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Czech cuisine

Czech cuisine has both influenced and been influenced by the cuisines of surrounding countries and nations. Many of the cakes and pastries that are popular in Central Europe originated within the Czech lands. Contemporary Czech cuisine is more meat-based than in previous periods; the current abundance of farmable meat has enriched its presence in regional cuisine. Traditionally, meat has been reserved for once-weekly consumption, typically on weekends.

The body of Czech meals typically consists of two, or sometimes more, courses; the first course is traditionally soup, and the second course is the main dish. If a third course is eaten, which mainly happens at more festive occasions, it is usually a sweet dessert or compote (kompot). In the Czech cuisine, thick soups and many kinds of sauces, both based on stewed or cooked vegetables and meats, often with cream, as well as baked meats with natural sauces (gravies), are popular dishes usually accompanied with beer, especially Pilsner, that Czechs consume the most in the world. Czech cuisine is also very strong in sweet main courses, a unique feature in European cuisines.

History
The 19th-century Czech language cookbook Pražská kuchařka by Karolína Vávrová shows influences of French cuisine in the order of multi-course meals common throughout the Habsburg monarchy, beginning with soup, followed by fish entrees, meat and sweets. Vávrová deviates from this standard order for the sweets of Mehlspeisen type. These flour-based sweets, including baked puddings, strudels, doughnuts and souffles could be served either before or after the roast meats, but stewed fruits, creamy desserts, cakes, ice cream, and cookies were to always be served after the roast and for multiple dessert courses would follow this stated order.

Side dishes
Dumplings (knedlíky) (steamed and sliced like bread) are one of the mainstays of Czech cuisine and are typically served with meals. They can be either wheat or potato-based and are sometimes made from a combination of wheat flour and dices made of stale bread or rolls. Puffed rice can be found in store-prepared mixtures. Smaller Czech dumplings are usually potato-based. When served as leftovers, sliced dumplings are sometimes pan-fried with eggs. Czech potato dumplings are often filled with smoked meat and served with spinach or sauerkraut. Fried onion and braised cabbage can be included as a side dish.

There are many other side dishes, including noodles and boiled rice. Potatoes are served boiled with salt, often with caraway seed and butter. Peeled and boiled potatoes are mixed into mashed potatoes. New potatoes are sometimes boiled in their skins, not peeled, from harvest time to new year. Because of the influence of foreign countries, potatoes are also fried, so French fries and croquettes are common in restaurants.

Buckwheat, pearl barley and millet grains are rarely served in restaurants. These are more commonly a home-cooked, healthier alternative. Pasta is common, either baked, boiled, cooked with other ingredients, or served as a salad. Pasta is available in different shapes and flavors. This is an influence of Italian and Asian cuisine. Rice and buckwheat noodles are not common but are becoming more popular. Gluten-free pasta is also available, made from corn flour, corn starch, or potatoes.

Breads and pastries
Bread (chléb or chleba) is traditionally sourdough baked from rye and wheat, and is flavoured with salt, caraway seeds, onion, garlic, seeds, or pork crackling. It is eaten as an accompaniment to soups and dishes. It is also the material for Czech croutons and for topinky—slices of bread fried in a pan on both sides and rubbed with garlic. Rolls (rohlík), buns (žemle), and braided buns (houska) are the most common forms of bread eaten for breakfast; these are often topped with poppy seeds and salt or other seeds. A bun or a roll baked from bread dough is called a dalamánek. A sweet roll or loupák is a crescent-shaped roll made from sweetened dough containing milk. It is smeared with egg and sprinkled with poppy seeds before baking, giving it a golden-brown colour.

Soups
Soup (polévka, colloquially polívka) plays an important role in Czech cuisine. Soups commonly found in Czech restaurants are beef, chicken or vegetable broth with noodles—optionally served with liver or nutmeg dumplings; garlic soup (česnečka) with croutons—optionally served with minced sausage, raw egg, or cheese; and cabbage soup (zelňačka) made from sauerkraut—sometimes served with minced sausage. Kyselica is a Wallachian variety and contains sour cream, bacon, potatoes, eggs and sausage.

Pea (hrachovka), bean and lentil soups are commonly cooked at home. Goulash soup (gulášovka) and dršťková are made from beef or pork tripe cut into small pieces and cooked with other ingredients; the meat can be substituted with oyster mushrooms. Potato soup (bramboračka) is made from potato, onion, carrot, root parsley and celeriac, spiced with caraway seed, garlic and marjoram. Fish soup (rybí polévka) made with carp is a traditional Christmas dish.

Other common Czech soups are champignon or other mushroom soup, tomato soup, vegetable soup, onion soup (cibulačka) and bread soup (served in a hollowed-out loaf of bread). Kulajda is a traditional South Bohemian soup containing water, cream, spices, mushrooms, egg (often a quail's egg), dill and potatoes. It is typical in its thickness, white colour and characteristic taste. The main ingredient is mushrooms, which gives it the dish's scent. Kyselo is a regional specialty soup made from rye sourdough, mushrooms, caraway and fried onion.

Meat dishes
Traditional Czech dishes are made from animals, birds or fish bred in the surrounding areas.

Pork is the most common meat, making up over half of all meat consumption. Beef, veal and chicken are also popular. Pigs are often a source of meat in the countryside, since pork has a relatively short production time, compared to beef.

Jitrnice is the meat and offal of pork cut into tiny pieces, filled in a casing and closed with sticks. Meat from the neck, sides, lungs, spleen, and liver are cooked with white pastry, broth, salt, spices, garlic and sometimes onions. Klobása, known as Kielbasa in the United States, is a smoked meat sausage-like product made from minced meat. It is spicy and durable. Jelito is a pork meat sausage-like product containing pork blood and pearl barley or pastry pieces. Tlačenka is a meat or poultry product consisting of little pieces of meat in jelly/aspic from connective tissue boiled into mush, served with onion, vinegar and bread. Ovar is a simple dish made from rather fatty pork meat (head or knuckle). These pieces of lower quality meat are boiled in salted water. Pork cracklings (škvarky) and bacon (slanina) are also eaten. Another popular pig slaughter (zabijačka) dish is pork blood soup (prdelačka).

In restaurants one can find:
 * Guláš is a stew usually made from beef, pork or game with onions and spices. It is usually accompanied with knedlík or sometimes bread. It is also traditionally served at home as a pot of guláš will last for several days. Czech guláš is not to be confused with Hungarian "gulyás", which is a soup more similar to Czech gulášovka (a soup). Pörkölt is the Hungarian equivalent of Czech guláš.
 * Roast pork with dumplings and cabbage (pečené vepřové s knedlíky a se zelím, colloquially vepřo-knedlo-zelo) is often considered the most typical Czech dish. It consists of cabbage and is either cooked or served pickled. There are different varieties, from sour to sweet.
 * Marinated tenderloin (svíčková na smetaně or simply svíčková; svíčková is the name for both the sauce and the meat (beef tenderloin) traditionally used for this dish, (although cheaper beef or even pork cuts are often used instead); na smetaně means in cream, and it means that the svíčková sauce is with cream. Braised beef, usually larded, with a svíčková sauce—a thick sauce of carrot, parsley root, celeriac and sometimes cream. This dish is often served with knedlíky, chantilly cream—sweet, whipped cream—cranberry compote (kompot) and a slice of lemon.
 * Baked mincemeat (sekaná pečeně)—later only mincemeat (sekaná), is a dish made from minced pork meat (beef is also possible).
 * Ham (šunka) is made from pork or beef, braised, dried or smoked.
 * Schnitzel (řízek) is a Czech meat dish. The word means "sliced/cut (out) piece". These are usually small slices of veal, pork or chicken covered with Czech trojobal 'triplecoat', made from putting and pressing a piece pounded and sliced into smooth flour on both sides, then covered in whisked egg and breadcrumbs and fried on both sides. Řízek is served with potato side-dishes. The Czech triplecoat is used in some households at Christmas to cover carp or trout decorated with lemon slices.
 * Karbanátek is a burger usually made from pork, beef, minced fish or other meat. It is often mixed with egg and commonly crumbled with Czech triplecoat. It can be vegetable-based with pastry pieces or flour and in both versions fried on both sides or baked.
 * Smoked meat (uzené) with potato dumplings, fried onion and cooked spinach.
 * Beef with tomato sauce (rajská omáčka or rajská) is served with dumplings. Dill sauce (koprová omáčka or koprovka) is often on menus too.
 * Rabbit is commonly bred in the countryside. Hare with wild game is also served. Mutton, lamb, kid, boar, horse or deer are not as common.

Commonly-found poultry dishes are:
 * Goose, duck, turkey and chicken. Pheasant, partridge, guineafowl, pigeon and other game birds are not as common.
 * Roast duck (pečená kachna) is served with bread or potato dumplings and braised red cabbage.
 * Chicken in paprika sauce (kuře na paprice) or hen in paprika sauce (slepice na paprice) is chicken or hen stewed with onion, paprika and cream.
 * Roast turkey with bacon (krocan pečený na slanině) is turkey larded with, or wrapped in bacon, roasted with bacon and butter; it is not very common.
 * Fish—mostly trout and carp—is commonly eaten at Christmas. Otherwise many fish are imported, including sardines, fillet, salmon, tuna, and anchovy. Other types of fish are slowly becoming popular too. Crayfish used to be very common in rivers, but are nowadays rarer and are protected. Prawns or lobsters are imported instead.

