text:
Talk:Hurricane Anita

Todo
Anything on impact. Jdorje 21:51, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Not much info on impact, given that it hit in east nowhere in a time where information outside the US often came in a trickle. -- §  Hurricane  E  RIC  §Damages archive 01:03, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Link Between Anita and East Pacific's T.D.11?
Both the best track data and the MWR on Anita indicate that the storm dissipated over central Mexico, but the AMS document of the East Pacific hurricane season the same year say that Anita's remnants got to water and became Tropical Depression 11. I looked everywhere else, but barely anything on Anita's dissipation or the formation of 11 exists.

My question is: Did Anita (or anything associated with Anita) officially reach the Pacific and became T.D.11? The link to the AMS document saying T.D.11 was Anita is: http://ams.allenpress.com/pdfserv/10.1175%2F1520-0493(1978)106%3C0546:ENPTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2

Jake52 My talk 03:00, 30 July 2006 (UTC)
 * One thing to bear in mind is that the best track data does not state Anita dissipated. If you look at a more blatant example, 1996's Cesar the best track gives no indication it continued as Douglas. What can be seen though in the last two BT data points for Anita say at 0000 it was at 22.5N 101.0W and at 0600 it was at 22.0N 103.0W. The first mention of the location of TD11 in the EPHC report is at 1200 when it was located at 21.5N 105.5W. Along with the text what the text from the official (the EPHC) source says that track is obviously continuous. Its the same storm (another track map needed). Also the MWR linked in this article on page 15 shows Anita and a Pacific TD as forming from the same wave.--Nilfanion (talk) 11:20, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

I've created a track map using the data in that AMS document and adding it to the Anita best track. The results shown here, what do you think?--Nilfanion (talk) 19:19, 31 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Cool. íslenska hurikein #12 (samtal) 19:55, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

Looks good! Jake52 My talk 03:15, 1 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Can we add it to the article? íslenska hurikein | #12 (samtal) 13:23, 14 August 2006 (UTC)

Intensity at landfall
Was it a cat.4 or 5?

The Monthly Weather Review of 1977 claims Anita was a strong Cat. 4 upon landfall, whereas this e-journal from 2003 says it hit land at peak intensity i.e. Cat. 5.

I'm inclined to go with the latter, as it is more recent. Nevertheless, details are rather vague. Pobbie Rarr 12:11, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

HURDAT does NOT confirm Cat 5 at landfall. At 0600Z on Sept. 2 the storm was 50 miles before landfall with 150 knot winds, and at 1200Z it was 20 miles after landfall with 120 knot winds. That's an awfully stiff drop to simply be explained by a landfall. It may have been experiencing a Katrina-esque ingestion of dry air on its final approach. This system desperately needs a reanalysis, or chatter that a storm can't make landfall at Cat 5 strength west of the Mississippi River will continue.. FSUrv95 18:15, 2 February 2020 (UTC)

 * I have found another source suggesting a category 4 landfall https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/NWS-NHC-1978-6.pdf. However, other sources (including the Hurricane Research Division's own blog) still list the storm as a category 5 upon landfall. It is possible that the aforementioned source was found to be in error at some later point but I do not know when or if this could have happened. As the comment above mentions, I hope reanalysis is able to eventually shed some light on this unusual case. MCRPY22 (talk) 05:06, 9 May 2023 (UTC)

GA review
Nice work, a very good article. Per GA critetia, I see it has no writing problems, it is verifiable, adresses the major points of it's subject, and it has images. Therefore, I will pass the article. --  J A 10  Talk • Contribs 03:58, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

GA Sweeps Review: Pass
As part of the WikiProject Good Articles, we're doing sweeps to go over all of the current GAs and see if they still meet the GA criteria. I'm specifically going over all of the "Meteorology and atmospheric sciences" articles. I believe the article currently meets the criteria and should remain listed as a Good article. I have made several minor corrections throughout the article. Altogether the article is well-written and is still in great shape after its passing in 2006. Continue to improve the article making sure all new information is properly sourced and neutral. It would be beneficial to go through the article and update all of the access dates of the inline citations and fix any dead links. If you have any questions, let me know on my talk page and I'll get back to you as soon as I can. I have updated the article history to reflect this review. Happy editing! --Nehrams2020 (talk) 07:20, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hurricane Anita


text:
Balallan

Balallan (Baile Ailein, Bail' Ailein), meaning "Allan's Town", is a crofting township on the Isle of Lewis, in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland. Balallan is within the parish of Lochs.

The township has the distinction of being the longest village (4 mi from end to end) in Lewis, and also in northern Scotland. Straggled along the head of a long sea loch between Arivruach and Laxay, it developed due to a mixture of crofting along the loch shore and fishing. It sits at the head of Loch Erisort.

Those on the loch side were each given direct access to the loch for their boats as well as access to the moorland behind for their sheep. They also attended to their croft, given relative shelter from the elements by the high ground to the west.

The village formerly had a police house, and currently houses a post office.

Just south of the village there is a cairn that stands as a memorial to the Deer Park Raiders. It is one of three Land Struggle cairns to have been commissioned on the Isle of Lewis.

Celtic goalkeeper Rachael Johnstone was brought up in Balallan.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Balallan


text:
Nez Perce language

Nez Perce, also spelled Nez Percé or called nimipuutímt (alternatively spelled nimiipuutímt, niimiipuutímt, or niimi'ipuutímt), is a Sahaptian language related to the several dialects of Sahaptin (note the spellings -ian vs. -in). Nez Perce comes from the French phrase nez percé, "pierced nose"; however, Nez Perce, who call themselves nimiipuu, meaning "the people", did not pierce their noses. This misnomer may have occurred as a result of confusion on the part of the French, as it was surrounding tribes who did so.

The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family (which, in turn, may be related to a larger Penutian grouping). It is spoken by the Nez Perce people of the Northwestern United States.

Nez Perce is a highly endangered language. While sources differ on the exact number of fluent speakers, it is almost definitely under 100. The Nez Perce tribe is endeavoring to reintroduce the language into native usage through a language revitalization program, but (as of 2015) the future of the Nez Perce language is far from assured.

Phonology
The phonology of Nez Perce includes vowel harmony (which was mentioned in Noam Chomsky & Morris Halle's The Sound Pattern of English), as well as a complex stress system described by Crook (1999).

Consonants
The sounds, , , and  only occur in the Downriver dialect.

Vowels
Nez Perce has an average-sized inventory of five vowels, each marked for length. Unusually for a five-vowel system, however, it lacks a mid front vowel, with low front in its place. Such an asymmetrical configuration is found in less than five percent of the languages that distinguish exactly five vowels, and among those that do display an asymmetry, the "missing" vowel is overwhelmingly more likely to be a back vowel or  than front. Indeed, Nez Perce's lack of a mid front vowel within a five-vowel system appears unique, and contrary to basic tendencies toward triangularity in the allocation of vowel space. A potential reason for this peculiarity is discussed in the section on vowel harmony below.

Stress is marked with an acute accent.

Diphthongs
Nez Perce distinguishes seven diphthongs, all with phonemic length:

Vowel harmony
Nez Perce displays an extensive system of vowel harmony. Vowel qualities are divided into two opposing sets, "dominant" and "recessive". The presence of a dominant vowel causes all recessive vowels within the same phonological word to assimilate to their dominant counterpart; hence with the addition of the dominant-marked suffix :

cé·qet $\rightarrow$ cá·qat'ayn

/tsǽːqæt/ {} /tsáːqat'ajn/

"raspberry" {} {"for a raspberry"}

With very few exceptions, therefore, phonological words may contain only vowels of the dominant or recessive set. Despite occurring in both sets, is not neutral; instead, it is either dominant or recessive depending on the morpheme in which it occurs.

This system presents a challenge to common concepts of vowel harmony, since it does not appear to be based on obvious considerations of backness, height, or tongue root position. To account for this, Katherine Nelson (2013) proposes that the two sets be considered as distinct "triangles" of vowel space, each by themselves maximally dispersed, where the recessive set is somewhat retracted (further back) in comparison to the dominant:

This dual system would simultaneously explain two apparent phonological aberrances: the absence of a mid front vowel, and the fact that phonemic can be marked either as dominant or recessive. Since the three vowels of a given set are placed with regard to the other vowels of the same set, the low height of the front vowel appears natural (that is, maximally dispersed) against its high counterparts, as in a three-vowel system such as those of Arabic and Quechua. The high front vowel meanwhile, is retracted much less in the transition from recessive to dominant - little enough that the distinction does not surface phonemically - and therefore can be placed near to the crux around which the triangle of vowel space is "tilted" by retraction.

Syllable structure
The Nez Perce syllable canon is CV(C)(C)(C)(C); that is, a mandatory consonant-vowel sequence with optional vowel length, followed by up to four coda consonants. The arrangement of permitted coda clusters is summarized in the following table, where segments in each column can follow those to their right (C' represents any glottalized consonant), except when the same consonant would occur twice:

Grammar

As in many other indigenous languages of the Americas, a Nez Perce verb can have the meaning of an entire sentence in English. This manner of providing a great deal of information in one word is called polysynthesis. Verbal affixes provide information about the person and number of the subject and object, as well as tense and aspect (e.g. whether or not an action has been completed).

ʔew ʔilíw wee ʔinipí qaw tée ce

1/2-3.OBJ fire fly grab straight.through go.away IMPERF.PRES.SG

'I go to scoop him up in the fire'

hi tiw̓ele pááy e

3.SUBJ in.rain come PAST

'He arrived in the rain'

Documentation History
Asa Bowen Smith developed the Nez Perce grammar by adapting the missionary alphabet used in Hawaiian missions, and adding the consonants s and t. In 1840, Asa Bowen Smith wrote the manuscript for the book Grammar of the Language of the Nez Perces Indians Formerly of Oregon, U.S.. The grammar of Nez Perce has been described in a grammar and a dictionary  with two dissertations.

