is depicted in the mosaics decorating the interior of the Taq-i Kisra. The Taq-i Kisra was finally demolished for the most part by al-Mansur, who reused the bricks to build his own palace complex.

Islamic iwans
Islamic art and architecture was also heavily influenced inspired by Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian designs, both due to the presence of extant examples and contact between cultures. For example, the Great Mosque of Damascus was built in the early eighth century CE on the site of a Roman Christian church, and incorporates a nave-like element with a tall arcade and clerestory. The Sasanian Empire also had a tremendous impact on the development of Islamic architecture; however, there was some overlap between the Sasanians and the Muslims making it difficult at times to determine who was influencing whom. Islamic art and architecture borrowed many Sasanian decorative motifs and architectural forms, including the iwan.

Iwans were used frequently in Islamic non-religious architecture before the twelfth century, including houses, community spaces, and civic structures such as the bridge of Si-o-Se Pol in Isfahan. Furthermore, Islamic architecture incorporated the Sasanian placement for the iwan by making it a grand entrance to the prayer hall or to a mosque tomb, and often placing it before a domed space. The iwan became common in Islamic religious architecture from the twelfth century onward.

Within the Islamic world the iwan was especially important in the architecture of Central Asia and Greater Iran, but it was also adopted into the local architectural traditions of other regions. It was highly adaptable and it appears in a variety of contexts and in different configurations. Iwans could be placed along the sides of the interior courtyards of buildings, as they were in many madrasas, or on the exterior of buildings, as at the Taj Mahal and other Mughal mausoleums. Under the Ayyubids and Mamluks, who ruled Egypt and the Levantine region, it became a common feature of madrasa architecture, although in Cairo the vaulted iwans of earlier periods were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later Mamluk period. Starting in the late 13th and 14th centuries, the word iwan in Mamluk Egypt itself seems to have been become more restricted, on the one hand, to secular architecture while, on the other hand, it was used in this context to denote large domed structures in addition to vaulted halls. The celebrated monumental throne hall of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad was thus called the Great Iwan (al-Iwan al-Kabir) even though its main element was a domed hall, not a vaulted hall.

Four-iwan plan
The four-iwan plan (cruciform) is one of the most characteristic floor plans of Islamic architecture, consisting of four iwans arranged around a central square or rectangular courtyard ( or ), with the iwans aligned with the central axes of the courtyard. For cruciform mosques and cruciform madrasas, one of the iwans could be oriented towards the qibla (direction of prayer) and include a mihrab in order to serve as a prayer space.

The history of the evolution of the standard four-iwan plan has been debated by scholars. The four-iwan plan was already in use in palace and temple architecture during both the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The earliest known appearance of the four-iwan plan in Islamic architecture is at the dār al-imāra (governor's palace) in Kufa, as rebuilt by the Umayyad governor Ziyād ibn Abīh in the late 7th century. It only became common in mosque design in the twelfth century, long after the iwan's invention in the first century CE. The first patrons to incorporate this layout into mosques were the Seljuks, with the first example probably being the Seljuk modifications to the Great Mosque of Isfahan in the early 12th century, though the layout also appears in other mosques in Iran built or renovated by the Seljuks around the same time. André Godard attributes both the origin and spread of this design to the appearance of madrasas, which also began with the Seljuks, and he further argued that the layout was derived from the style of domestic architecture indigenous to Khorasan. The details of Godard's origin theory have not all been accepted by other scholars, but it is widely-attested that the four-iwan layout spread to other regions with the subsequent proliferation of madrasas across the Islamic world. In some regions it also spread to other building types such as caravanserais and bimaristans.

In the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods of Egypt and Syria the four-iwan plan was prominently used in the architecture of madrasas, with the most monumental example being the massive 14th-century Madrasa-mosque of Sultan Hasan. In some more distant regions, like the Maghreb, the four-iwan plan was not commonly adopted for mosque architecture, but it most likely influenced the axial designs of local madrasas that began under Marinid and Hafsid rule. In early Ottoman architecture, particularly as it developed in Bursa around the 14th century, the four-iwan plan was adapted in a pragmatic way for religious buildings. In these early Ottoman designs the central court is covered by a dome instead of being open to the sky and one of the four iwans is repurposed as the vestibule of the building.

title: Iwan