Other dishes

 * Mushrooms are often used in Czech cuisine as different types grow in the forests. Czechs make an average of 20 visits to the forest annually, picking up to 20,000 tonnes of mushrooms. Bolete, parasol and other kinds of mushroom are often found. In the shops, you can buy common mushrooms (žampiony), oyster mushrooms (hlívy), shiitake, wood ear and dried forest mushrooms. smaženice are shallow-fried mushrooms with onion and spices. Mushroom Jacob (Houbový Kuba) is a dish prepared from cooked hulled grain (barley), then strained, mixed with cooked mushrooms, fried onion, garlic, fat and black pepper, and baked in the oven. It is served at Christmas. Mushrooms are often triple-coated and fried. Cauliflower can be fried in the Czech triplecoat.
 * Smažený sýr (colloquially smažák) is a fried cheese battered in Czech triplecoat — usually Edam (also Hermelín), about 1 cm thick coated in flour, egg and bread crumbs like Wiener schnitzel, fried and served with tartar sauce and potatoes or French fries.
 * Homemade noodles with ground poppy seeds are called nudle s mákem; these are served with powdered sugar and melted butter. A similar dish is potato buns with poppy seeds (bramborové šišky s mákem), and are called cones (šišky), because they resemble the cones of coniferous trees.
 * Omelette (omeleta) is often served with peas.
 * Pancakes (palačinky) of plate size or palm size are common.
 * The most traditional vegetables are carrots, celery, parsley, turnip, cauliflower, lettuce, onion, leek, garlic, cabbage, kale and chives. In gardens, one can also find tomatoes, bell peppers, courgettes, pumpkins, melons, sunflowers, poppies, potatoes and beet.
 * Peas and lentils are, together with bean pods, the most common. They are served as soup or as cooked mash with pickled cucumber and fried onion, occasionally with sausage or smoked meat. Šoulet (shoulet) is a mix of boiled peas with barley, fat and other ingredients.
 * Žemlovka is a baked dish made with layers of sliced rolls or buns called žemle, sliced apples and milk or eggs. It is served with cinnamon and raisins.
 * Štrúdl or závin (Strudel) can be sweet with apples, raisins, walnuts, grated coconut or cherry—or savoury with cabbage, spinach, cheese or meat.
 * Semolina porridge (krupicová kaše) is served with sugar, honey, cinnamon or cocoa with butter on the top. Optionally, sliced apples or apricots are added as toppings. Healthier versions substitute semolina for oatmeal or rice.
 * Stuffed bell peppers (plněné papriky) are stuffed with meat or rice with vegetables.
 * Lečo or lecsó is a stew made from peppers, onions, tomatoes and spices.
 * Spaghetti (špagety) is coming in as an Italian influence.
 * Eggs are often used in Czech cuisine because many families outside of cities breed hens. Scrambled eggs (míchaná vajíčka) are common. Fried eggs (volské oko, literally "ox eye") are often served with bread or potatoes and spinach. Boiled eggs are also popular. Stuffed eggs are made from halved, shelled, hard-boiled eggs. The yolk is carefully removed into a separate bowl, mixed with salt, mustard and spices and stuffed back. It can be decorated.
 * Dairy products have their place in Czech cuisine too. Edam (eidam) is a Dutch-based type of cheese and Niva is a Czech blue cheese. A common pub food, nakládaný hermelín, or pickled cheese, is a cheese similar to Camembert that is aged in olive oil and spices. Typically served with bread and an assortment of fresh vegetables. Sour cream is commonly used as part of various cream-based sauces.

Snacks

 * Bramboráky (regionally called cmunda or vošouch in Pilsen and strik or striky in Czech Silesia) are fried pancakes similar to rösti made of grated raw potato, flour, carrots or sour cabbage, and rarely sausage. They are spiced with marjoram, salt, pepper, and garlic, and usually sized to fit the cooking dish. Smaller variants are often eaten as a side dish.
 * Utopenci, singular utopenec (literally "drowned men"), are piquantly pickled bratwursts (špekáčky) in sweet-sour vinegar marinaded with black pepper, bay leaf, onion and chili peppers. They are often available in Czech pubs, but are uncommon in better restaurants.
 * Nakládaný hermelín is a soft cheese, from the same family as brie and camembert, marinated with peppers and onions in oil. It is a pub-food.
 * Beer cheese (pivní sýr) is a soft cheese, usually mixed with raw onions and mustard, which is spread onto toasted bread. It is also a pub-food.
 * Open sandwiches, known as obložené chlebíčky ("garnished breads") or chlebíčky, are not made from normal Czech bread, but from roll-like, bigger pastry called veka, sliced and garnished. They may be served with mayonnaise, ham, egg, fish, salads or spreads on the top. They are usually decorated with fresh sliced or pickled cucumber, tomato, red or yellow bell pepper, sliced radish, or parsley. Jednohubky are similar to obložené chlebíčky, but smaller and in many varieties. All are served in a small amount—one mouthful impaled on a stick.
 * Olomoucké tvarůžky or "syrečky" is an aged cheese with a strong odour. It is made in and sold from Loštice, a small town in Moravia. The tradition of making this cheese dates back to the 15th century. Tvarůžky can be prepared in a number of ways—it can be fried, marinated, or added to bramboráky.
 * Dried apple chips (křížaly) and dried banana chips.
 * Potato, beet and celery chips (crisps) are common snacks.
 * Roasted peanuts are common.
 * The "Czech hot dog" (párek v rohlíku, also called pikador in South Bohemia) is a street food consisting of boiled or steamed sausage dipped in mustard or ketchup served in a roll with a hole made inside, not in a sliced bun like the common hot dog. It is influenced by German cuisine.
 * Langoše (fried bread) are influenced by Hungarian cuisine. They are usually served with garlic, Edam cheese and ketchup, or some combination of the three.

Sweets
In most cases, sweet food is not consumed as dessert, but rather as a separate occasion, for example together with afternoon coffee. Czech coffeehouses are known for their strong coffee, sweet pastries and famous patrons who have included Franz Kafka, Antonín Dvořák, Václav Havel and Albert Einstein. Served warm or cold, strudel (optionally topped with ice cream, whipped cream or powdered sugar), is served at almost every coffee shop, apple being the most common variety.

Sweets filled with fruit, poppy seed and quark are prevalent and come in diverse forms including cakes, koláče (pies), tarts, fritters, and dumplings (ovocné knedlíky). The tradition of making pies has been preserved in American Czech communities who have settled in the Midwestern United States and Texas. They are laborious to make and usually prepared for special celebrations, births, funerals and they also have a role in Czech wedding traditions where they are distributed to friends and family in place of wedding invitations. The most common fillings are poppy seed, apricots (meruňkové knedlíky) and prunes.

Dough prepared for dumplings may include potatoes, and while the combination of fruits, jams and cheeses varies among households, plums (švestkové knedlíky), apricots or strawberries (jahodové knedlíky) are common. The finished dumplings are boiled and often garnished with butter, poppy seeds or grated cheese, and a sweetener (traditionally dried and powdered pears, but sugar is used in modern adaptations). Also filled with fruit or jam (and sometimes garnished with poppy seeds) are the Czech crepes called palačinky. Traditional Czech sponge cake (bublanina), served most often for breakfast, is made with cream, eggs and sugar and seasonal fruits, especially whole cherries.

 * Buchty is a yeast pastry similar to koláče; the same filling is wrapped in pieces of dough and baked, but is not visible in the final product.
 * Sweet dumplings with custard sauce (buchtičky se šodó) are small pieces of yeast pastry poured with cream made from egg yolks and wine (nowadays is šodó usually replaced with vanilla pidding). The recipe comes from Czech roots, however, the bordering countries—mainly Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary—consider buchtičky se šodó as food that came from their country.
 * Pudding is a flavoured custard combined in layers. Pudding is served in a glass topped with fruit or shaped in a mould.
 * Braided bread (vánočka) and buns (mazanec) are prepared for Christmas, along with many kinds of biscuits and Christmas sweets (vánoční cukroví). Vánočka and mazanec are the same type of pastry as Jewish Challah.
 * Easter Lamb (Velikonoční beránek) is prepared for Easter. The dough is from eggs, sugar and flour. Lemons can be added. It is baked in a mould in the shape of a lamb. It can be decorated.
 * Bábovka is from dough similar to that used for Easter Lamb, often with cocoa dough in the middle. It is round, 10–15 cm high, made in a mould and is often served with coffee.
 * Lívance are smaller types of pancakes prepared with yeast in the batter. They are eaten with jam or warm forest fruits.
 * Vdolky and koblihy—see List of doughnut varieties.
 * Perník is made in two ways:
 * Like gingerbread, but without ginger and with added honey. Gingerbread cookies are decorated with shapes; popular themes are heart shapes, three-dimensional cottages and even whole decorated villages are made—especially in the Pardubice Region where the tradition was established in the 16th century.
 * Like a cake with cinnamon and honey.
 * Trdelník is a spit cake. First adopted in Moravia from Transleithania, it recently gained popularity in Prague and the rest of the country.
 * Roláda is a sponge cake roulade filled with jam.
 * Litá (poured) bublanina is a pancake-like batter poured onto a baking sheet. Pieces of fruit—apples, pears or cherries—measuring 1x2 cm are spread on it and it is then sprinkled with sugar.
 * Makovec is a sponge cake with ground poppy seeds.
 * Mrkvanec is a sponge cake with grated carrots and mrkvánky are small turovers filled with plum or pear jam and with grated carrot added to the dough
 * With the exception of koláče, vánoční cukroví and velikonoční beránek, sweets are consumed with tea or coffee in the late afternoon break, rather than immediately after a main meal.
 * Míša is a treat made out of frozen curd; it is popular with children and has been produced since 1961.
 * Žloutkové řezy, a walnut cake with egg yolk glaze served at Christmas and Easter parties.

Beverages
The Czech Republic has the highest per-capita consumption of beer in the world. The most common style, which originated here, is Pilsner. Aside from beer, Czechs also produce wine mostly in the region of Moravia and a unique liquors— Becherovka. Czech Slivovitz and other pálenka (fruit brandies) is traditionally distilled in the country and are considered national drink. More recently new drinks became popular, among them Tuzemák, traditionally marketed as "Czech rum", is made from potatoes or sugar beets. A mixed drink consisting of Becherovka and tonic water is known under the portmanteau of Beton ("concrete"). Another popular mixed drink is Fernet Stock mixed with tonic, called "Bavorák" or "Bavorské pivo" (literally "Bavarian beer"). Kofola is a non-alcoholic Czech soft drink somewhat similar in look and taste to Coca-Cola, but not as sweet. Kofola was invented in Communist Czechoslovakia as a substitute to the Coca-Cola that they would not import, but it became so popular that production has continued well past the end of Communism in the country.

title: Czech cuisine


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Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants (Wider die Mordischen und Reubischen Rotten der Bawren) is a piece written by Martin Luther in response to the German Peasants' War. Beginning in 1524 and ending in 1525, the Peasants' War was a result of a tumultuous collection of grievances in many different spheres: political, economic, social, and theological. Martin Luther is often considered to be the foundation for the Peasants' Revolt; however, he maintained allegiance to the Princes against the violence of the rebels. Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants typifies Luther's reaction to the Peasants' War, and alludes to Luther's concern that he might be seen to be responsible for their rebellion.