Case
In Nez Perce, the subject of a sentence, and the object when there is one, can each be marked for grammatical case, an affix that shows the function of the word (compare to English he vs. him vs. his). Nez Perce employs a three-way case-marking strategy: a transitive subject, a transitive object, and an intransitive subject are each marked differently. Nez Perce is thus an example of the very rare type of tripartite languages (see morphosyntactic alignment).

Because of this case marking, the word order can be quite free. A specific word order tells the hearer what is new information (focus) versus old information (topic), but it does not mark the subject and the object (in English, word order is fixed — subject–verb–object).

Nouns in Nez Perce are marked based on how they relate to the transitivity of the verb. Subjects in a sentence with a transitive verb take the ergative suffix -nim, objects in a sentence with a transitive verb take the accusative suffix -ne, and subjects in sentences with an intransitive verb don’t take a suffix.

This system of marking allows for flexible word order in Nez Perce:

Verb–subject–object word order kii pée-ten’we-m-e   qíiw-ne ’iceyéeye-nm

this 3→3-talk-CSL-PAST old.man-OBJ coyote-ERG

‘Now the coyote talked to the old man’

Subject–verb–object word order Kaa háatya-nm páa-’nahna-m-a    ’iceyéeye-ne

and wind-ERG 3→3-carry-CSL-PAST coyote-OBJ

‘And the wind carried coyote here’

Subject–object–verb word order Kawó’ kii  háama-pim    ’áayato-na   pée-’nehnen-e

then this  husband-ERG  woman-OBJ    3→3-take.away-PAST

‘Now then the husband took the woman away’

Vowel harmony

 * Chomsky, Noam; & Halle, Morris. (1968). Sound pattern of English (pp. 377–378). Studies in language. New York: Harper & Row.
 * Hall, Beatrice L.; & Hall, R. M. R. (1980). Nez Perce vowel harmony: An Africanist explanation and some theoretical consequences. In R. M. Vago (Ed.), Issues in vowel harmony (pp. 201–236). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
 * Kim, Chin (1978). 'Diagonal' vowel harmony?: Some implications for historical phonology. In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Recent developments in historical phonology (pp. 221–236). The Hague: Mouton.
 * Hall, Beatrice L.; & Hall, R. M. R. (1980). Nez Perce vowel harmony: An Africanist explanation and some theoretical consequences. In R. M. Vago (Ed.), Issues in vowel harmony (pp. 201–236). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
 * Kim, Chin (1978). 'Diagonal' vowel harmony?: Some implications for historical phonology. In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Recent developments in historical phonology (pp. 221–236). The Hague: Mouton.
 * Kim, Chin (1978). 'Diagonal' vowel harmony?: Some implications for historical phonology. In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Recent developments in historical phonology (pp. 221–236). The Hague: Mouton.

Dictionaries and vocabulary

 * Aoki, Haruo. (1994). Nez Perce dictionary. University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 112). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09763-7.

Grammar

 * Aoki, Haruo. (1965). Nez Perce grammar. University of California, Berkeley.
 * Aoki, Haruo. (1970). Nez Perce grammar. University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 62). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09259-7. (Reprinted 1973, California Library Reprint series).

Texts and courses

 * Aoki, Haruo. (1979). Nez Perce texts. University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 90). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09593-6., 2, 3
 * Aoki, Haruo; & Whitman, Carmen. (1989). Titwáatit: (Nez Perce Stories). Anchorage: National Bilingual Materials Development Center, University of Alaska. ISBN 0-520-09593-6. (Material originally published in Aoki 1979).
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.
 * Watters, Mari. (1990). Nez Perce tapes and texts. [5 audio cassettes & 1 booklet]. Moscow, Idaho: Mari Watters Productions, Upward Bound, College of Education, University of Idaho.

title: Nez Perce language


text:
Talk:Hurricane Frederic

Todo
The content and structure are certainly enough to qualify as B-class, but there are some parts that need to be addressed. For instance, was it a cat3 or a cat4 storm? Winds are *never* clocked at 132 mph. Why does the intro note the uncertainty in damages (all storms have this uncertainty)? Is the quoted section actually a quote? Jdorje

Frederic was a Cat. 3 at landfall. This article could be vastly improved using the NHC archive alone. I've improved the intro & storm history. Pobbie Rarr 19:03, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Assessment comments
I see someone put it at B class. Sorry, but I disagree. First, there's no inline sources. Second, it's very stubby in places. A B class article, in my opinion at least, should have a few sentences on every aspect of the hurricane. The are no inland effects mentioned, nor is there any mention of its effects in Puerto Rico. It's pretty close, but not quite enough for B class. Hurricanehink ( talk ) 19:07, 13 September 2006 (UTC)
 * My experience reading the article mirrored the B-class description:
 * Useful to many, but not all, readers. A casual reader flipping through articles would feel that they generally understood the topic, but a serious student or researcher trying to use the material would have trouble doing so, or would risk error in derivative work.
 * So if I were to reassess the article, I'd still give it a B. — Rob (  talk  ) 20:52, 13 September 2006 (UTC)
 * True, but I feel a casual reader should be introduced to the main parts of the storm. Also, how can it be useful if it is incorrect? We don't know, unless there are some sort of inline sources. Hurricanehink ( talk ) 21:09, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

Landfall intensity
I know that the silly Deadliest Costliest table says "Category 3" but I have found no other source that says that. In fact, the preliminary report and the MWR (which are almost verbatum copies) says that flight level winds just before landfall were nearly Category 5 force (138 knots). Using the standard reduction ratio of 0.9, that comes to 125 knots at the surface. The same recon plane reported a 946 mbar pressure, down from 950 six hours earlier and Dauphin Island Sea Lab reported an "unofficial" reading of 943 mbar. 135 mph seems to be a conservative landfall estimate rather than an aggressive one. The real intensity was probably around 140 mph. And the damage reflects that. No information I have found indicates that Frederic weakened before landfall. The Best Track certainly doesn't (given, the Best Track does have a few errors in it; hence the more extensive research). -- § Hurricane E  RIC  archive 01:15, 22 January 2008 (UTC)
 * That may be. But remember, no original research in these articles per wikipedia guidelines.  Thegreatdr (talk) 19:07, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * One link went to an Oops site, so it was removed. It was an archived video from WKRG (call numbers may not be accurate). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rpsingleton1 (talk • contribs) 17:48, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Wikipedia page has questionable damage listings
A lot of stronger references indicate the storm caused from $2.2 billion to just below $3 billion (the 1979 USD), rather than the $1.77 that's indicated with the Wikipedia page on the storm. Reliable sources showing the real damage exist; they, however, haven't been listed on the page here on the enwiki. Can anyone get real proof to establish this? Angela Kate Maureen (talk) 19:05, 19 December 2021 (UTC)
 * It appears that the $1.7 Billion for the US was taken from the NHC's costliest TC list.Jason Rees (talk) 19:53, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hurricane Frederic


text:
Category talk:Congressional districts of Massachusetts

The apostrophe
I don't know how much good this will do, but here goes: These district article titles should not have the apostrophe in them. They should read something like Massachusetts 1st congressional district or First congressional district of Massachusetts. The possessive is unnecessary and unencyclopedic, not to mention just plain yucky-looking. Plus, if one must use the possessive, it should not have the last s here, but should read Massachusetts' first congresssional district. Eric talk 13:09, 17 January 2013 (UTC)


text:
Japanese particles

Japanese particles, or, are suffixes or short words in Japanese grammar that immediately follow the modified noun, verb, adjective, or sentence. Their grammatical range can indicate various meanings and functions, such as speaker affect and assertiveness.

Orthography and diction
Japanese particles are written in hiragana in modern Japanese, though some of them also have kanji forms: (弖 or 天 for te て; 爾 for ni に; 乎 or 遠 for o を; and 波 for wa は). Particles follow the same rules of phonetic transcription as all Japanese words, with the exception of は (written ha, pronounced wa as a particle), へ (written he, pronounced e) and を (written using a hiragana character with no other use in modern Japanese, originally assigned as wo, now usually pronounced o, though some speakers render it as wo). These exceptions are a relic of historical kana usage.

Types of particles
There are eight types of particles, depending on what function they serve.

Phrasal particles (準体助詞)
Note that some particles appear in two types. For example, kara is called a "case marker" where it describes where something is from or what happens after something; when it describes a cause it is called a "conjunctive particle".

Index

 * bakari
 * bakari ka
 * bakashi
 * dake
 * da no
 * de
 * de mo
 * dokoro ka
 * e
 * ga
 * hodo
 * ka
 * kai
 * ka na
 * kara
 * ka shira
 * kedo
 * kiri
 * kke
 * koro/goro
 * koso
 * kurai/gurai
 * made
 * made ni
 * me
 * mo
 * mono/mon
 * mono de
 * mono ka/mon-ka
 * mono nara
 * mono o
 * na and naa
 * nado
 * nanka/nante
 * nara
 * ne
 * ni
 * ni te
 * ni wa
 * no
 * no de
 * nomi
 * no ni
 * o
 * sa/saa
 * sae
 * de sae
 * sae...ba/ra
 * shi
 * shika
 * sura
 * to
 * to ka
 * to mo
 * tte
 * tteba
 * wa
 * ya
 * yara
 * yo
 * yori
 * ze
 * zo
 * zutsu

に ni and で de
Ni and de can both be used to show location, corresponding to the prepositions "in" or "at" in English. Their uses are mutually exclusive.

Ni, when used to show location, is used only with stative verbs such as iru, "to be, exist;" aru, "to be, exist, have;" and sumu, "to live, inhabit."

 * 日本に住んでいる. (Nihon-ni sunde iru. "I live in Japan.")
 * 学校にいる. (Gakkō-ni iru. "I am in school.")

De is used with action verbs to convey the place of action, as opposed to location of being.

 * 学校で寝る. (Gakkō-de neru. "I sleep in/at school.")
 * * Gakkō-ni neru. *"I sleep to school," is not usually used.

