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Vespula vulgaris

Vespula vulgaris, known as the common wasp, is a species found in regions that include the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, India, China, New Zealand and Australia. It is sometimes known in English as the European wasp, but the same name is used for the species Vespula germanica or German wasp. In 2010, the ostensible Vespula vulgaris wasps in North America were found to be a different species, Vespula alascensis.

Basic features
Vespula vulgaris is a eusocial vespid that builds its tan paper nest in or on a structure capable of supporting it. A founding queen searches for a hollow tree, wall cavity, rock crevice, or even a hole made by other animals to build a nest. The extraordinary adaptation skills of V. vulgaris enable it to live in a wide range of habitats, from very humid areas to artificial environments such as gardens and human structures. This species, along with other wasp species such as V. germanica, has impacted ecosystems, especially those in New Zealand and Australia, where they were imported by humans, and frequently cause damage to fruit crops and endanger humans.

Taxonomy
The name Vespula vulgaris comes from the origin of the word vulgaris, which means "common" in Latin, therefore giving the name "common wasp". This species has many synonyms such as "common wasp", "European wasp", Paravespula vulgaris, or "common yellow jacket". However, a study from 2010 revealed that Vespula vulgaris and the American common yellow jacket are actually two different species, the latter now known as Vespula alascensis. It is closely related to another wasp species, Vespula austriaca, and is considered a sister taxon.

In 2009, the species Vespula rufosignata Eck, 1998 was synonymised with Vespula vulgaris.

Common wasps are colloquially called "jaspers" in some English regions (Dorset, Lincolnshire, and elsewhere in the English Midlands); whether this comes from the Latin vespa or from the abdomen resembling the striped mineral jasper, is not clear.

Description and identification
Adult workers of V. vulgaris  measure about 12 – from head to tip of abdomen, and weigh 84.1 ± 19.0 mg, whereas the queen is about 20 mm long. It has aposematic colors of black and yellow; yellow pronotal bands which are almost parallel to each other and black dots and rings on its abdomen. The queens and workers appear very similar to Vespula germanica, except when they are seen head on, as the V. vulgaris face lacks the three black dots of V. germanica. Instead, each has only one black mark on its clypeus, which is usually anchor or dagger-shaped. This applies to queens and workers only. In addition, identification of this species may be difficult because the black mark on its clypeus can sometimes appear broken, making it again look similar to V. germanica. It is prudent to use multiple identifying characteristics and if in any doubt to consult experts.

Still more difficult to distinguish between species are the males. Almost undetectable with the naked eye, the only confident identification of V. vulgaris males is to seek the distinct aedeagus tip shapes and lateral processes of their genitalia.

Distribution and habitat
V. vulgaris is a Palearctic species. It has been discovered in a wide range of countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, India, and China. It is invasive in New Zealand and Australia, and South America. Until 2010, it was thought to be in North America as well, but molecular and morphological data showed that specimens identified as V. vulgaris there were Vespula alascensis, which had previously been considered a taxonomic synonym, but is now considered a separate species.

V. vulgaris has high adaptation skills for environments. It flourishes in most types of habitats, including prairie, grassland, natural and planted forests, shrub lands, and even in urban zones such as gardens, orchards, and buildings. However, it does require the temperature to be moderately warm, because its foraging activity is temperature-dependent (above 2 °C).

Northern Hemisphere colony cycle
Five distinguishable stages occur in V. vulgaris colony cycle in the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Each lasts for similar periods, around 30–35 days. The colony starts in April as the queen begins the foundation of the nest and degenerates around October when the temperature drops and the queen dies. The size of the colony ranges from 3000 larvae up to a maximum of 8000 larvae, with the queen producing around 200–300 eggs per day for 24 days.

 * Stage 1 – solitary stage: the queen builds the nest, provisions the cells and rears the first brood of workers.
 * Stage 2 – rapid increase: the workers replace the queen as the foraging force. The queen is now a nurse and egg producer. There is very rapid buildup of worker population.
 * Stage 3 – slow increase: the rate of population growth is not as rapid as in stage 2.
 * Stage 4 – climax of colony: worker population no longer increases. Cells built are all queen cells. Males emerge, as do unmated queens, and foraging rate per worker increases. Drones and queens mate, and the queens hibernate to emerge in the spring, when the cycle repeats with stage 1.
 * Stage 5 – decline: probably caused by death or sickness of queen. Colony cohesion breaks down, cannibalism sets in, and the foraging becomes erratic.