The Peasants' War
Ignited in 1524, the Peasants' War spread across the Germanic regions of the Holy Roman Empire until its suppression in 1525. Many factors, including changes in social and economic structures, played a role in inciting the peasants to revolt. The move from an entirely agrarian economic base during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries served as a backdrop to the development of new social classes, ones that could not and did not coincide with the traditional feudal hierarchy. Although initially the grievances cited by the peasants were essentially based on individual abuses on the part of government of the Church, this shifted as time went on, and would come to encompass these minor issues within a general dissatisfaction with the entire feudal order.

Luther and the peasants: reluctant inspiration
The relationship between the Protestant Reformation and the Peasants' War has long been a subject of debate. A traditional understanding in this matter is that the Peasants' Revolt stemmed from Martin Luther's doctrine of spiritual freedom and the application of his ideas as religious justification for social and political upheaval. It is true that Luther offered useful tools to the peasants: his focus on sola scriptura put emphasis upon the priesthood of all believers. This strengthened the idea of 'divine law', that social constructs counter to divine law could not command the allegiance of the people and justified rebellion. Perhaps also influential to the revolt was the example of Luther, as his work was a rebellion against the two most significant authorities of the era when he opposed both the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. It is likely that Luther's views simply coincided with the desires of the peasants, and were used for that reason.

Other religious personalities such as Huldrych Zwingli and Thomas Müntzer also influenced the peasants. Zwingli taught from 1523 onwards that in order for the gospel to be successful, secular laws needed to be transformed according to the law of God, something which corresponded neatly with what the peasants wanted. Müntzer, who would lead a peasants' army until its defeat at Frankenhausen (15 May 1525) by Imperial troops, was able to encourage them by citing scriptural passages that seemed to support rebellion against lawful authority: Luke 22:35–38 and Matthew 10:34. To a peasantry oppressed in so many ways on so many levels, the leadership of men like Müntzer and the inspiration of scripture that appeared to justify violence would make rebellion seem very tempting indeed.

Furthermore, Luther's attacks on the Roman Catholic church can be said to have inspired various groups to raise arms in revolution. Peasants related to Luther's appeals against the clergy and ideas about Christian freedom, and wished to "wreak vengeance upon all their oppressors". More powerful members of society, including burghers and lesser nobility, sought to break the power of the clergy, escape the demands of Rome, and gain financially from the confiscation of church property.

When pressure built around these revolutionary ideas, Luther had to choose a side, and he joined with loyal burghers, the nobility, and princes. In siding with lawful authority, Luther preached peaceful progress and passive resistance in such documents as To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation in 1520. He believed that there were no circumstances under which violence should be used on behalf of the Gospel with the exception of efforts against the work of Satan.

Luther and Müntzer: contrasts in leadership
Luther stated that he did "not wish the Gospel defended by force and bloodshed. The world was conquered by the Word, the Church is maintained by the Word, and the Word will also put the Church back into its own, and Antichrist, who gained his own without violence, will fall without violence". Around the same time as Luther preached peaceful resistance, Müntzer attacked the priesthood in violent sermons, calling for the people to rise up in arms. He too cited biblical references to justify his perspective, and asked "does not Christ say, 'I came not to send peace, but a sword'? What must you do with that sword? Only one thing if you wish to be the servants of God, and that is to drive out and destroy the evil ones who stand in the way of Gospel".

While Luther's reform ideals grew more popular by the day, Müntzer's bold ideas were politically agitating and more dangerous. Müntzer argued that the Bible was not infallible and definitive, that the Holy Spirit had ways of communicating directly through the gift of reason.

The Twelve Articles of the Christian Union of Upper Swabia
The Twelve Articles of the Christian Union of Upper Swabia, also known as The Twelve Articles of the Black Forest, or simply The Twelve Articles for short, serves as a manifesto for the Peasants' War, although not the only one behind it. The Twelve Articles are a summary composed by Sebastian Lotzer of hundreds of other articles and grievances with the biblical references that support each point. On the surface they seem quite moderate and include: the wish to be able to elect their own pastors; collected tithes to be used only within their own communities; an end to serfdom, with a promise to obey elected and appointed rulers; the right to fish or hunt without limitation; the right to take wood as necessary; a limitation on labour due to lords; an end to traditional peasant services; reasonable rents paid to lords; fair judgements in legal cases; common lands returned to the peasants for common use; an end to the custom of heriot (the right of a lord to seize a peasant's best chattel upon his or her death); and lastly, if any of these demands can be demonstrated to be unsupported by scripture, they are null and void. The peasants wanted to hear the Gospel and live their lives accordingly, and those who could be considered enemies of the gospel were the enemies of the peasants. The idea of 'pure gospel' served as their justification. The Twelve Articles succinctly called for the end of feudalism and the strengthening of the commons, a system of communal usufruct that stood in the way of nascent capitalism.

Admonition to Peace
The peasants had used the Bible to support their grievances, and in turn, to justify their rebellion, and Luther would turn it against them. He spoke out against the peasants, specifically rebutting The Twelve Articles of the Christian Union of Upper Swabia, joining with Roman Catholics to combat the angry horde. Luther's Admonition to Peace was written to serve several functions, initially to prevent bloodshed at the hands of armed peasant groups, but also to remove the misinterpretation of scripture as justification for violence, and finally as a response to several appeals that called for his counsel.

The first section of the Admonition addresses the princes and lords, urging them to recognise the threat that the peasants represented, "not to make light of this rebellion" and asking them to be more considerate in order to avoid confrontation. He reproaches the princes, making it clear that they are to blame, stating that "we have no one on earth to thank for this disastrous rebellion except you princes and lords ... as temporal rulers you do nothing but cheat and rob the people so that you may lead a life of luxury and extravagance. The poor common people cannot bear it any longer".

The second part addresses the peasants, and although Luther recognizes their demands as reasonable as presented in The Twelve Articles, he clearly states that they are wrong for using force in order to amend the situation. He takes particular issue with their use of Gospel as justification. The third section acknowledges that both princes and peasants have not been acting as good Christians, reproaching them both, for if war were to ensue both groups would lose their immortal souls.

Luther's Admonition to Peace, and the later publication of Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, were written in response to The Twelve Articles of the Christian Union of Upper Swabia and saw wide circulation throughout Germany. Although it is not known when Luther actually first read the Twelve Articles, it was certainly prior to 16 April 1525.

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants
Luther remained largely ignorant of the extent to which the unrest permeated the peasantry until he embarked on a tour of Thuringia with Philipp Melanchthon. It was at this time that he was able to observe firsthand the severity of the situation, peasants doing "the devil's work". He attempted to prevent further violence by preaching against it but recognised that this had little, if any, impact.

In May 1525, he wrote Against the Rioting Peasants, a title which would be harshened by printers in other cities without Luther's approval. In this publication, he severely denounced the peasants on three charges: that they had violated oaths of loyalty, which makes them subject to secular punishment; they had committed crimes contrary to their faith; and that their crimes were committed using Christ's name which was blasphemy:

"The peasants have taken upon themselves the burden of three terrible sins against God and man; by this they have merited death in body and soul ... they have sworn to be true and faithful, submissive and obedient, to their rulers ... now deliberately and violently breaking this oath ... they are starting a rebellion, and are violently robbing and plundering monasteries and castles which are not theirs ... they have doubly deserved death in body and soul as highwaymen and murderers ... they cloak this terrible and horrible sin with the gospel ... thus they become the worst blasphemers of God and slanderers of his holy name"

Luther goes so far as to justify the actions of the Princes against the peasants, even when it involves acts of violence. He feels that they can be punished by the lords on the basis that they have "become faithless, perjured, disobedient, rebellious, murderers, robbers, and blasphemers, whom even a heathen ruler has the right and authority to punish". He even venerates those who fight against the peasants, stating that "anyone who is killed fighting on the side of the rulers may be a true martyr in the eyes of God". He closes with a sort of disclaimer, "if anyone thinks this too harsh, let him remember that rebellion is intolerable and that the destruction of the world is to be expected every hour". One of the reasons why Luther urged that the secular authorities crush the peasant rebellion was because of St. Paul's teaching of the doctrine of divine right of kings in, which says that all the authorities are appointed by God, and should not therefore be resisted.

Open Letter on the Harsh Book Against the Peasants
Following the defeat of Müntzer's forces on 15 May 1525 at Frankenhausen, the peasants' war was all but over, as they now lacked leaders with political and military strengths. They felt that they had been betrayed by Luther, and criticised him accordingly for the publication of Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants. The Catholics pointed out that Admonition of Peace vindicated the peasants, by stating that their grievances were legitimate, but when it became clear that the peasants would lose, he deserted them in his writing Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants. He was urged by his friends to make a retraction, something that he steadfastly refused to do.

After a few months, he decided to write a formal explanation, in an open letter to Caspar Muller, entitled An Open Letter on the Harsh Book Against the Peasants. He defends his previous writings, and states that it is the duty of a Christian to "suffer injustice, not to seize the sword and take to violence". He defends the 'harshness' that he used, stating that "a rebel is not worth rational arguments, for he does not accept them. You have to answer people like that with a fist, until the sweat drips off their noses".

He also states that the princes were too severe in their punishment of the peasants and would be punished by God for their behaviour. With this document it became clear that Luther was a socially conservative man, who would not threaten secular authority.