に ni and へ e
Ni and e can both indicate direction of motion, literally meaning "to" or "at" in English. However, as particles in Japanese directly modify the preceding noun, some Japanese language courses call this the "goal of movement" usage because it marks the goal of the movement. For example, in the sentence 私はうちに帰ります (Watashi wa uchi ni kaerimasu or "I'm going back home") the goal of the movement is home (uchi ni). In this sense, e is perhaps closer to English "towards" in terms of use (see example below). As long as ni is used directionally, it is possible to substitute e in its place. Ni used in other senses cannot be replaced by e:

 * 学校に行く. (Gakkō ni iku. "I'm going to school"), where 学校 gakkō, "school," is the destination of 行く iku, "go."
 * Gakkō e iku. "I'm going to school," where gakkō, "school," is the destination of iku, "go."
 * 学校にいる. (Gakkō ni iru. "I'm at school"), where 学校 gakkō, "school," is the location of いる iru, "be;" not a destination.
 * Gakkō e iru. *"I'm to school," is not a possible construction since "be" is not a verb of motion.
 * 友達に会う. (Tomodachi ni au "I'll meet my friends") where 友達 tomodachi, "friends," is the indirect object of 会う au, "meet;" not a destination.
 * Tomodachi e au *"I'll meet to my friends," which is impossible because "meet" is not a verb of motion.
 * 本を買いに行った. (Hon o kai ni itta "I went to buy a book"), where 買いに kai ni, "to buy," shows purpose or intent, and is a verbal adverb; not destination.
 * Hon o kai e itta *"I went towards buying a book," is not possible because kai, "buying," cannot be a destination.

Indicating direction, using e instead of ni is preferred when ni is used non-directionally in proximity:

 * 友達に会いに京都へ行った. (Tomodachi ni ai ni Kyōto e itta. "I went to Kyoto to meet my friends.")

Ni can not be replaced by e in all uses. It must be used with days of the week as in 日曜日に京都にいきます (Nichiyoubi ni Kyoto ni ikimasu "I will go to Kyoto on Sunday".) where ni is used both to mark the day of the week (日曜日) and the goal of the movement (京都). It is also required with numerical times (but not relative times). For example, ni must be used in the sentence 十一時に寝ます (Juu ichi ji ni nemasu "I will go to sleep at 11 o'clock") to mark the numerical time (十一時) but it is not used with the relative time words like tomorrow (明日), yesterday (昨日), today (今日), last week (先週), next month (来月), etc. For example, in the sentence 私は昨日仕事に行きませんでした (watashi wa kinou shigoto ni ikimasen deshita "I did not go to work yesterday") no particle is needed for "yesterday" (昨日), but ni is used to mark the goal of movement (仕事に).

が ga and を o
In some cases, ga and o are interchangeable. For example, with the tai form, meaning "want to", it is possible to say either of the following:
 * ご飯が食べたい. (Gohan ga tabetai. "I want to eat rice.")
 * ご飯を食べたい. (Gohan o tabetai. "I want to eat rice.")

Similarly, 好き suki, a na adjective meaning "liked", can take either ga or o:
 * 君が好きだ. (Kimi ga suki da "I like you")
 * 君を好きでよかった (Kimi o suki de yokatta "I'm glad I like you") (words from a popular song)

に ni and と to
Ni and to are sometimes interchangeable in forms like になる ni naru and となる to naru. The ni naru form suggests a natural change, whereas to naru suggests change to a final stage.

や ya and と to
Ya is used for incomplete lists, whereas to is used for complete ones.

Historical particles
い i was used in Old Japanese and kanbun works. Its meaning is still debated, but has traditionally been considered emphatic.

Differences from English prepositions
Many Japanese particles fill the role of prepositions in English, but they are unlike prepositions in many ways. Japanese does not have equivalents of prepositions like "on" or "about", and often uses particles along with verbs and nouns to modify another word where English might use prepositions. For example, ue is a noun meaning "top/up"; and ni tsuite is a fixed verbal expression meaning "concerning":

General references

 * Chino, Naoko. How to Tell the Difference Between Japanese Particles. Tokyo; New York: Kodansha International, 2005. ISBN 4-7700-2200-X.
 * Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo: Japan Times, 1986. ISBN 4-7890-0454-6.
 * Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. Tokyo: Japan Times, 1997. ISBN 4-7890-0775-8.
 * Martin, Samuel E. A Reference Grammar of Japanese. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-300-01813-4.
 * McClain, Yoko Matsuoka. A Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar: Including Lists of Words and Expressions with English Equivalents for Reading Aid. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1981. ISBN 4-590-00570-0, ISBN 0-89346-149-0.

title: Japanese particles


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Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

The Type 95 Ha-Gō (九五式軽戦車 ハ号) was a light tank used by the Empire of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War, at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol against the Soviet Union, and in the Second World War. It proved sufficient against infantry but was not effective against other tanks. Approximately 2,300 were produced, making it the most numerous Japanese armoured fighting vehicle of the Second World War.

History and development
From early 1930s, the Japanese army began experimenting with a mechanized warfare unit combining infantry with tanks. However, the Type 89 Medium tank could not keep pace with the motorized infantry, which could move at 40 km/h by truck. For transport, tanks could be loaded on train platforms like in any other army of the time. To solve this problem, Tomio Hara of the Army Technical Bureau proposed a new light tank capable of 40 km/h speed and started development in 1933.

The prototype of the tank was begun in 1933 and completed in June 1934 at the Army's Sagami Arsenal. Initial tests were positive, but it was too heavy at 7.5 T and was reworked to bring the weight down to 6.5 T. Due to doubts by the infantry as to its capability for infantry support it was tested in Manchuria in the winter of 1934–1935. The reports were favourable and a second prototype built, which was started in June and completed in November 1935.

In 1935, at a meeting in the Army Technical Bureau, the Type 95 was proposed as the main tank for mechanized infantry units. The infantry had concerns that the armor was insufficient but the cavalry indicated that the improved speed and armament compensated for thin armor. The infantry eventually agreed, as the Type 95 was still superior to the alternatives of the Type 92 cavalry tank and Type 94 tankette.

The name was based on the year since the beginning of the Empire that the tank was produced; Type 2595. Sometimes a surname was used to supplement or replace the naming ideograms used for Japanese armored fighting vehicles. The Type 95 had the surname "Ha-Go" (third model) that was given by the designer of the tank, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries started production of the tank in 1936. Mass production began in 1938 with the tank and parts made by several companies; besides Mitsubishi, that included, Niigata Tekkoshō, Dowa Jido Sho, Sagami Arsenal Kokura Rikugu Jiohei Sho and Ihesil.

Design
The Type 95 was a 7.4-ton vehicle with a complement of 3 crewmen: a commander, a hull machine gunner, and a driver. Only the commander was seated in the turret, hence he was responsible for observation, loading, aiming, firing the main gun, as well as decision-making and commanding the crew. The hand-operated turret was small and extremely cramped.

The primary armament of the most produced version was a Type 94 (1934) 37 mm tank gun (not to be confused with the Type 94 37 mm anti-tank gun introduced two years later) with a barrel length of 46.1 calibers. It elevated between −15 and +20 degrees. The tank carried two types of 37 mm ammunition, the high-explosive and armor-piercing. For the latter, muzzle velocity was 580 m/s and armor penetration was 36 mm at a distance of 275 m.

Secondary armament was originally two 6.5 mm Type 91 machine guns, but these were replaced with two 7.7 mm Type 97 light machine guns, one mounted in the hull front and the other in the back of the turret, facing to the rear right (that is, in the five-o-clock direction).

The most characteristic feature of the Type 95 tank was its simple suspension system. Army officer Tomio Hara designed the bell crank scissors system. This suspension system became standard on the majority of the subsequently designed Japanese tanks. For the Type 95, two paired bogie wheels per side were suspended on a single bell crank and connected to a coil spring mounted horizontally outside the hull. The tracks were driven through the front sprockets. There were two return wheels. The suspension had troubles early on, with a tendency to pitch on rough ground, and so it was modified with a brace to connect the pairs of bogies. Despite this, the tank continued to give its users a rough ride across any uneven ground. It was provided with an interior layer of asbestos padding separated from the hull with an air gap, to isolate the crew from the sun-heated armor plates, and to protect the crew from injury when the tank moved across rough terrain.

The Type 95 was fitted with a 120 hp (89.5 kW) Mitsubishi A6120VDe air-cooled 6-cylinder diesel engine. It was located in the rear compartment on the right side. The power unit gave it good mobility. Some tanks were fitted with two reflectors in the front of the vehicle for night operations.

Variants

 * Type 95 Ha-Go (early production)
 * An early production version that differed from the most produced model by using less powerful armament: the main gun was 37 mm Type 94 with a barrel length of 36.7 calibers, muzzle velocity of 575 (1900 fps) -600 m/s (2200 fps), and armor penetration of 45 mm at 300 m (1.48 inches at 300 yards). Secondary armament consisted of two Type 91 6.5 mm machine guns. Produced until 1937 with less than 100 made. Used in Manchukuo and China. Of this variant, the very first production tanks used the older 110 hp (82 kW) Mitsubishi engine (as used in the Type 89 I-Go medium tank) and had a top speed of 25 mph (40 km/h).

 * Type 95 Ha-Go (Hokuman version)
 * Due to issues in Manchukuo with sorghum grass in fields getting trapped in the suspension/wheels, the wheel and suspension components were inverted with the addition of small wheels fitted to the bell-crank axis so the tanks could move freely through the grass. This modified version was used in the Battle for Nomohan. It is sometimes informally referred to as the "Manchurian model".

 * Type 95 Ha-Go (later production)
 * Among other improvements to the engine and main gun, the secondary armament was changed to two Type 97 7.7 mm machine guns, one in the rear section of the turret and one in the front hull.

 * Type 95 Ri-Ki crane vehicle
 * The Type 95 Ri-Ki was a tracked engineering vehicle. At the rear of the chassis, it had a 3-ton 4.5 meter "boomed crane".

 * Type 95 So-Ki armored railroad car

 * The Type 95 So-Ki was an armored railroad car designed to a requirement of the Kwantung Army for patrolling and guarding remote narrow gauge railway lines. It was fitted with a retractable wheel arrangement underneath to enable it to run on rails. Between 121 and 138 units were manufactured between 1935 and 1943, which operated in both China and Burma.

 * Type 2 Ka-Mi amphibious tank

 * This was the first amphibious tank produced in Japan and was intended for use by the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces. The chassis was based on the Type 95 Ha-Go and its main armament was the same, a 37 mm tank gun. The pontoons were attached by a system of "small clips" with a release inside the tank, to be engaged once it landed for ground combat operations. The Type 2 Ka-Mi was first used in combat on Guadalcanal in late 1942. Later they were encountered by the United States Marine Corps in the Marshall Islands and Mariana Islands, particularly on Saipan. They were also used during the fighting on the Philippine island of Leyte in late 1944. They were made in 1943–1944, with 182 completed.

 * Type 3 Ke-Ri prototype
 * This was a proposed model with a Type 97 57 mm tank gun as the main armament in a modified turret. The chassis was the same as the Type 95 Ha-Go. The light tank had a weight of 7.4 tons and a crew of 3 men. It was determined that the turret was too cramped for the crewmen, once the main gun was installed. A small number of prototypes were produced, however, the design never got past the field-testing stage.

 * Type 4 Ke-Nu conversion

 * A conversion that replaced the existing turret with the larger turret of Type 97 Chi-Ha, armed with the low-velocity 57 mm tank gun. The conversions were done in 1944, with approximately 100 units completed.

 * Type 4 Ho-To prototype
 * The Ho-To was a self-propelled gun on a modified Ha-Go chassis. It mounted a Type 38 12 cm howitzer in an open casemate with frontal and side armour. One prototype was completed.

 * Type 5 Ho-Ru prototype
 * The Ho-Ru was a light tank destroyer similar to the German Hetzer, but armed with the weaker 47 mm main gun in a semi-enclosed casemate. The Type 5 Ho-Ru utilized the chassis of the Type 95 Ha-Go, but its suspension was enlarged to 350 mm track link width. There were two set rows of wheel guide pins, holding a road wheel between them. The sprocket of the driving wheel was the grating type to gear with the wheel guide pins like on the Soviet T-34. Development of the Type 5 Ho-Ru started in February 1945 with only one prototype being completed before the end of the war.

Combat history
The tank was considered one of the best of its type in 1935, being armed with a 37 mm cannon, and powered by a diesel engine, a fuel considered by some to be superior due to its low volatility. As with most armies in the 1930s the tank, and the light tank in particular, were used primarily to support infantry or serve as cavalry reconnaissance and to a lesser extent, as raiding vehicles. Its speed was about 18 mph cross country, which was comparable to the M3 Stuart's 20 mph nearly six years later in 1941. In armor, road speed, and weaponry, the Type 95 was far inferior to the (five years younger) American M3 Stuart light tanks, but the environment of the Philippines (where roads were sparse and tank engagements took place at near point blank range) largely minimized these disadvantages and allowed the Type 95 to be competitive, as its off-road speed and turret rotation were comparable.

Type 95 proved sufficient against opposing infantry in campaigns in Manchuria and China, as the Chinese National Revolutionary Army had only three tank battalions consisting of Vickers export tanks, German PzKpfw I light tanks, and Italian CV33 tankettes to oppose them. However, the Type 95, like the US M3 Stuart, was not designed to fight other tanks, but for infantry support. Due to the IJN's priority in receiving new technology and steel for warship construction, tanks for the IJA and the IJN's SNLF detachments were relegated to receiving what was left. By 1942, Japanese armor remained largely the same as it did in the 1930s, and new tank development was "stymied".

Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) 1939
Under the mistaken belief that the Red Army was retreating from the area of the Khalkhyn Gol river, the IJA command in Manchuria transferred the 1st Tank Corps, under the command of Lt. Gen. Yasuoka Masaomi to the village of Nomonhan to cut off the retreating Soviets at Khalkhyn Gol. After a two-day journey by rail, the 1st Tank Corps began unloading its 3rd Tank Regiment and 4th Tank Regiment from their trains at Arshaan in Manchuria on 22 June 1939. While the 3rd Tank Regiment was composed primarily of the nearly decade-old Type 89 medium tanks, the 4th Tank Regiment, commanded by 48-year-old Col. Tamada Yoshio, consisted of 35 Type 95 light tanks, eight Type 89s, and three Type 94 tankettes.

From the beginning of Soviet General Zhukov's assumption of command at Nomonhan in June 1939, he had deployed his BT-5 and BT-7 light tanks (Bystrokhodnyi tanks, meaning "high-speed tank") and incorporated them into all of his combined artillery, infantry and armor attacks. Although in the same light tank category as the Type 95, also with three-man crews, and similar dimensions, the BT tanks were nearly twice as heavy, at 13.8 tons but were highly susceptible to close-quarter (tank killer) teams using fire bombs (Molotov cocktails); that was primarily due to their gasoline engines. As such, Japanese tank crews held a generally low opinion of the Soviet Red Army tanks, but the BT tank's 45 mm gun was a different matter. With a velocity of over 2000 ft/s, Soviet tanks could penetrate the Japanese tanks at a range of over 1,000 m (the Type 95's 37 mm main gun had a maximum effective range of less than 700 meters); as one Type 95 tank officer put it, "...no sooner did we see the flash, than there would be a hole in our tank! And the Soviets were good shots too!"

On 2 July 1939, at approximately 6:10 pm, Col. Tamada's 4th Tank Regiment of more mobile Type 95 tanks took the lead in front of the medium tanks of the 3rd Tank Regiment, as the 1st Tank Corps launched its first offensive against the Soviet forces at Khalkhin Gol. While the 3rd Tank Regiment passed through Soviet artillery fire, becoming decisively engaged by about 20:00 pm during their movement forward, the 4th Tank Regiment, while avoiding Soviet artillery barrages had advanced in a southeast direction instead of due south, engaging Soviet forces southwest of Uzuru pond. Observing a Soviet artillery battery between himself and his objective, a "junction", Tamada ordered an attack in the darkness. At about 11:00 pm, the 4th Tank moved towards their objective with about 6 m between tanks and 30 m between companies and platoons. Just after midnight, a thunderstorm struck, conveniently exposing the Soviet positions while at the same time masking the advancing 4th Tank Regiment. While at close range, the lightning storm suddenly illuminated the advancing Type 95s, and the Soviet defense line immediately opened fire with heavy machine guns, artillery, BT-7 light tanks, and anti-tank guns. However, since the range was so close, the Soviet artillery could not depress their barrels low enough to hit the tanks, and their shells flew wildly over the advancing tanks. At about 12:20 am Tamada ordered the 4th Tank Regiment to "charge", and by 02:00 am his light tanks had penetrated over 1,000 yd through Soviet lines and knocked out 12 artillery guns.

Japanese losses consisted of one Type 95 light tank, one officer and one enlisted man killed and eight wounded; the 4th Tank had expended approximately 1,100 37 mm and 129 57 mm tank shells, and 16,000 rounds of machine gun ammunition. After the action, the Soviet command acknowledged that 1st Tank Corps armor had reached the Soviet guns.

Malaya, Burma and the Philippines, 1941 to 1942
The United States military had been operating in the Philippines since the Philippine–American War (1899-1902) and the United Kingdom had military bases in Singapore since at least the 1840s; they both had many years of so-called "jungle warfare" experience between them, which no doubt influenced their beliefs that "tanks could not operate in those jungles". On the other hand, the IJA had always been focused upon the Soviet Union and China and had never conducted major military campaigns in tropical (jungle) regions. Facing thick and impenetrable jungles, two experienced and powerful armies, and lacking any jungle combat experience themselves, the IJA's Type 95s, together with Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tanks, led the Japanese assault forces into taking British Malaya and Singapore by 15 February in 1942 and Bataan in the US-held Philippines by April in that same year. The Type 95 proved to be an extremely successful light tank during the early military campaigns of Japan leading into mid-1942. The "rough terrain" did not prove to be a severe obstacle for the generally light Japanese armour. In addition, poor planning on the part of the British Army resulted in very few to practically no tanks being deployed by the UK in British Malaya or the British colony of Burma by December 1941.

America's first clash of armor in World War II
America's first tank versus tank battle of World War II occurred when Type 95 light tanks of the IJA 4th Tank Regiment engaged a US Army tank platoon, consisting of five brand new M3 Stuart light tanks from "B" company, 192nd Tank Battalion, on 22 December 1941, north of Damortis during the retreat to the Bataan Peninsula in 1941. Both the M3 and Type 95 light tanks were armed with a 37 mm gun, but the M3 was better armored, with 32 mm (1¼ inches) thick turret sides, vs the Type 95's 12 mm thick armor; however, as the US Army's Ballistics Research Lab (BRL) found after conducting the first large study of tank vs tank warfare in 1945, the most important factor in a tank duel was which side spotted the enemy first, fired first, and hit first. In this first engagement the IJA reacted first, destroying the lead M3 as it tried to leave the road. The four remaining American tanks all suffered hits as they retreated.

On 6 June 1942, the Japanese 3rd Special Naval Landing Forces (SNLF) landed on Kiska Island during the Japanese invasion of the Aleutian Islands, part of today's state of Alaska. The SNLF landing was reinforced by Type 95 light tanks from the IJAs 11th Tank Regiment, which became the only enemy tanks to ever land on United States soil. After the U.S./Allied landing of Kiska to recapture the island in August 1943, the U.S. captured two Type 95s and transported them to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland for study and evaluation.

Against Australia
Two Type 95 tanks were deployed to support the Japanese landing at Milne Bay, New Guinea, in late August 1942. Initially, the tanks proved successful against the lightly armed Australian infantry, whose 'sticky bombs' failed to stick due to the humidity. Although the tanks had proved reliable in the tropical conditions of Malaya, they could not handle the volume of mud caused by intense, almost daily rainfall at Milne Bay. One tank was knocked out by a Boys anti-tank rifle and the other bogged down and was abandoned a few days after the landing.