Aftermath: Luther and Protestantism
Luther saw that violent upheaval would alienate the princes, nobility and certain towns, and would likely be crushed by Catholic or Imperial opposition. Luther would be chastised for his views, was seen as a shill to the princes, and was even stoned in Orlamünde.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Sili Bank

Sili Bank, also known as Korea 626 Shenyang Co., is a North Korean financial company that provides email services in North Korea through its silibank.net.kp domain.

Sili Bank (sili meaning "true profit" in both Chinese and Korean) was established on September 12, 2001. Through its operation centre in Chilbosan Hotel in Shenyang, China, it offered a limited email relay service to and from North Korea, where Internet access was and is scarce. It initially charged a fee per every email sent.

The Chilbosan Hotel has also served as a centre of North Korean computer hacking and cyber-warfare operations.

title: Sili Bank


text:
St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim

The Church of St. Michael (Michaeliskirche) is an early-Romanesque church in Hildesheim, Germany. It has been on the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list (along with the nearby Hildesheim Cathedral) since 1985 because of its outstanding Romanesque architecture and art. It is now a shared church, the main church being Lutheran and the crypt being Roman Catholic.

History
Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim (996–1022) built a Benedictine monastery from the ground up on a hill linked with the archangel Michael just a half kilometer north of the city walls of his seat (Hildesheim), a monastery that featured an imposing church some 70 meters in length overall. Bernward set the first stone for the new church in 1010 and dedicated the still unfinished building to Michael on the archangel's feast day, 29 September 1022, just a few weeks before his death. Construction, however, continued under his successor, Bishop Godehard (died 1038), who completed the work in 1031 and reconsecrated the church to Michael on September 29 of that year. The church has double choirs east and west, double tripartite transepts at either end of the nave, and six towers—two large ones over the crossings east and west, and four other tall and narrow ones attached to the small sides of the two transepts. The eastern choir featured three apses, and the west had a deep chapel with a huge single apse rising high over an elaborate cross-vaulted hall crypt with an ambulatory. Bishop Bernward's remains were placed in the western crypt.

The monastery comprised a church family and had two other sanctuaries dedicated to Martin and the Holy Cross lying in the cloister that extended northward from St. Michael's north flank. The monastery and church opened southward toward the city of Hildesheim, its south flank comprising a facade of a sort. It seems likely that the monastery on the Hill of St. Michael was surrounded by a wall.

In 1186, after a reconstruction following a fire, Hildesheim's Bishop Adelog of Dorstedt – assisted by Tammo, Prince-Bishop of Verden – reconsecrated St. Michael's.

When the people of Hildesheim became Protestant in 1542, St. Michael's became Lutheran, but the Benedictine monastery operated here until it was secularized in 1803. Monks continued to use the church, especially its western choir and crypt, down to that moment.

St. Michael's Church was heavily damaged by a British air raid on 22 March 1945. Reconstruction was begun in 1950 and completed in 1957. In 1985, the church became a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, along with the Cathedral of Hildesheim, its collection of medieval treasures and its 1000-year-old rosebush.

Architecture
St. Michael's Church is one of the most important churches of early Christian period architecture. It is a double-choir basilica with two transepts and a square tower at each crossing. The west choir is emphasized by an ambulatory and a crypt. Nikolaus Pevsner wrote that St. Michael's "is the earliest surviving example of a truly Romanesque exterior."

The ground plan of the building follows a geometrical conception, in which the square of the transept crossing in the ground plan constitutes the key measuring unit for the entire church. The square units are defined by the alternation of columns and piers. Pevsner described this as a "more thorough 'metrical system' " than found in any prior Romanesque architecture.

The ceiling of the church is decorated with a fresco, 27.6 m long and 8.7 m wide, depicting the Tree of Jesse, the ancestral line of Jesus. The genealogy has been dated to roughly 1130. The famous Bernward Doors, featuring bronze reliefs of scenes from the Bible, were originally commissioned for St. Michael's but are now found at the nearby Cathedral of Hildesheim.

Measurements

 * Total length: 74.75 m
 * Total length of the transepts: 40.01 m
 * Total width of the transepts: 11.38 m
 * Length of the crypt: 18.36 m
 * Length of the nave: 27.34 m
 * Width of the nave incl. lower aisles: 22.75 m
 * Width of the nave without lower aisles: 8.60 m
 * Height of the nave without lower aisles: 16.70 m
 * Thickness of the walls: 1.63 m

Location
St. Michael's Church is situated at the Western rim of the city centre of Hildesheim, on the so-called Michaelishügel ("St. Michael's Hill"). The main entrance to the Church is on the south side. Magdalenengarten, a baroque park, is very close to the church in the west. The cloister is also accessible from there. It leads to the Church's contemporary (administrative) buildings. From the south and east of the Hill is Hildesheim's downtown, to the west is the River Innerste and in the north the Gymnasium Andreanum school.

Burials

 * Bernward of Hildesheim

title: St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim


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Edmund Dwyer-Gray

Edmund John Chisholm Dwyer-Gray (2 April 1870 – 6 December 1945) was an Irish-Australian politician, who was the 29th Premier of Tasmania from 11 June to 18 December 1939. He was a member of the Australian Labor Party (ALP).

Early life
He was born Edmund John Chisholm Dwyer Gray on 2 April 1870 in Dublin, Ireland, the son of Edmund Dwyer Gray, an MP in the British House of Commons and Caroline Agnes Gray. He was the maternal grandson of Caroline Chisholm, the English humanitarian renowned for her social welfare work with female immigrants to Australia. His paternal grandfather was Sir John Gray, the Irish Member of Parliament for Kilkenny City in the House of Commons, and an associate of the Irish nationalist Daniel O'Connell. He was educated at the Benedictine monastery at Fort Augustus, Scotland, and at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit school in County Kildare.

Newspaper editorship and emigration to Australia
Gray first visited Australia in 1887, as he was suffering from rheumatism and hoped the climate might improve his health. He returned to Ireland shortly afterwards and joined the editorial committee of the Freeman's Journal, a nationalist newspaper of which his father and grandfather had been proprietors.

Between visits to Australia where he met and married his wife Clara, Gray continued to work on the Freeman's Journal which became involved in the Irish political scandal and leadership crisis when Charles Stewart Parnell married a divorced woman. Despite his family's support for Parnell, Gray altered the Journal's policy to compete with an anti-Parnell paper, causing some controversy and contributing to his decision to migrate to Australia permanently.

After some travel in Australia, New Zealand and Fiji where he was involved with some mining ventures, Gray spent ten years working as a farmer in New Norfolk, but by 1912 was in Hobart editing the Daily Post, an Australian Labor Party newspaper. When the paper was taken over by the Australian Workers' Union, Gray moved to Sydney, where he worked for Jack Lang briefly, before returning to Hobart to edit an ALP/ACTU newspaper called the People's Voice (later Voice), established by him in 1925 and continuing under his editorship until his death in 1945.

Tasmanian politics
Gray unsuccessfully stood for the Tasmanian Legislative Council in 1915. At the 1928 state election, he hyphenated his name to Dwyer-Gray, so that he would be placed alphabetically at the top of the ballot paper thereby capturing the donkey vote. It may have worked—Dwyer-Gray was elected to the House of Assembly, representing the electorate of Denison for the Labor Party. He became deputy leader of the party in 1932, under Albert Ogilvie, and when Ogilvie won the 1934 state election, Dwyer-Gray became Treasurer and Deputy Premier in Ogilvie's cabinet.

As both Treasurer and editor of  Voice, Dwyer-Gray was a proponent of the social credit concept pioneered by C. H. Douglas. He had visited New Zealand, which he saw as an ideal model and precedent for Tasmania's economy and society—a "worker's paradise" as he referred to it—should the Douglasite concept of national credit be adopted.

Albert Ogilvie died of a heart attack in office on 10 June 1939, and on 6 July Dwyer-Gray was elected as leader of the ALP, and hence officially became Premier of Tasmania, although only for six months due to an arrangement with fellow MHA Robert Cosgrove that he would stand aside for Cosgrove to assume the premiership in December 1939.

Later life and legacy
In 1940, he wrote an article in Voice praising Adelaide herbalist and healer Mahomet Allum, calling him a "better Christian than most Christians".

Dwyer-Gray died in Hobart on 6 December 1945, survived by his wife, who died in 1947.

Although his ideas were radical for the time, Dwyer-Gray's insistent lobbying of Tasmanian-born Prime Minister Joseph Lyons to permanently solve the funding problem for small states like Tasmania enabled him as treasurer to bring post-Depression financial security to the state. While criticising Lyons' establishment of the Commonwealth Grants Commission in The Voice, Dwyer-Gray nonetheless gained favourable treatment for Tasmania, "bringing home the bacon" that allowed Cosgrove to fund public health, the public service and hydroelectric development.