10-year-old warhorse
The Type 95 first began to show its vulnerability during later battles against British/Commonwealth forces, where the tank's 37 mm gun could not penetrate the armor of the British Matilda infantry tanks which were deployed against them. The thin armor of the Type 95 made it increasingly vulnerable, as Allied forces realized that standard infantry weapons were capable of penetrating the minimal armor around the engine block, and even its thickest armor was vulnerable to heavy machine gun fire. By 1944, it was already known that the 10-year-old Type 95's firepower was insufficient to take on the newest US tanks, such as the medium M4 Sherman, or the M5 Stuart light tank, although the Type 95 could still give the older M3 Stuart a run for its money at close range.

In August 1942, the US launched its first counter-offensive against Japan, when it landed US Marines on Guadalcanal. The US Marine Corps deployed its 1st Tank Battalion, which was equipped with the only M2A4 light tanks to see combat with US forces during World War II. The M2A4 was the foundation for the M3 Stuart, and both vehicles were nearly identical when viewed side by side; with the primary difference being the rear idler wheel lowered to the ground on the M3. Although the M2A4, being built in 1940, was five years newer than the Type 95, it was the closest US tank in armament and armor to the Type 95; with 25mm (1") thick turret sides vs the 95's 12mm turret sides; and both tanks were equipped with 37mm main guns. Several Type 95s were destroyed or captured by the United States Army during the Battle of Biak in 1944. As the tide of the war turned against Japan, the Type 95s were increasingly expended in banzai charges or were dug-in as pillboxes in static defense positions in the Japanese-occupied islands. During the Battle of Tarawa, seven entrenched Type 95s of the 7th Sasebo SNLF opposed the American landings. Those seven, along with the two on nearby Makin Island, were destroyed. More were destroyed on Parry Island and on Eniwetok. In the Battle of Saipan, Type 95s attacked the Marine beachhead at dawn on 16 June 1944, and were destroyed by tank fire. The Marines had landed the day before with two tank battalions. On the night of 16–17 June, the Japanese made an "all-out counterattack". Leading the attack were 44 tanks of the IJA 9th Tank Regiment. The Type 97s and Type 95s were knocked out by a Marine platoon of M4A2 tanks, several M3 75mm half-tracks, bazookas and 37mm antitank guns. It was the largest Japanese armor attack of the war.

During the Battle of Guam, 29 Type 97 and Type 95 tanks of the IJA 9th Tank Regiment and nine Type 95s of the 24th Tank Company were lost to bazooka fire or M4 tanks. Seven more were destroyed on Tinian on 24 July, and 15 more on Peleliu on 15 September. Likewise, in the Philippines, at least ten Type 95s were destroyed in various engagements on Leyte, and another 20 on Luzon. At the Battle of Okinawa, 13 Type 95s and 14 Type 97 Shinhoto medium tanks of the understrength IJA 27th Tank Regiment faced 800 American tanks of eight US Army and two USMC tank battalions.

China-Burma-India theater of operations
In 1942 the IJA pushed through Southeast Asia, through Thailand and into Burma, and headed for India. Type 95 light tanks of the IJA 14th Tank Regiment led the way. They engaged the M3 Stuarts of the British 7th Hussars and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment, and as the British retreated towards India, the IJA re-equipped their armoured units, following significant losses of Type 95s in combat, with at least some captured M3 Stuarts seized from the British. By 1944, the 14th Tank Regiment was effectively starved of its combat supplies due to British deep battle tactics of cutting the IJA's logistical lines, and a final push by the IJA was stopped at Imphal in northeastern India.

In the Battle of Hukawng Valley, Type 95s of the 18th Division were joined by remnants of the 14th Tank Division. They were met with the offensive launched by the India-based Nationalist Chinese Army but the Japanese troops were virtually annihilated with the rest of the division as only 1,700 out of the 12,000 strong Chrysanthemum Division managed to break out.

When the M4 Sherman became available for the British to use in the North Africa campaign, they were able to transfer their M3 Medium tanks to India and Burma, which by then had become obsolete in the fighting in Europe, but the Type 95 was outclassed by these M3 tanks. When the war ended in 1945 and Japan capitulated, many Type 95s were left behind in China. They were used on both the Nationalist and Communist sides during the Chinese Civil War. After the Communists' victory in 1949, the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) continued to use them in their inventory.

Manchuria and the Kuril Islands
Although tank brigades equipped with the Type 95 were present during the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria, the war ended before the Red Army had engaged their main formations. The only use of the Type 95 in any numbers against Soviet forces was at the Battle of Shumshu during the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, when shortly before the Japanese surrender had been finalized, they formed part of an armored force which unsuccessfully attacked the Soviet beach head but was defeated by their anti-tank guns.

Survivors
A number of Type 95 Ha-Go tanks have been preserved at museums around the world. In 2007, the Oregon Military Museum sponsored the complete reconstruction of a Type 95 light tank. The tank is no longer operational, however, as the original engine encountered mechanical issues and lost oil pressure during a test drive. A second running Type-95 recovered from a Pacific island and restored largely in Poland is currently on loan to the Tank Museum at Bovington UK by its private owner. Following restoration and public debut at Bovington Tankfest 2019 this vehicle was sold to a Japanese buyer and the plan is to return it to Japan for presentation and public display.
 * Australian War Memorial, Australia
 * Cavalry Tank Museum, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
 * Central Armed Forces Museum, Moscow, Russia
 * Two at Patriot Park, Moscow, Russia
 * Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow, Russia
 * Adisorn Cavalry Centre, Saraburi, Thailand
 * The National Memorial, Bangkok, Thailand
 * Reserve Affairs Center, Thailand
 * Surasakmontree Army Camp, Lampang, Thailand
 * Australian Armour and Artillery Museum, Australia
 * The Tank Museum, Bovington, United Kingdom
 * Indiana Military Museum, United States
 * National Armor & Cavalry Museum, Fort Benning, United States
 * One intact vehicle and one wreck at the Oregon Military Museum, United States
 * U.S. Army Museum of Hawaii, United States
 * United States Army Ordnance Museum, United States
 * Vadim Zadorozhny Museum of Technology, Moscow Oblast, Russia
 * Sakhalin Regional Museum, Sakhalin Island, Russia
 * Cavalry Tank Museum, Maharashtra, India
 * National Defence Studies Institute, Bangkok, Thailand
 * Reserves Training Center Territorial Defense Department, Bangkok, Thailand
 * 4th Cavalry Regiment Phichai Dab Hak Camp, Uttaradit, Thailand
 * Phitsanulok Airport, Phitsanulok, Thailand
 * Weerathai Monument, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
 * National Museum Of The Pacific War, Texas, United States
 * Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum, Washington, United States
 * Type 95 Ri-Ki at Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia
 * Two hulls at Kokopo War Museum, Rabaul, Papua New Guinea

In addition to the examples detailed above, a replica of the Type 95 is exhibited at the National Museum of Singapore. The model was originally one of four models constructed for Tom Hanks and Steven Spielberg's 2010 mini-series, The Pacific.

Operators

 * 🇯🇵 Empire of Japan
 * The primary operator, with both the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and the Imperial Japanese Navy.
 * 🇹🇭 Kingdom of Thailand
 * In 1940, the Royal Thai Army acquired approximately 50 Type 95s from Japan. A number of them spearheaded the Thai invasion of Burma's Shan states during the Second World War, at the time when Thailand was aligned with Japan. Following World War II, these tanks continued service with Thailand until decommissioned.
 * Manchukuo
 * Some Type 95s were used for training from 1943 to 1945.
 * Republic of China
 * Captured from Japan and used by National Revolutionary Army (NRA) in the Chinese Civil War (from 1946 to 1949).
 * People's Republic of China
 * The Chinese Communist troops (People's Liberation Army; PLA) captured examples from the Nationalist NRA (in turn captured from the Japanese) and received many others captured by the Soviet Union in their fighting against Japan. They were used in the Chinese Civil War, alongside Type 97 Chi-Ha and Type 97 Shinhoto Chi-Ha tanks. The Chinese PLA armoured force of 349 tanks in 1949 consisted mainly of Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go and Type 97 tanks.
 * 🇫🇷 French Fourth Republic
 * Using leftover Japanese military equipment from the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, an ad-hoc unit of French and Japanese armour called the 'Commando Blindé du Cambodge' was created and this unit participated in the early stages of the First Indochina War.

title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank


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Fran Jeffries

Fran Jeffries (born Frances Ann Makris; May 18, 1937 – December 15, 2016) was an American singer, dancer, actress, and model.

Early life
Jeffries was born Frances Ann Makris on May 18, 1937, in Palo Alto, California, the daughter of Esther A. (née Gautier) and Steven G. Makris, a Greek-immigrant barbershop owner.

Career
Jeffries sang with Bob Scobey's orchestra for a year. While she was married to Dick Haymes, they had a nightclub act together. During this time, Haymes asked songwriter-pianist Dave Frishberg to "write something for Fran -- a cute, sexy piece," which became Frishberg's classic song "Peel Me a Grape."

Jeffries's film debut came in the 1958 film The Buccaneer. She appeared in the 1963 film The Pink Panther, in which she sang "Meglio Stasera (It Had Better Be Tonight)" while leading a line-dance with Peter Sellers, David Niven, and others. Her supporting role as a professional entertainer in Sex and the Single Girl featured her as a singer-dancer.

Her last film role was in A Talent for Loving, directed by then-husband Richard Quine. On set, "the Quines were constantly quarreling," according to writer Anne Edwards, who was married to one of the producers. "Fran Jeffries was a singer, not an actress, and did not like her role, especially the scarcity of her scenes. By the end of shooting, she had filed for divorce."

Jeffries sang on The Tom Jones Show in 1969 with the host, doing a duet of "You've Got What it Takes," as well as The Smokey Robinson Show the following year, in which she did solo numbers as well as a duet with Smokey Robinson and Stevie Wonder and the rest of the cast. Jeffries also performed on Bob Hope's final USO tour of Vietnam in December 1972.

She was featured in Playboy in the February 1971 issue (Volume 18 Number 2) at the age of 33 in a pictorial titled "Fran-tastic!" In September 1982 she posed a second time for Playboy, this time at the age of 45. This second pictorial (Volume 29 Number 9) was titled "Still Fran-tastic!"

Personal life
Jeffries had a daughter with second husband Dick Haymes (1958–1965). She was then married to director Richard Quine (1965–1970) and Steven Schaeffer (1971–1973).

Death
Jeffries died from multiple myeloma on December 15, 2016, in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 79.

Discography
"Sex and the Single Girl" was released on MGM in 1964 as a single and an LP. She also sang the songs "Meglio Stasera" and "The Anniversary Song" in films. In 1966, Jeffries recorded an album for Monument Records entitled This Is Fran Jeffries, which was a collection of standards and popular songs, produced by Fred Foster with arrangements by Dick Grove and Bill Justis, including a rendition of Lennon–McCartney's "Yesterday". In 2000, she released a recording All the Love, again a collection of standards.

title: Fran Jeffries


text:
Paula Fredriksen

Paula Fredriksen (born January 6, 1951, Kingston, Rhode Island) is an American historian and scholar of early Christianity. She held the position of William Goodwin Aurelio Professor of Scripture at Boston University from 1990 to 2010. Now emerita, she has been distinguished visiting professor in the Department of Comparative Religion at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, since 2009.

Fredriksen specializes in the history of Christianity in that developmental arc from its stirrings in an apocalyptic messianic sect within Second Temple Judaism to its transformation into an arm of Late Roman imperial government and its empowerment in the post-Roman West (1st through 7th centuries). She works to reconstruct the many ways that various ancient Mediterranean peoples – pagans, Jews and Christians – interacted with the many special social agents (e.g. high gods, apocalyptic forces, heavenly bodies, godlings, spirits, and divine humans) that populated both the ancient flat-disced Earth and geo-centric universe.

Fredriksen served as an historical consultant and featured speaker in many media, including for the BBC production The Lives of Jesus (1996) and for U.S. News & World Report's "The Life and Times of Jesus". Fredriksen's book From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the Early Images of Jesus served as a template for the Frontline documentary From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians.

Fredriksen was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2013. She is a former Catholic who converted to Judaism.

Education
Fredriksen studied for a double B.A. in Religion and History at Wellesley College, from which she graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1973. After a year of formal theological study at St. Hilda's College, she received a diploma in theology from Oxford University in 1974.

Fredriksen earned her Ph.D. in the History of Religion from Princeton University in 1979. From Fall 1979 to 1980, she was an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow in the Religion Department at Stanford University. Both Wellesley College (in 1989) and Princeton University (in 2000) deemed Fredriksen a “distinguished alumna.”

Career
Fredriksen began her career as a lecturer at the Department of Religion of Princeton University in 1978. From 1979 to 1980, she was a faculty member at the department of religious studies at Stanford University. She relocated to the University of California, Berkeley where, from 1980 to 1986, she was an assistant professor in the department of history and, from 1986 to 1989, worked as an associate professor in the department of religious studies of the University of Pittsburgh. From 1990 to 2010, Fredriksen was the William Goodwin Aurelio Professor of Scripture at Boston University.

Fredriksen was named distinguished visiting professor in the Department of Comparative Religion at Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2009. In April 2013, she was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences (AAAS).

She holds honorary doctorates from Iona College (2008), Lund University in Sweden (2017), and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2018).

Jesus
Fredriksen views ancient Christianity from two vantage points: that of late Second Temple Judaism (roughly 200 BCE to 70 CE) and that of the late Latin West (especially from the late fourth to the mid-fifth century CE). For the entire spread of these centuries, Fredriksen says, the vast majority of people worshiped their own particular gods—a great variety of cults and customs lumped together by scholarly convention as "paganism." Fredriksen emphasizes that different forms of Judaism developed within the larger matrix of Graeco-Roman paganism; and that different forms of Christianity developed within different types of Judaism and of paganism. Context affects content: all these cultures mutually influenced each other.

Late Second Temple Judaism, whether in the Jewish homeland or in the Diaspora, provided the cradle of the early Christ-movements. Two figures dominate their development and thus Fredriksen's research of the period: that of Jesus of Nazareth, and that of his apostle, Paul. Despite the many cultural and social differences distinguishing Jesus and Paul—language (Aramaic/Greek), location (Jewish territories and Jerusalem/Diaspora) and audiences (Jews/pagans)—these two men stood united in a single conviction. Both taught that the God of Israel would overwhelm evil, raise the dead, and establish his reign of eternal peace and justice, within their own lifetimes. In short, in line with the work of Albert Schweitzer (for Jesus and for Paul) and of Krister Stendahl (for Paul), Fredriksen holds that both Jesus and Paul were apocalyptic thinkers.

In From Jesus to Christ, Fredriksen explored the images of Jesus presented in Paul's letters and in the four gospels as these altered and adjusted once the movement spread abroad in the Diaspora and outgrew its own foundational prophecy: “The Kingdom of God is at hand!” (Mark 1.15). In Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews, she concentrated instead on reconstructing the historical figure himself. Turning to the chronology of John's gospel (wherein Jesus has a three-year mission, centered in Jerusalem) rather than that of Mark, Matthew and Luke (which locate Jesus primarily in Galilee, with a single, and fatal, trip to Jerusalem), Fredriksen answered the question why Jesus was crucified but his followers were not. Pilate and the chief priests were familiar with Jesus' apocalyptic message—God, not human armies, would establish his Kingdom—and so knew that Jesus was, in every practical way, politically and militarily harmless.

But on what proved to be his final trip to the city for Passover, crowds in the pilgrim-swollen city began proclaiming Jesus as messiah. This was cause for alarm for, as Josephus wrote, it was "on these festive occasions that sedition is most apt to break out." Working in concert with the temple police (John 18.3), Pilate arrested Jesus and crucified him as "King of the Jews," disabusing the crowds of their enthusiasm. It was the crowds, not Jesus himself, Fredriksen concludes, who threatened the city's stability. This theory explains as well why the original community could resettle permanently in Jerusalem, largely without incident, for the remaining four decades of the city's lifetime.

Paul
Fredriksen's many articles on Paul and his cameo appearances in her books on Jesus and on Augustine come together in her book Paul: The Pagans' Apostle. Fredriksen explains there that Paul lived in a world full of gods. As Christ's apostle, Paul taught that pagans did not have to become Jews (for men, meaning circumcision). But they did have to commit to worshiping Israel's god alone, he insisted, and to live according to some—not all—Jewish law.

Following especially the broad lines of interpretation laid down by Albert Schweitzer and by Krister Stendahl, Fredriksen asserts that Paul believed that he lived and worked in history's final hour. Paul was convinced that he knew the time on God's clock because of his experience of the Risen Christ: resurrection itself, according to apocalyptic Jewish convictions, would signal the time of the End. In the brief meanwhile, between Christ's first and final advents, Paul worked to turn pagans from their gods to his god.

Paul's seven undisputed letters date to the 50s of the first century. They are the only evidence of the Christ movement that predates the Roman destruction of Jerusalem's temple (in 70 CE). But Jesus died around the year 30 CE. This passage of time after the death of Jesus, according to Fredriksen, means that, by the time that the earliest stratum of tradition appears—namely, in Paul's letters—the Kingdom of God was already late. In the Diaspora, the movement fractured into competing missions over the question of how to integrate ex-pagan gentiles into its communities. Some apostles taught that ex-pagan males needed to enter Israel's covenant with God through circumcision, that is, full conversion to Judaism. Paul furiously disagreed, Fredriksen emphasizes. Against his circumcising competitors, he argued that the presence of Christ's spirit or of holy spirit within these gentile communities attested to their "adoption" into God's family: Christ-following ex-pagans, insists Paul, are now Israel's brothers" (adelphoi), adopted via Christ into the family of Abraham.

Paul thought not that gentiles should not become Jews, but that they could not become Jews: covenantal circumcision, he insisted, occurs only on the eighth day of the male infant's life (Philippians 3.5). Jewish circumcision for adult gentile males, in view of Jewish law, was thus "nothing" (1 Corinthians 7.19). His letters, all addressed to gentile communities, argue vehemently against his circumcising competitors. By the late first- early second century, this generation long dead, Paul's intra-Jewish arguments will be interpreted by gentile readers as anti-Jewish arguments. In this way, Fredriksen shows, Paul's letters became a wellspring for nineteen centuries of Christian anti-Judaism and antisemitism.

Fredriksen thus contributes to a new school of New Testament scholarship, "Paul within Judaism." Believing that the Kingdom would arrive in his own lifetime, Paul had no intention of starting a new religion—much less an anti-Jewish religion. But Paul does acknowledge the existence "of many gods and many lords" (1 Corinthians 8.5: "lord" is a common designation for a Mediterranean god): they are Christ's cosmic opposition. Paul, thus, should be understood not only within Judaism, urges Fredriksen. As a late Second Temple Diaspora Jew, the apocalyptic Paul also stands "within paganism." It was these pagan superhuman powers, taught Paul, whom Christ will defeat when he returns in glory as God's Davidic champion.

Augustine
Through Krister Stendahl's classic article, “Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West,” Fredriksen first made the acquaintance of the mid-first century Paul and of Paul's greatest western interpreter, Augustine of Hippo. Augustine's Paul, in late Latin translation, was the source of Augustine's signature teachings on human will, divine grace, original sin, and predestination. As he struggled particularly with Paul's letter to the Romans, Augustine redefined "free will." Human moral agency, he now argued, was in a state of diminished capacity, which was the just penalty of Adam's sin, inherited across generations. In Augustine on Romans (1982), the first English translation of two of his early works on Paul's epistle, Fredriksen charted Augustine's evolving struggles with this nexus of issues. These commentaries on Romans were the prelude to Augustine's master work, the Confessions.

Fredriksen continued to consider and to contrast the first-century Jewish Paul and the late fourth-century Augustinian Paul together. She compared scholarly assessments of their respective "conversions." She analyzed both men's ideas on flesh and resurrection. She measured the distance between their respective ideas on the destiny of Israel. She traced Augustine's weaponization of Paul against Pelagius. She explored the similarities and differences between them on such issues as sin, salvation, and God. Fredriksen also brought Augustine into conversation with other ancient theologians: with Tyconius (on Christian millenarianism); with Origen (on Paul and Jewish Law; on sin and salvation); and with Isidore of Seville (on Jews).