title: Edmund Dwyer-Gray


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Falkirk West

Falkirk West may refer to:
 * Falkirk West (UK Parliament constituency), a constituency that was represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom between 1983 and 2005
 * Falkirk West (Scottish Parliament constituency), a constituency represented in the Scottish Parliament

title: Falkirk West


text:
Talk:1993 Newbury by-election

Swing
A swing between Labour and the Conservatives simply doesn't make sense, it's a nonsense, please explain and justify it, I cannot see any sense in having it. Whether are the sources supporting it? -- Joolz 11:02, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * You haven't read Swing (politics). Swing is only between Labour and Conservatives. There is no such thing as a Liberal Democrat / Conservative swing. Please stop vandalizing the page and suggesting there is. David | Talk 11:05, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Even David Butler (as in the inventor of the Butler swing) talks about a swing to the Lib Dems in the Newbury by-election - see p.69 of his book on the 1997 general election. If even the inventor of the term thinks it is ok to use in this context, you're not on very strong grounds saying this is all wrong surely? Mark 86.53.37.182 20:49, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Your source is another wikipedia article, part of which you wrote? There should be plenty of other sources saying the swing in the Newbury by-election is -12.5 if that really is correct. However, I don't find them. I found on the other hand plenty saying the swing is 28.4:   . And don't accuse me of vandalism, I find the accusation rather silly. - Joolz 11:26, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I can give you plenty of other examples where swing is defined as Conservative and Labour and no other party is mentioned. Your sources mean nothing: they are not experts at reporting elections. Swing is between Conservative and Labour only and to refer to it as anything else is vandalism. David | Talk 12:56, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * David, I can't comment on your expertise or otherwise on these issues, but I think you're being a bit overzealous here on the talkpage. "Vandalism" has a distinct meaning on Wikipedia, and it's very offensive to describe a bona fide contributor as a vandal.  Joolz is merely another editor, whose POV differs from yours.  Joolz is a reasonable man; if your POV has merit, you should be able to convince him through the power of reason and rationality; hurling insults and personal attacks will get you nowhere. --fuddlemark (fuddle me!) 17:46, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I 'hurled' no 'insults'. I made no personal attack. It's a personal attack on me to suggest that I did. Meanwhile, there is absolutely no way that a calculation of Conservative gain and Liberal Democrat loss can be made into a swing. Swing is between Conservative and Labour only. Absolutely no exceptions. David | Talk 19:40, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I suggest that this discussion be taken to Talk:Swing_(politics), which is where it belongs--Po8crg 18:16, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

It is true that conventional swing is indeed calculated between Labour and the Tories. There are, however, plenty of exceptions in my experience provided that you actually specify who the parties involved are. This is produced by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, therefore I would suggest we take it as authoratitive since these are the elections to it. It defines conventional swing as I suggest (Lab-Con). Later in the article however, it produces multiple examples of swings between other parties, so I don't think including them is necessarily invalid at all.

I would suggest here that the swing is as follows:
 * Con to Lab swing: 12.5%
 * Con to LD swing: 28.3%

The four cited examples all directly specify that the swing is between Liberal Democrat and Conservative, so this is acceptable; I suspect that without an explicit specification as such the cite is ambiguous. I should also apologise for the fourth website (ukconstitution.net) as I actually am the webmaster, so being corrected is somewhat embarassing. --New Progressive 21:23, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The Standard Note you quote is just Adam Mellows-Facer's opinion. I think I sent in several corrections to Standard Notes and Research Papers over the years then I just got bored with it. To take just one example, the SN refers to the 1935-1945 swing as being meaningless because "National Labour candidates contributed 1.6% to the National total in 1935". True to say that but totally irrelevant: most voters in 1935 understood National Labour to be in effect Conservative, and it was only the Macdonald family which thought of it as being Labour. What the SN says when giving examples is no more definitive than a newspaper article and I absolutely refute that it is 'authoritative'.

 * The reason why swing is used for Conservative and Labour only and not for any other parties is that it doesn't work properly for others. The calculation is only any use if you can take the result and apply it elsewhere to compare and contrast, and that only works for Conservative and Labour in practice. Look at the distribution of the so-called "Conservative - Liberal Democrat swing' and it's completely random. David | Talk 21:51, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Obviously I can't judge whether you've attempted to actually have this page corrected. Assuming good faith and that you have, then there is one of two possibilites:
 * They think you are wrong
 * They are lazy

 * If they think you are wrong, I'm inclined to accept their judgement. If they are lazy, it doesn't necessarily make you right. You may think Mellow-Facer's opinion is no more relevant than a newspaper journalists, but I would suggest that Parliament has employed the man and allowed his work to be published on their website - if that is not at the least a tacit endorsement of what he says, I do not know what could be.

 * Your point about the randomness of Con-LD swing is interesting, but I don't entirely know what practicality of comparison has to do with this. My understanding of swing (limited as it is) derives from the notion that it is a good indicator of the number of voters moving party between given elections. Obviously, the Con to LD swing of 28.3% shows us just how monumental the movement of voters was in this by-election, much more that the Con to Lab 12.5% swing, which is totally incidental in this case because there was no move of voters to Labour really - the voters were clearly moving from Con to LD - what caused the Con to Lab swing was the horrific drop in Tory support. --New Progressive 22:29, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Longest ballot paper?
I think Newbury will continue to have been the longest ballot paper as the Haltemprice paper will probably be printed in two columns.

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Andrew Bannon - reason for standing.
I noticed that it states that "Andrew Bannon, a Labour member from Slough stood as a Conservative Candidate in protest at a Conservative member standing as a Labour Candidate in the 1992 general election in Slough." However the 1992 result in the article for the Slough constituency does not indicate anybody stood using the specific label Labour Candidate. There is a candidate listed as Independent Labour, but nothing in the article indicts that this was a Conservative. I am aware there were a few instances around this time of people standing under dubious labels (famously the Literal Democrat Richard Huggett), so the story is entirely plausible and it could well be the Slough article is wrong/missing information. However, there is no source cited here which would verify this was the background to Bannon standing and his choice of label, which I think is a bit of an issue. Dunarc (talk) 19:22, 27 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:1993 Newbury by-election


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Kerlon

Kerlon Moura Souza (born 27 January 1988) is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder. After retiring, he worked as a coach at Olé Soccer in the United States.

Kerlon first gained prominence after his performances at the U-17 World Cup in 2005, where he scored eight goals in seven games and helped Brazil win the title.

While playing with Cruzeiro, he gained more notoriety due to his seal dribble technique, and after a good 2007 season with Cruzeiro, he was billed as "the next Ronaldinho" and caught the attention of top European clubs like Inter Milan, who signed him in 2008.

However, a pair of knee injuries ultimately derailed his career, only make sporadic appearances until his retirement in 2017, and never fulfilled his true potential.

Early years in Brazil
Kerlon made his professional debut for Cruzeiro in May 2005 for a Copa do Brasil match against Baraúnas.

Kerlon scored his first professional goal on 25 February 2007 in Cruzeiro's 4–1 victory over Ituiutaba in the Campeonato Mineiro.

While at Cruzeiro, Kerlon became well known for his trademark skill, named the "drible da foquinha" or seal dribble, where the ball is bounced continuously on the forehead while running. Opposing players often foul the performer of a seal dribble, such as in September 2007, where Atletico Mineiro player Dyego Coelho struck Kerlon with his elbow and was suspended for five matches.

European football
Kerlon was signed by Chievo in 2008. Like the deal that Inter bought Júlio César and Victor Obinna, Inter borrowed the non-EU registration quota from Chievo instead of using its own quota. Lega Calcio documented Chievo signed Kerlon but he would leave for Inter at a later time. Cruzeiro also announced that the club and third-party owner EMS Sigma Pharma sold 80% rights to Kerlon's agent Mino Raiola for €1.3 million. EMS and Cruzeiro retained the remaining 20% rights.

He made his début for Chievo on 29 October, against Lazio as a substitute; one of only four appearances that season largely due to a knee injury sustained in March 2007. In July 2009, Kerlon officially signed a deal with Inter until June 2012.

Kerlon continued to suffer from knee injuries during his time at Inter which some journalists cite as the reason for his minor impact in the Serie A.

On 31 August 2009, Kerlon was loaned to Ajax with an option to purchase; Inter also subsidised Ajax in order to finalize the loan. However Ajax only offered him a place in Jong Ajax – the reserve team instead of the first, as announced on his presentation day. He returned to Inter for the start of the 2010–11 season, but was injured again during the pre-season and suffered a long-term absence from football.

Back to Brazil
On 26 January 2011, Kerlon was announced as a new player of Paraná Clube on loan and the club borrowed him until 8 August 2011. He played three times in 2011 Campeonato Paranaense.

On 21 July 2011, he completed a one-year loan move to Nacional de Nova Serrana. Nacional participated in 2011 Minas Gerais Cup and 2012 Minas Gerais League. Kerlon only played once in the state league.

Japan
In August 2012 he joined Japan Football League side Fujieda MYFC on free transfer. On 16 September 2012, Kerlon made his league debut against Zweigen Kanazawa, coming on as 59th-minute substitute. He scored his first goal for the club in his next match, scoring in the 77th minute in a 3–0 win over Sony Sendai. In his first season in Japan he scored three goals and provided seven assists in eight games. In his second season at the club, Kerlon played 14 matches and scored 6 goals before his knee troubles affected him once more. He was forced to return to Brazil for knee surgery, keeping him out of action until February 2014. On 20 January 2014, he left the club.

United States
In September 2014, he trained and played a few games with Atlanta Silverbacks but quickly ruled out the transfer possibility by saying "I always had the dream and the intention to play in the United States, whether it's in MLS or the NASL, I really like the country, I really want to be here, because I am closer to Brazil, and this opportunity came to me. I am very happy to be here."

On 17 March 2015, Kerlon signed with Miami Dade FC.

Malta
In September 2015, Kerlon arrived on the island of Malta for a trial with Birkirkara but instead signed for Sliema Wanderers on a free transfer. On 19 September, he scored his first goal for the club, scoring the winner in the 2–1 win over Mosta.

Slovakia
After a spell back in Brazil with Villa Nova where he made three appearances in the Campeonato Mineiro, Kerlon signed for Slovak Super Liga side FC Spartak Trnava on a one-and-a-half-year contract. However, he made only four appearances before his contract was terminated at the end of the season.

Retirement
On 20 October 2017, after spending three months without a club, Kerlon publicly announced his retirement from football.

International career
Kerlon was the top scorer and named Best Player at the 2005 South American Under 17 Football Championship, scoring eight goals in seven matches and helping Brazil win the tournament.

Honours
Cruzeiro
 * Campeonato Mineiro: 2006

Brazil U17
 * South American Under 17 Football Championship: 2005

Individual
 * South American U-17 Football Championship top scorer: 2005
 * South American U-17 Football Championship Best Player: 2005

title: Kerlon


text: User talk:145.53.47.109

title: User talk:145.53.47.109


title: User:200.83.85.10


text: User talk:68.99.245.108

title: User talk:68.99.245.108


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Albert Ogilvie

Albert George Ogilvie (10 March 1890 – 10 June 1939) was an Australian politician and Premier of Tasmania from 22 June 1934 until his death on 10 June 1939.