Augustine surprised Fredriksen, however, once she began to investigate how the idea of "Jews" shaped his theology. By Augustine's lifetime (354-430 CE), Jews had long figured as the negative contrast to gentile Christianity. Indeed, Augustine himself deployed standard anti-Jewish rhetoric against his Christian rivals, the Donatists: Jews might be "bad," but the Donatists, he observed, were even worse. But against the anti-Judaism of his former religion, Manichaeism, Augustine thought outside the box. He taught that Jesus, the original apostles, and Paul himself, even after Damascus, had all continued to live according to the Jewish interpretation of Jewish law. The Jews' continuing existence, he insisted, was of benefit to the church, because through them, the texts of the Bible had penetrated the known world. Most dramatically, Augustine urged that the Jews had no less a protector than God himself, who would punish any ruler, whether pagan or Christian, who tried to inhibit them from living Jewish lives. In advocating for an historical understanding of Christianity, in other words, Augustine framed, as well, a principled Christian theological defense of Jews and of Judaism. Dismally negative as his traditional anti-Jewish rhetoric was, his positive ideology, Fredriksen concludes, was original, daring, and unique. Augustine's singular teaching would survive the collapse of the western Roman Empire, ultimately saving Jewish lives in the course of medieval crusades.

Publications
In 1982, Fredriksen published Augustine on Romans, a Latin edition with facing translation of Augustine's two early efforts with Paul's epistle to the Romans. These two exercises in biblical interpretation prepared Augustine, within four years, to frame his signature masterpiece, the Confessions.

In 1988, Fredriksen published From Jesus to Christ, which traces the first-century growth of various images of Jesus. The book won the 1988 Yale University Press Governors’ Award for Best Book.

In 1999, Fredriksen published Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews on the historical Jesus. The book won a National Jewish Book Award. In 2000, Boston University named it a best faculty book.

In 2004 she published a critical review of the Mel Gibson film The Passion of the Christ, which she expanded upon in her 2006 book On ‘The Passion of the Christ’: Exploring the Issues Raised by the Controversial Movie.

In 2008, Fredriksen published Augustine and the Jews (second edition Yale 2010), which situates Augustine's teachings about Jews and Judaism within their contemporary context of Christian anti-Judaism and the imperial church's exercise of coercive force against religious minorities.

In 2012, Fredriksen published Sin: The Early History of an Idea, which explored how views about humanity and about God changed in the centuries between John the Baptist and Augustine of Hippo. The book was based on Fredriksen's 2007 Spencer Trask lectures at Princeton.

In 2017, Fredriksen published Paul: The Pagan's Apostle, which situates Paul within, not against, his native Judaism. In 2018, the book won the Prose Award for best book in religion from the American Publisher's Association.

In 2018, Fredriksen published When Christians Were Jews, in which she argued for the Jewish, apocalyptic convictions of the original Christ-community in Jerusalem, the founding generation – which was convinced that it was history's final generation.

Christian antisemitism in both its academic forms and in its popular ones led to two of Fredriksen's anthologies, Jesus, Judaism, and Christian Anti-Judaism: Reading the New Testament After the Holocaust (with Adele Reinhartz; 2002) and On ‘The Passion of the Christ’ (2004; 2005, on Mel Gibson's film), as well as to her appreciation of David Nirenberg's foundational work on the same theme. Her 2020 Shaffer Lectures at Yale, "Paul's Letters, Christian Identity, and Thinking with Jews," explored the way that anti-Judaism, in various modalities, continues to inflect the work of contemporary scholars of New Testament Studies.

Together with Jesper Svartvik, she organized and edited ''Krister Among the Jews and Gentiles. Essays in Appreciation of the Life and Work of Krister Stendahl'' (2018), to whom she also dedicated her book on Paul.

title: Paula Fredriksen


text:
Cligès

Cligès (also Cligés) is a poem by the medieval French poet Chrétien de Troyes, dating from around 1176. It is the second of his five Arthurian romances; Erec and Enide, Cligès, Yvain, Lancelot and Perceval. The poem tells the story of the knight Cligès and his love for his uncle's wife, Fenice.

Background
Cligès has come down to us through seven manuscripts and various fragments. The poem comprises 6,664 octosyllables in rhymed couplets. Prose versions also exist since at least the 15th century.

There are many stylistic techniques that set Chrétien de Troyes and his work Cligès apart from his contemporaries and their work. Chrétien used many Latin writing techniques such as nature topos, portraiture, conjointure, amplificato and interpretatio to convey a realistic romance story.

Cligès can be better understood by dividing the text into two parts, or two nearly separate stories. The first story consists of Cligès's father's adventures and the second story consists of Cligès's adventures. Cligès scholar Z. P. Zaddy supports the dual story approach, but also divides the text even further as creates a new structure where the two stories are split into eight episodes. This approach is intended to make the text read more dramatically.

Synopsis
Cligès begins with the story of the title character's parents, Alexander and Soredamors. Alexander, the son of the Greek emperor (also called Alexander), travels to Britain to become a knight in King Arthur's realm. While at court, Alexander gains favor with King Arthur, is knighted, and assists in retaking Windsor Castle from the traitorous Count Angrès. During his time at court, Alexander meets Arthur's niece, Soredamors; they quickly fall in love, but neither party is able to tell the other how they feel. Queen Guinevere takes notice and encourages them to express their mutual love. They then marry and a child is born, named Cligès.

Alexander and his family then return to Greece and find out that Alexander's brother, Alis, has claimed the Greek throne after their father's death. Although Alexander is the rightful heir to the throne, he concedes to Alis under the condition that Alis not marry or have children, so that the throne will pass to Cligès. Alexander then dies, and Cligès is raised in Greece.

Many years after Alexander's death, Alis is persuaded to marry. He chooses as his bride Fenice, the daughter of the German Emperor. Thus begins the story of Cligès and Fenice. Cligès falls in love with his uncle's wife, who also loves Cligès; he follows in his father's footsteps to Arthur's kingdom to be knighted. Like his father, he does well in King Arthur's court, participating in tournaments and displaying courtly manners. He is knighted and returns home.

As Cligès and Fenice still love each other, Fenice concocts a plan to use magic to trick Alis and allow them to escape. With the help of a potion provided by her governess, she fakes illness so that she could eventually die and reunite with Cligès. However, before she could fake her actual death, three doctors are called in to heal Fenice. Upon realizing Fenice's deception, the three doctors torture Fenice in order to discover what she is hiding. Fenice, however, says nothing and is eventually spirited away by Cligès. Soon, however, they are found in their tower hiding-place by Bertrand, who tells Alis. Cligès goes to Arthur to ask for help in getting his kingdom back from his uncle, but Alis dies while he is away. Cligès and Fenice now are free to marry, and Cligès becomes emperor.

Analysis
In Cligès and Courtliness, Norris J. Lacy examines the characters found in Cligès and argues that Chrètien uses the story as an ironic presentation of chivalric character. Although Cligès displays the ability to master the social forms and rhetoric of the court, it is without substance. Lacy claims that the actions of Cligès and Fenice may seem to represent courtliness or chivalric traits, but at their core they are not moral. Lacy believes that Chrètien's Cligès is meant to throw doubt on the value and validity of courtliness.

The discussion of morality in relation to Fenice's character continues in "The Public and Private Images of 'Cliges' Fenice", written by D. Nelson. Nelson, like Lacy, claims that Fenice's actions are not moral, even though readers are expected to celebrate her happy ending with Cligès. Despite her happy marriage at the end, Nelson notes how Fenice fails in avoiding Iseut's reputation--Iseut, another adulteress who Fenice looks down upon. However, as a result of Fenice's own plotting to maintain her relationship with Cligès, she presents herself as "an adultress who went to any extreme to satisfy her passion" Instead of being remembered as the heroine, then, Fenice is remembered as a sinner who must atone for her sins. Nelson finds that such atonement takes its form in the presentation of the three doctors who attempt to take care of Fenice when she feigns illness; Nelson claims that the reader "heartily approves" when the doctors start to hurt Fenice in an effort to discover what her true plot is. Because of such approval, the reader therefore views the torture that Fenice experiences as a form of atonement or necessary punishment for her immoral actions.

Another scholar, Lucie Polak, sees the text as a reworking of Tristan and Isolde, but also suggests that Cligès may be modeled on Narcissus.

The opening lines of Cligès give some of the only extant information on the creator's biography and earlier work.

Other versions
Another version of the romance is a Middle High German version known from a few fragments and references. In the 15th century, an unknown Burgundian author created a prose version of Chrétien's Cligès, under the title Le Livre de Alixandre Empereur de Constentinoble et de Cligés Son Filz. This prose version differs from the original in several aspects, and the story is thought to have been adapted to the cultural and political circumstances of the Burgundian court at the time. Its first modern prose edition was written by Wendelin Foerster.

title: Cligès


text:
AMWA

AMWA  may refer to:
 * Advanced Media Workflow Association
 * Akina Mama wa Afrika
 * American Medical Women's Association
 * American Medical Writers Association
 * Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies

title: AMWA


text:
Talk:Earl Erne

Untitled
As the viscounty courtesy title doesn't appear to exist we ought to comment on that and give an explanation if anyone knows why this title (not the barony) is used.

Earl Of Erne
My understanding is that the format "Earl Erne" is only correct form when the title is derived from a surname. But here the surname is Creighton or Crichton(!?). The title is derived from an earlier Barony. If "Erne" is a geographical place then it should be "Earl of Erne" -- So what is the origin of "Erne"?

As for the Viscount - that appears to have existed in its own right for a time -- that is why it now a courtesy title Jalipa (talk) 20:20, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

Arms
A version of the arms is available at Category:Argent a lion rampant azure.62.31.182.215 (talk) 10:02, 27 October 2011 (UTC)SJH

Arms
A version of the arms is available at Category:Argent a lion rampant azure.62.31.182.215 (talk) 10:02, 27 October 2011 (UTC)SJH

title: Talk:Earl Erne


text: User talk:81.0.167.200

title: User talk:81.0.167.200


text:
Talk:Massachusetts's 1st congressional district

Comment
The Census stats are incorrectly termed. White, Asian, and Black are races, not ethnicities. Hispanic is the only 'ethnicity', which can be of any race. If yuo quote the US Census, you must use its terminlogy.

Article name
Souldn't the title be Massachusetts' 1st congressional district? Tom pw (talk) (review) 22:06, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

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Talk:1902 Wright Glider

Guys, come on... The prose is lovely, and the Wrights are certainly deserving of all the praise in the world, but this article is just too POV. I would rewrite it myself, but I'm not familiar with the topic.--RicardoC 01:01, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, Mr. Anonymous, I have most certainly showed far more professionalism (if the term can be applied to a voluntary project) by keeping from blindly editing your work without a source to replace your near-propaganda, than you have by defacing a public project to "make a point".

 * Anon, could you please point out to me the part of my argument that claims the article is unencyclopedic because it bestows undue praise on the Wrights? Oh, that's right, you can't. Because I never argued such a thing. I get the feeling that a "belligerent state of mind" is a rather constant condition for you.

 * The historical importance of the Glider is not what is being argued here. The inappropriate bias shown by your writing, is. I don't care if you're writing about Jesus's poodle Fidvs, or about Hitler's left testicle. Neutrality is the goal, and although it may come as a surprise to you, it can be achieved without sacrificing literary quality. But I guess that would be too much of an effort for you.--RicardoC 20:22, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I removed the clause "some people consider it notable for the inclusion of yaw control" because of the vagueness and general unencyclopedic nature of that wording. I instead noted that its design led directly to the 1903 Flyer, which is simultaneously specific and NPOV. I intend to add more to this article when I get the chance; this subject definitely needs better coverage. Willy Logan 07:32, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

 * And now I've removed the cleanup tag (for now), because the current state of the article is completely different from how I found it yesterday. Willy Logan 22:03, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

Move to "1902 Wright Glider"
Aviation historians unanimously refer to this aircraft as the "1902 Wright Glider", not the "Wright Glider of 1902". I feel this page should be moved accordingly. Willy Logan 15:16, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

1901 Wright Glider merge
The 1901 Wright Glider article should be merged into this article, which discusses all the Wrights' experiments with aviation prior to the 1903 Flyer. Willy Logan 04:57, 4 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Strong Objection. They were seperate aircraft. It would be like merging Sopwith Camel and Sopwith Pup. If anything, this one should be split. --GW_Simulations 19:00, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:1902 Wright Glider


text:
Talk:Massachusetts's 4th congressional district

Untitled
The Census stats are incorrectly termed. White, Asian, and Black are races, not ethnicities. Hispanic is the only 'ethnicity', which can be of any race.

Vacancy?
Does anyone know why this district was vacant during the entire 31st Congress (1849-1851)?

 * Please reply here: Talk:31st United States Congress.

—Markles 13:38, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

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Your. Sick. Delusional
Tv. Today. You. Lied and canceled yourself. Looser scumbag 2601:985:4600:EFC0:5427:FA8E:43C9:8A10 (talk) 17:17, 8 July 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Gravityintolerant

I am a British Phreak.

title: User talk:Gravityintolerant


text:
Birmingham Oratory

The Birmingham Oratory is a Catholic religious community of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri, located in the Edgbaston area of Birmingham. The community was founded in 1849 by John Henry Newman as the first house of that congregation in England.

Part of the complex of the Oratory is the Parish Church of the Immaculate Conception, commonly referred to as the Oratory Church. It now also serves as the national shrine to Newman.

History
Saint John Henry Newman, the founder of the Birmingham Oratory, after his conversion to the Catholic Church was seeking a way of life to live out his vocation. In common with a colleague from the Oxford Movement and fellow convert, Frederick William Faber, he had felt drawn to the way of life of the community founded by St. Philip Neri in Italy in the 16th century. When Newman went to Rome in 1845 to become a Catholic priest, he was authorised by Pope Pius IX to establish a community of the Oratory in England.

Returning to England in 1847, Newman gathered a small community of his followers who also wished to live this life. They initially found a home in Birmingham at the Church of St. Anne on Alcester Street, which became the first house of an Oratorian community in England in 1849. A more suitable location was eventually located in Birmingham, and construction was begun of a residence and church. The Oratorian community relocated there in 1852. It became a parish church for the local area and has served the congregation in various ways through the decades.

Upon the second death within the Oratorian community, Newman realised that they needed a cemetery. Through a donation given to him by the Catholic population of New York City in a show of support, he had been able to acquire property in the rural location of Rednal, where the community established a cemetery for the deceased of the congregation and also built a small summer house.

Music
The Oratory has a heritage of the promotion of great music in its worship. This goes back to its founder, St. Philip Neri, who believed strongly in the power of music for bringing out the good in people. The original Oratory in Rome was one of the great centres of sacred music for the city. The most celebrated singers and composers of the day would perform there. From this heritage comes the word oratorio. Right from its founding, the Birmingham Oratory has been noted for the high level of its music, due largely to the active interest of Newman himself. The parish continues to provide services which use the music of Palestrina, William Byrd, Tomás Luis de Victoria, Haydn, Mozart, as well as modern composers.

Education
Newman also founded the Oratory School there in 1859, as a Catholic alternative to Eton College. It relocated to near Reading in 1922. In 1887 two priests of the Oratory took over an existing school intended to provide an education to the poor Catholic boys of the area. This became St. Philip's School, which operated until 1995.

Current church
The current church was constructed between 1907 and 1910 in the Baroque style to replace the original structure as a memorial to Newman. It was designed by the architect Edward Doran Webb. The chapel to the north-east containing the shrine of St Philip was designed by the architect George Bernard Cox and added in 1927.

Prior to a final determination regarding the beatification of Newman, the Holy See gave instructions that his remains were to be transferred from the Oratorian cemetery in the West Midlands to the Oratory Church. A marble tomb was constructed to receive them, but not installed in the church. When the church and civil authorities opened the grave in October 2008, they found no human remains.

The Grade II* listed church continues to serve the Congregation of the Oratory there. Elsewhere in England, there are also communities of the Congregation at the Brompton Oratory in London and the York Oratory.

In February 2012, the church suffered the theft of a large metal cross from its roof. The loss was valued at £30,000.

Tolkien and the Oratory
The Birmingham Oratory was to play a major role in the life of J. R. R. Tolkien, the author of The Lord of the Rings, who was a parishioner there for about nine years during his childhood.

After the unexpected death of their father in South Africa, their mother, Mabel Suffield Tolkien, began to seek a spiritual home where she could find support in her struggle as a widow and single mother of little financial means. Fifty years after the establishment of the Oratorian community there, she started to attend the Church of St. Anne. The family was received into the Catholic Church in the spring of 1900, provoking opposition from the Tolkien family as well as her own.

A small gift from a relative enabled the young Ronald Tolkien (as he was called by his family) to enroll in the prestigious King Edward's School in Birmingham. This required the family to relocate. Not finding the spiritual support she needed in the local Catholic parish there, Mabel Tolkien began to take her two boys on long walks into the country on Sundays. Through these she came to know the Oratory, and found a friend in the community in the person of Fr. Francis Xavier Morgan, Cong.Orat.

The young Ronald had enrolled in the school without having been given a scholarship, and the tuition and fees weighed heavily upon the family income. When Father Morgan became aware of this, he made arrangements for the boy to transfer to the St. Philip's School. That, along with tutoring by his mother at home, allowed Ronald to gain a scholarship and to return to King Edward's School.

When Mabel Tolkien's health began to decline as a result of diabetes, Francis Morgan used his personal income to provide a home for the family in the vicinity of their rural house. After her death in 1904, fearing that their relations might force the boys to give up their Catholic faith, Mabel Tolkien appointed Father Morgan as their legal guardian.

Morgan then supported the Tolkien boys out of his own pocket, paying Mabel's sister to house the boys. They found a real home, however, in the parish community of the Oratory, taking part in activities such as scouting there, which gave them an outlet for their youthful energies and companionship.

Newman's beatification
The Oratory was visited by Pope Benedict XVI, immediately after the beatification Mass of John Henry Newman, which was held at Cofton Park in Birmingham on 19 September 2010. It was the first beatification ceremony ever held in England.

Oratory House
The living quarters of the community is called the Oratory House (1850–51), fronting Hagley Road. Except for four years spent in Ireland, it served as Newman's home from 1852 to 1890. His personal papers are located here.

Organ
The organ dates from 1909 and was installed by Nicholson of Worcester. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register.

Controversy
After a canonical visitation by the Holy See, in May 2010 the Rev'd Fr. Paul Chavasse, Cong.Orat., was removed from his position as Provost of the Oratory. This came after it was learned that he had entered a "close but chaste" relationship with a younger man. He had also served as the Postulator for the cause of Newman's canonisation.

Shortly thereafter, two priests and a lay brother were transferred from the Oratory. This is a highly unusual step, as the members of the Oratory make their commitment to a particular community, where they then spend their lives. The two priests were assigned to live in two different monasteries, while Bro. Lewis Berry, Cong.Orat., who was preparing for ordination, was sent to the Port Elizabeth Oratory, a newly founded Oratory in South Africa, for an indefinite period. The reason given for this was that the African Oratory would provide him "greater opportunities for a varied programme of pastoral work" needed for service as a deacon. This resulted in his not being present for Newman's beatification ceremony, although he had run the website of Newman's cause for canonisation. One of the priests, the Rev'd Fr. Dermot Fenlon, Cong.Orat., was reported to have exclaustration imposed on him, as he was unwilling to agree to his move.

The Birmingham Post reported that the three were popular with parishioners and that a campaign group, "Free The Birmingham Oratory Three", was formed. Berry, however, called upon the protests to stop, saying that he welcomed the move as providing new possibilities in his vocation.

In 2012 the Oratory paid an undisclosed sum to former director of music Nicholas Johnson after he was unfairly dismissed when the Oratory faced financial problems.

title: Birmingham Oratory


text:
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