Early life
Ogilvie was born on 10 March 1890 in Hobart, Tasmania. His parents Kate (née McGee) and James Ogilvie were publicans who ran the Victoria Tavern in Hobart. His paternal grandfather had been transported to Australia as a convict.

Ogilvie attended Buckland's School in Hobart before completing his secondary education in Victoria at St Patrick's College, Ballarat. He graduated Bachelor of Laws at the University of Tasmania in 1913 and was admitted to the bar the following year, serving his articles of clerkship with Norman Ewing. In August 1921 Ogilvie successfully defended George William King, who had been accused of the murder of Chrissie Venn.

Politics
Ogilvie was elected to the Tasmanian House of Assembly at the 1919 state election, aged 29. He was re-elected to the Division of Franklin on each subsequent election until his death.

In October 1923 he joined the Lyons cabinet as attorney-general and minister for education, to which was added mines and forestry in March 1924. In this year he was made a King's Counsel (KC) and was then the youngest to hold that position in Australia. In 1927 he resigned from the Lyons government and sat as a private member, but was elected leader of the opposition when Lyons went into federal politics in 1929.

Premier
He became premier without portfolio of a Labor ministry on 21 June 1934, but although he had no special department he studied all legislation closely and worked early and late at his office. He was much interested in the health of the community and advocated hospital extensions, stressed the necessity for home defence training, and realising the difficulties of the smaller states, fought hard for Tasmania at loan council meetings.

Under his premiership, school fees were abolished, health care was improved and hospitals modernised, unemployment relief as increased, hydroelectric and papermaking development was accelerated, and housing loans were provided for the needy at minimal terms. Ogilvie also worked for the establishment of the newsprint industry in Tasmania, and instituted a superannuation fund for state officials. He twice visited England during his premiership, and was present at the silver jubilee celebrations of George V in 1935, and the coronation of George VI.

He gave great attention to financial problems, and though his financial theories did not meet with general acceptance, on the whole his administration established a feeling of confidence. In June 1939 he spent a week-end at Warburton, some miles from Melbourne, being on his way to a loan council meeting at Canberra. He took ill while playing golf and died a few hours later on 10 June. He married Dorothy Hines who survived him with a daughter. The attorney-general in his cabinet, E. J. Ogilvie, was a brother.

Legacy
The former New Town Commercial High School was renamed Ogilvie High School, in honour of the former premier, in 1940.

Family
A brother Eric James Ogilvie, served as a member of parliament at the same time Albert was premier of Tasmania. Madeleine Ogilvie, granddaughter of Eric and great-niece of Albert, was elected to the House of Assembly for the seat of Division of Denison in 2014.

title: Albert Ogilvie


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Diamond Games

The Diamond Games (due to sponsorship known for the last time as BNP Paribas Fortis Diamond Games and before that Proximus Diamond Games, GDF-Suez Diamond Games and Thomas Cook Diamond Games) was a professional women's tennis tournament organised in Antwerp, Belgium. The tournament took place in the Sportpaleis, at the beginning of February.

In 2009, with the restructuring of the WTA Tour and the retirement of both Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin, the tournament lost its status of being a WTA Tour tournament and evolved into an annual exhibition tennis event before returning to the WTA calendar in 2015. Later this year, however, WTA announced that in 2016, the Diamond Games would be replaced on the WTA calendar with a new tournament in St. Petersburg, Russia.

The Diamond Games offers a trophy to any player who wins the singles three times in five years. In 2007, Amélie Mauresmo won a golden racquet decorated with diamonds. A new trophy was unveiled in 2008, which featured a golden racquet and a ball, and was decorated with 2008 diamonds.

title: Diamond Games


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Oldest football clubs

The oldest football clubs trace their origins to the mid-19th century, a period when football evolved from being a casual pastime to an organised mainstream sport.

The identity of the oldest football clubs in the world, or even in a particular country, is often disputed or claimed by several clubs, across several codes of football. The Foot-Ball Club of Edinburgh is thought to be the earliest recorded football club in the world, with records going back to 1824. Rugby clubs also referred to themselves, or continue to refer to themselves, as simply a "football club", or as a "rugby football club". "Club" has always meant an independent entity and, during the historical period in question, very few high school or university teams were independent of the educational institutions concerned. Consequently, school and university football teams were seldom referred to as "clubs". That has always been the case, for example, in American football, which has always had ties to college sport in general. Conversely, however, the oldest still-existing "football club" with a well-documented, continuous history is Dublin University Football Club, a rugby union club founded in 1854 at Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. There exists some record of Guy's Hospital Football Club being founded in London in 1843, through an 1883 fixture card referring to Guy's 40th season.

Defunct clubs
While the first clubs emerged in Britain, possibly as early as the fifteenth century, these are poorly-documented and defunct. For example, the records of the Brewers' Company of London between 1421 and 1423 mention the hiring out of their hall "by the "football players" for "20 pence", under the heading "Trades and Fraternities". The listing of football players as a "fraternity" or a group of players meeting socially under this identity is the earliest allusion to what might be considered a football club. Other early sporting bodies dedicated to playing football include "The Gymnastic Society" of London which met regularly during the second half of the eighteenth century to pursue two sports: football and wrestling. The club played its matches – for example between London-based natives of Cumberland and Westmorland – at the Kennington Common from well before 1789 until about 1800.

The Foot-Ball Club (active 1824–41) of Edinburgh, Scotland, is the first documented club dedicated to football, and the first to describe itself as a football club. The only surviving club rules forbade tripping, but allowed pushing and holding and the picking up of the ball. Other documents describe a game involving 39 players and "such kicking of shins and such tumbling".

Other early clubs include the Great Leicestershire Cricket and Football Club present in 1840.

On Christmas Day 1841, an early documented match between two self-described "football clubs" took place. The Body-guard Club (of Rochdale) lost to the Fear-nought Club after using an ineligible player as a substitute. The complete rules used in this game are unknown, but they specified twelve players on each side, with each team providing its own umpire, and the game being started by the firing of a pistol.

A club for playing "cricket, quoits and football" was established in Newcastle on Tyne in or before 1848. The Surrey Football Club was established in 1849 and published the first non-school football list of rules (which were probably based upon the eighteenth century Gymnastic Society cited above ). Windsor Home Park F.C. was in existence as early as 1854, and would go on to compete in early editions of the FA Cup.

Continuous clubs
Supported by the Guinness Book of Records, and founded by staff at Guy's Hospital in London in 1843, the Guy's, Kings and St Thomas' RFC would be the oldest "football" club of any code. Nevertheless, the connection between the present club and the original "Guy's Hospital" formed in 1843 is still disputed, alleging that the present club is a modern amalgam of three formerly distinct hospital rugby clubs, starting with the Guy's Hospital and St Thomas' Hospital teams which were the first to merge following the union of their respective Medical Departments. The last department to merge was the King's College Hospital in 1999, although its club (founded in 1869) remained as a separate institution.

In Northern Ireland, the oldest football club is North of Ireland F.C., formed in 1868. It was the first rugby club formed in what is now Northern Ireland and only two other clubs - Dublin University and Wanderers - were formed earlier anywhere else in all Ireland.

It has been claimed that the present-day Barnes Rugby Football Club, from Barnes in London, is a continuation of the nineteenth-century Barnes Football Club, and moreover that the latter club was formed in 1839 and is thus the oldest club to have played football for its entire history. However, as of 2018, Barnes RFC's website claims only that the club was established in the 1920s, while alluding to "possibilities" that its history stretches back to 1862. In 2021, people with heritage and local enthusiasts revived the old Barnes Football Club, established in 1862.

Sheffield F.C. in England, is the world's oldest surviving independent open football club: that is, the oldest club not associated with an institution such as a school, hospital or university; and which was open to all to play. It was founded in 1857. Sheffield F.C. initially played Sheffield rules, a code of its own devising, although the club's rules influenced those of the England Football Association (FA) (1863) including handball, free kicks, corners and throw ins. While the international governing body of association football FIFA and the FA recognise Sheffield F.C. as the "world's oldest football club", and the club joined the FA in 1863, it continued to use the Sheffield rules. Sheffield F.C. did not officially adopt association football until 1877.

Setting its birth date in 1856, Cambridge University A.F.C. has been described by the university as the oldest club now playing association football, being recognised by the FA. For example, : "Salopians formed a club of their own in the late 1830s/early 1840s but that was presumably absorbed by the Cambridge University Football Club that they were so influential in creating in 1846". According to Charles Astor Bristed, in the early 1840s at Cambridge, there were games played between clubs from colleges and houses. Football is documented as being played on the original club ground, Parker's Piece, as early as 1838. The earliest existing evidence of the Cambridge University Football Club comes from "The Laws of the University Football Club" dated 1856, and held at Shrewsbury School. The Cambridge rules of 1863 would provide the basis for the FA's original rules.

The only survivor among the FA's founding clubs still playing association football is Civil Service F.C. Six of the 18 founding members later adopted rugby exclusively. Cray Wanderers F.C., originally of St Mary Cray and currently playing in Bromley, founded in 1860, is the oldest club now playing association football in Greater London. The code played by Cray Wanderers in its earliest years is unknown.

Liverpool Football Club (not to be confused with Liverpool F.C. of the Premier League), later known as Liverpool St Helens F.C., were formed in 1857, which claims to be the oldest open rugby club in the world. The club adopted the Rugby Union rules in 1872, never playing association rules. The first known record of the Club appears under the heading 'Trinity College' in the Daily Express of 1 December 1855 and is taken to show that it had then been in existence for at least a year:

FOOTBALL. - A match will be played in the College Park today (Saturday) between original and new members of the club. Play to commence at two o'clock College time.[2]

Dublin University team of the 1870s The club had thus been founded by about 1854, and it has a well-documented, continuous history since then, which gives it a strong claim to be considered the world's oldest extant football club of any code.

Albania
The first football club to be founded in Albania was the Vllaznia Sport Club on 16 February 1919.

Austria
The oldest still active football club is the First Vienna Football Club founded on 22 August 1894. Their early rivals, the Vienna Cricket and Football-Club, was founded only one day later.

Belgium
Football Club Spa was founded by the Hunter-Blair family of Blairquhan, Ayrshire, Scotland, and was in operation in 1863. The fourth Baronet took his family there in order to economise. The oldest club still in existence today in Belgium is Royal Antwerp FC, founded in 1880.

Bosnia and Herzegovina
The oldest football club in Bosnia and Herzegovina is FK Sloboda founded in Novi Grad in 1910. The first club to be ever founded was Zrinjski Mostar in 1905, but it was inactive between 1945 and 1992.

Czech Republic
FK Loučeň 1893 is the oldest football club in the Czech Republic. Prince Erich Thurn-Taxis started playing football at the local castle after returning from England in 1889. The team was registered in 1893 and lost 0:5 to the German team Regatta in the first match in Prague at Císařská louka. The club still operates today and plays in the district championship.

Croatia
The oldest still active football club in Croatia is NK Rijeka, formed in 1904 and playing association football at the latest in 1906, currently competing in the first Croatian league. HNK Segesta, that plays in the third division, was possibly founded in 1906, but its first recorded match was held in 1909.

Cyprus
Anorthosis Famagusta FC founded in 1911 is the oldest club with a football team, however it was a reading club and the football division of the club started in 1929, the same year Omonia Aradippou was founded. The now defunct football division of Enosis Neon Trust founded in 1924 is therefore the oldest football club, however the club closed its football division in 1938. The oldest surviving football club is therefore APOEL founded in 1926. The same year the now defunct Keravnos Strovolou FC was founded. The now defunct Pezoporikos Larnaca FC was founded in 1927 first merging to form EPA Larnaca FC in 1930. AEL Limassol and Aris Limassol both founded in 1930 and one year after the Anorthosis football division are therefore old clubs as well. Olympiakos Nicosia and Digenis Akritas Morphou FC were both subsequently founded in 1931.

Denmark
Kjøbenhavns Boldklub is the oldest football club in Denmark and the oldest active club in continental Europe. The sports club was formed in 1876 and association football was first played two years later.

Estonia
Estonian Sports Association Kalev (Estonian: Eesti Spordiselts Kalev) is a sports association in Estonia, founded in 1901.

In nowadays Estonian state was the oldest formed club Tallinna Jalgpalliselts Meteor in 1908. It's defunct since 1911, but restored after First World War and Estonian War of Independence in 1926 under the name Tallinna SK Meteor which took action until 1937.

France
The first football club in France was established in Paris in 1863 by English expatriates, as the following excerpt from a contemporary newspaper shows: "A number of English gentlemen living in Paris have lately organised a football club.... The football contests take place in the Bois de Boulogne, by permission of the authorities and surprise the French amazingly".

Le Havre AC was founded as an athletics and rugby club in 1872, making it the oldest surviving football club registered in France and continental Europe. They began playing association football on a regular basis in 1894. Technically AS Strasbourg could be considered the first French association football team, being established in 1890; they were however a German team at the time.

Germany
The oldest surviving rugby football club is Heidelberger RK, which was founded on 9 May 1872 as a rowing and rugby club. The HRK has won 14 national titles 1927, 1928, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1986, 2010–2015, 2017 and 2018. The biggest success of the club was the qualification for the Rugby European Challenge Cup 2018/19 - only to be denied participation, because their main sponsor owns Stade Français. The second oldest still surviving rugby club is Hannover 1878 founded 1878 and winning 9 German championships. Both clubs still play in the 1. Bundesliga.

The first association football in Germany (and likely the first outside Great Britain) was Dresden English, founded on 18 March 1874. The club had over 70 members by then, primarily Englishmen working in Dresden, with its matches being attended by hundreds of spectators. Nevertheless, Dresden English was dissolved in 1898.

The oldest still active association football club is BFC Germania 1888 founded on 15 April 1888. They play in the 10th division as of season 2020/21 and never managed to win any national titles.

Greece
The oldest still active football club is Panionios F.C. founded on 14 September 1890. This club was founded in the city of Smyrna, on the Aegean coast of the Ottoman Empire in present-day Izmir (Turkey). The club was relocated to Greece in 1922.

Hungary
The oldest still active football clubs in Hungary are Műegyetemi AFC founded in autumn 1897 as a proper football club and III. Kerületi TVE, which whose football section was founded officially in 1899 but stemmed from the 1897-founded Budai Football Csapat. The first ever football club to be founded in Hungary was Budapesti Torna Club having founded its football section in February 1897, dissolved in 1945–46.

Italy
In Italy, Genoa C.F.C. is the oldest active football club: it was founded by Charles De Grave Sells, S. Green, George Blake, W. Rilley, George Dormer Fawcus, H.M. Sandys, E. De Thierry, Johnathan Summerhill Sr., Johnathan Summerhill Jr. and Sir Charles Alfred Payton in Genoa on 7 September 1893. However, Genoa C.F.C. was not the first Italian football club, being Torino Football & Cricket Club (1887) but its history lasted only for 4 years. Founded by Edoardo Bosio (owner of Bosio & Caratsch, the earliest brewery in Italy), the team broke up in 1891. Older than Genoa and Torino is Associazione Sportiva Dilettantistica Fanfulla, a sports club founded in Lodi in 1873, but its football section was established thirty-five years later in 1908.

Latvia
Workers at the (British-owned) Salamandra metal factory in Riga founded the first football team in 1907: the British Football Club (later named Britannia).

Lithuania
The first inter-city football games are dating back to 1911. Shortly after gaining the independence in 1918, a Kybartai local of a German descent has purchased a ball, leveled out a football pitch, and gathered a team together. The team formed into a football club FK Sveikata in 1919. For the next three years the team was traveling to cities in East Prussia and Klaipėda Region to play games, as there were no other teams in Lithuania just yet. FK Sveikata is still a functioning club in Lithuania today.

Malta
The oldest football club in Malta is St.George's FC. Founded in 1890 in the city of Cospicua also known as Bormla.

Montenegro
The oldest football club in Montenegro is FK Lovćen founded in the town of Cetinje in 1913.

Netherlands
The oldest football (and oldest cricket) club in the Netherlands is Koninklijke UD from Deventer, founded in 1875 as a cricket club. In 1894, the club founded an association football section.

Koninklijke HFC was the first Dutch rugby club, established on 15 September 1879 by the 14-year-old Pim Mulier, who first encountered the sport in 1870. However, HFC switched to association football in 1883.

Utrechtse Sportvereniging Hercules (Utrecht Sports Association Hercules), also known as USV Hercules or Hercules Utrecht, is an amateur football club in Utrecht, established on 22 April 1882.

North Macedonia
The oldest football club in North Macedonia is founded in 1919 and it's FK Ljuboten.

Norway
The first football team in Norway was probably started by a buekorps in Bergen, Nygaards Bataljon, in 1883. In 1885 the first Norwegian club however, Idrætsforeningen Odd, was founded in Skien. The footballing interest was very low, and was put on ice after a few months. However, the club Odd Grenland started up with football again in 1894, and are now Norway's oldest football club.

Poland
The oldest football club in Poland was either When Lviv became a part of Ukraine (then part of the USSR) the clubs ceased to exist.
 * Lechia Lwów, established in 1903, or
 * Czarni Lwów. This club is also believed to have been founded in 1903, but historical records are unclear as to the exact date of foundation.

The oldest currently existing football club within Poland's current borders is widely considered to be Cracovia, but this is disputed by their Kraków arch-rivals Wisła Kraków; both clubs were founded in 1906, however there are multiple proofs that Wisła is younger. Resovia also lay claim to this distinction; the disputes centre around registration, continuity of a given team, and sources.

Portugal
In Portugal, Académica de Coimbra is the oldest active football club, founded on 3 November 1887.

Romania
The oldest football club in Romania is Olympia București, founded in 1904.

Serbia
The oldest club in Serbia is FK Bačka 1901, founded in 1901.

Slovakia
The oldest football club in Slovakia is 1. FC Tatran Prešov, founded in 1898, that after many name changes plays in the Slovak second league.

Slovenia
The first football club was founded in 1900 by the German minority in Ljubljana, the Laibacher Sportverein and got discontinued in 1909, followed by the Hungarian minority Lendevai FE in 1903, and the German minority in Celje (Athletik SK in 1906). In 1911, the first Slovenian football club of the Slovenian minority opened in Ljubljana, Ilirija, followed by Slovan two years later. Ilirija is nowadays considered by the Slovenian FA as the oldest running football club in the country, because the Lendava-based club went bankrupt in 2012, although it got recreated right away.

Spain
Founded on 23 December 1889, Recreativo de Huelva is the oldest football club in Spain. Two Scots, Alexander Mackay and Robert Russell Ross, overseas workers at the Rio Tinto mines, founded Huelva Recreation Club to provide their employees with physical recreation. Recreativo de Huelva predates Sevilla Foot-ball Club, which was founded a month later and it is related with Sevilla FC, according to recent studies presented by the Club and approved by UEFA and RFEF.

Sweden
The oldest active football club in Sweden is Örgryte IS, founded on 4 December 1887. They played the first football match in Sweden on 22 May 1892 against IS Lyckans Soldater.

Switzerland
FC St. Gallen 1879 is the oldest active football club in Switzerland and the second oldest in continental Europe, founded on 19 April 1879 as FC St. Gallen.

Turkey
The first club founded within the present-day borders of Turkey was Panionios, founded in the city of Izmir in 1890. Being the club of the Greek community, it relocated to modern day Greece in 1922 after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The first Turkish sports club ever is Besiktas J.K. founded in 1903. Besiktas established their football branch in 1911. The first registered football club in the country was Galatasaray, founded in 1905.

Algeria
MC Algiers was founded in 1921. It is the oldest club in Algeria, and referred to as Le Doyen des clubs algerien (The Dean of Algerian Teams).

Egypt
Gezira SC was the oldest club in Egypt founded in 1882.

Ethiopia
Saint George S.C. was the oldest club in Ethiopia founded in 1935.

Ghana
Accra-based Hearts of Oak was founded in 1911. It is the oldest club in Ghana.

Morocco
Moghreb Tétouan was founded in 1922. It is the oldest club in Morocco. Moghreb Tétouan took part in Spanish Liga for 33 years until Morocco's independence was achieved in 1956.

South Africa
Hamilton Rugby Football Club was founded in March 1875 in Cape Town, and states that it is the oldest Rugby union club in South Africa.

Sudan
Al-Merrikh Sporting Club, based in Omdurman, is the oldest football in Sudan. It was established in 1908 as Al-Masalma Sporting Club, before changing its name to Al-Merrikh in 1927.

Tanzania
Young Africans was founded in 1935. It is the oldest club in Tanzania.

Tunisia
ES Tunis was founded in 1919. It is the oldest club in Tunisia.

Hong Kong
Some of the oldest clubs in Hong Kong include St Joseph's (1880), Hong Kong Football Club (1886), Buffs (1886), all formed by Britons. The first club formed by locals was South China AA (1904).

India
In India, some of the oldest clubs are Calcutta Football Club (founded in 1872, later merged with Calcutta Cricket Club founded in 1792 to form Calcutta Cricket and Football Club), Sarada FC, Aryan FC (1884), Sovabazar FC (1886), Mohun Bagan (1889), Mohammedan SC (1891), and East Bengal (1920). All of these clubs are from Kolkata.

Indonesia
The oldest football club in Indonesia is Gymnastiek Vereeniging, founded in the City of Medan in 1887.

The oldest still active football club in Indonesia is UMS 1905, founded in 1905, currently competing in Liga 3 Jakarta. Several local clubs in the 1900s during the Dutch East Indies era that entered into internal teams such as Hercules, Vios Batavia (Persija internal); Sidolig, UNI Bandung (Persib internal) and others.

Iraq
Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya is a Baghdad-based men's club founded in 1931 in Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration. It plays within the Iraqi Premier League.

Yemen
Al-Tilal Sports Club (Arabic: نادي التلال) is a Yemeni multi-sports club based in Aden, Yemen. The club was founded in 1905, making it one of the oldest football clubs in the Middle East and the oldest in the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Tilal Sports Club is a Yemeni football team that plays in the Yemeni League, the country's top football league.

Japan
In Japan, the oldest rugby (1866) and association football club (1886) is Yokohama Country & Athletic Club.

The oldest continuing association football club is Tokyo Shukyu-Dan, founded in 1917.

Pakistan
The oldest continuing association football club for men of nowadays Pakistan is Karachi Port Trust Football Club, founded in 1887, at the time of the British Raj.

For women, the oldest club is Diya W.F.C., established in Karachi in 2002.

North America
Although football variants have been played in North America since the 1820s, the claim of oldest continuous football club in North America is still a matter of debate.

Oneida Football Club of Boston, Massachusetts, established in 1862, was the first organised team to play any kind of football in the United States. The game played by the club, known as the "Boston game", was an informal local variant that predated the codification of rules for either association or American football. The team, which consisted of graduates of Boston's elite preparatory schools, played on Boston Common from 1862 to 1865, during which time they reportedly never lost a game or even gave up a single point.

In terms of gridiron football, the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League can trace their roots back to the Hamilton Football Club (nicknamed the Tigers) which formed in 1869, then later merged with the Hamilton Wildcats in 1950 to form the current franchise. Their rivals to the east, the Toronto Argonauts, were founded four years later, in 1873, and have a mostly unchanged franchise history. Both clubs began as rugby football clubs and only later adapted to the gridiron-style of play which would become known as Canadian football. The oldest continuous rugby club in North America which still plays rugby is the McGill University Rugby Football Club, which was established in 1863, although their first recorded game was not until 1865. The oldest independent (non-university) rugby club is the Westmount Rugby Club of Montreal, which formed in 1876.

In 1869, Rutgers University and Princeton University competed in the first US intercollegiate football game. According to U.S. Soccer, the rules of this game resembled rugby and association football more closely than gridiron football. However, university-affiliated teams competing in intercollegiate championships are not typically classified as "clubs".

In the United States, gridiron-based variants of the game did not distinguish themselves from existing codes until 1871, when Harvard University began playing the Boston Game invented by Oneida. Its rules allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it if he were chased and it quickly spread, with innovations added by Yale University student Walter Camp. The oldest existing non-university semiprofessional football club is the Watertown Red & Black, which was founded in 1896. The Arizona Cardinals, founded as the Morgan Athletic Club in Chicago in 1898, are the oldest team in the National Football League.

One of the first teams to have played football under the association rules in the US was Fall River Rovers, founded in 1884. The club existed intermittently until 1921. The Milwaukee Wave of the American Indoor Soccer Association, a professional indoor soccer team based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, was founded in 1984, and is the oldest continuously operating professional soccer team of any kind in the United States. Founded in 1993, both Charleston Battery and Richmond Kickers are considered the oldest continuously operating professional soccer clubs in the United States to date. The ten charter members of Major League Soccer were all new clubs created shortly before the league began play in 1996. Nine of those ten clubs are still in existence. In 2011, the league admitted the Vancouver Whitecaps, who had existed continuously since 1986, and who were a phoenix club of the North American Soccer League side of the same name who were founded in 1974. Aside from the arguable exception of the Whitecaps, all of the other NASL clubs folded when the league folded in 1984. There is one American soccer club from an earlier first-division league still in existence: the Kearny Scots of the semi-pro Eastern Premier Soccer League have been around since the 1930s, when they were a longtime member of the American Soccer League. They won the ASL league championship five years in a row from 1937 through 1941.

Mexico
In Mexico, the oldest Football club is Club de Fútbol Pachuca, based in Pachuca, Hidalgo, that competes in Liga MX. Founded by Cornish miners from Camborne and Redruth in 1901, it is one of the oldest football clubs in the Americas, and was one of the founding members of the Mexican Primera División.

Argentina
Buenos Aires Cricket & Rugby Club claims to be the oldest club still in existence in Argentina. According to the club's website, the club was founded before 8 December 1864 as a cricket institution. The date of foundation has been recognised by the Buenos Aires Rugby Union. It is however believed that the club was founded in 1831, with existing documentary evidence about a cricket match played by Buenos Aires that same year. Nevertheless, the practise of any "football" code did not start until 1951 when the BACC merged with the Buenos Aires F.C. and rugby union was added.

Club Atlético del Rosario was officially established in 1867 as a cricket institution. The club soon added association football, being the first club from Rosario playing in the Primera División, the top division of Argentina. In rugby union, Rosario AC played the first inter-clubs match in the country on 28 June 1886, when the team faced Buenos Aires Football Club.

Having been established in 1875, Club Mercedes is considered the oldest association football club still in existence in Argentina. This places Mercedes above Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata and Quilmes, both founded in 1887.

Bolivia
Oruro Royal was founded on 26 May 1896 by the English workers hired by the Bolivian Government to build the national railways, becoming the first Bolivian football squad.

Brazil
São Paulo Athletic Club, founded on 13 May 1888 by English immigrants as a cricket club, could be considered the oldest Brazilian club to have played any code of "football", starting to play association football in 1898. After football retired from competitions in 1912, rugby union became the main sport of SPAC.

The oldest club to have been in continuous activity in association football is S.C. Rio Grande, founded in July 1900. Fluminense Football Club, founded on 21 July 1902, is the oldest football club of Brazil with the word "football" in its name. It is also the first of the Brazilian big clubs and the cradle of the national team of Brazil.

São Paulo Railway Company and São Paulo Gaz Company, both established in 1895 (and then defunct) played the first football match in Brazil that same year.

Chile
Santiago Wanderers was founded on 15 August 1892 by Irish community and was the first football club in Chile.

Colombia
The defunct Barranquilla Football Club founded by British railway workers in 1908 was the first football club in Colombia.

Cali Football Club was formed in 1908 by students under the leadership of Nazario Lalinde, Juan Pablo Lalinde and Fidel Lalinde, who came back from Europe bringing football to the city of Cali, but in 1912 the students under the leadership of the three Lalinde brothers organized the team and renamed it as Deportivo Cali

Peru
Lima Cricket and Football Club claims to be the oldest football-practising club in Peru and the Americas, having been founded in 1859 by the city's British community.

Uruguay
In Uruguay, the Montevideo Cricket Club, established in 1861, has however been ranked as the oldest rugby union club outside Europe by the World Rugby Museum of Twickenham, although the first certain rugby match played by MVCC was in 1875.

Australia

In 1858, in Melbourne, Victoria, members of the Melbourne Cricket Club formed a loosely organised football team, and played against other local football enthusiasts over the winter and spring of that year. The Melbourne Football Club was officially founded the following year on 14 May, and three days later (17 May), four members codified the first laws of Australian rules football. In June 1859, the Castlemaine Football Club and Melbourne University Football Club were formed, and the Geelong Football Club was formed shortly afterwards, in July. Over the next decade, many more Australian rules football clubs were formed in Victoria. Melbourne and Geelong were founding members of the Victorian Football League (VFL), now known as the Australian Football League, making them the world's oldest football clubs that are now professional.

New Zealand
Christchurch Football Club, established in 1863, is the oldest football club of any code in New Zealand. The club initially played using its own rules, before converting to rugby football. Wellington Football Club, based in Hataitai, was established in 1870 and is the oldest continuous rugby football club in New Zealand. The honour of being the country's first organised association football club is likely to belong to Auckland's North Shore United, which was founded as North Shore in 1886. Two Dunedin-based clubs, Northern and Wakari, were officially founded in 1888, although it is possible that Northern had been playing as a team prior to this time.

Oldest school football clubs
These are the earliest schools to have evidence of regular, organised football. Each school would originally have played its own code.

 * Aldenham School F.C. was reported in The Football Annual 1873 (Charles Alcock) to have been founded in 1825 but there are no primary sources to support this and it is disputed.

title: Oldest football clubs