Brood production
The general incubation period is five days, but it can occasionally be seven, due to cannibalism, scavenging or replacement. The larval period can depend on the trophic condition inside and outside the nest. If there are abundant resources of food being brought into the nest, the larval period is short, but if the resource is short, the period can lengthen. The first adult emerges after around 23 days of hatching and the queen-pupated brood is completed in about a month (30 days).

The first brood of workers are all of normal size, but the next generation of them is generally smaller, due to a decrease in the queen's foraging activity after producing the first batch of larvae. As the queen's foraging decreases, the second group of workers does not get so much food, often starves, and so spends more time in the larval stage.

Nest foundation by the queen
After coming out of hibernation in the spring, the queen forages for flowers or shrubs and begins looking for nesting sites. She flies low on the ground, searching for any round, dark object or depression. If it is a hole, she flies in to inspect the details if it is suitable and if not moves on to the next hole. What constitutes a "perfect" nest is yet to be discovered, but it is mainly speculated that the queen's physiological state is the main deciding factor of the time and the place of nesting. When she has found a suitable site for nesting, she performs dance-like wing movements which allow her to locate the site even after she has left the area.

After she has fixed the position of the nest, she begins to build it. She repeats the procedure of bringing in a pulp, attaching it to the nest to form a spindle and flying back out to bring in more pulp. During this process, the queen clings to the nest with her two posterior pairs of legs and attaches the pulp using her anterior legs and mouth parts. She builds 20–30 cells before initial egg-laying, fashioning a petiole and producing a single cell at the end of it. Six further cells are then added around this to produce the characteristic hexagonal shape of the nest cells. One egg is laid in each cell, and as it hatches, each larva holds itself in the vertical cell by pressing its body against the sides.

When the nest is completed, the queen is replaced by the workers as the foraging force and instead is now concerned only with nursing and egg producing. Her ovaries develop, her abdomen becomes distended with eggs, and she loses the ability to fly.

After the founding phase has been completed, the colony encounters a change where the workers begin to build queen cells. Once the workers start building on the queen cells, no more worker cells are built, but those that still have brood growing in them are retained. The majority of the food resource brought in by the workers is fed to the queen larvae, known as gynes and the lack of feeding for other larvae causes the prolongation of their larval periods. To ensure that only the queen's eggs are reared to adulthood, female workers remove worker-laid eggs in a process known as worker policing.

When the queen has completed her job of producing daughter queen larvae, she dies, leaving a crop of virgin queens which will leave the nest, mate, hibernate, and reproduce in the following spring. After the queen's death, the coordination of the colony breaks down and the workers begin to lay eggs. The rate and amount of foraging decrease drastically after the queen's death, so it is unable to support all the workers and their brood. This is when cannibalism occurs among the workers and furthermore, the workers tear off their cells and carry them out of the nest, dropping the temperature of the entire nest. Once this stage is reached, the remaining workers die of cold or starvation.

Nest
A V. vulgaris nest is made from chewed wood fibers mixed with worker saliva. It is generally made of brittle tan coloured paper. It has open cells and a cylindrical column known as a petiole attaching the nest to the substrate. The wasps produce a chemical which repels ants and secrete it around the base of the petiole, to avoid ant predation.

Many variations are seen in the characteristics of the nests within the species. Aerial nests and nests that are very close to the surface of the ground have much thicker envelopes than those under the ground. The wasps build thick envelopes to prevent heat from escaping. Also, smaller nests have thicker envelopes than larger nests. This is mainly due to the fact that the amount of heat produced is proportional to the volume of the nest. The larger a nest is the better it will be in conserving the nest warmth. The optimal temperature of the nest is around 32 °C. However, when the temperature rises above the optimal temperature (during hot days), the workers use their wings as fans to cool the nest down.

V. vulgaris wasps recognize their nests by making pheromone trails from the entrance of their nest to the site of foraging. Those "footprints" are not colony specific, but species specific. Although many other insects such as ants produce such pheromone trails as well, Vespula vulgaris generate pheromone either by special abdominal glands or from the gut.

Although the two species Vespula vulgaris and Vespula germanica have extremely similar biological features, characteristics of their nests are distinctive. Vespula germanica nests generally survive the winter, while those of Vespula vulgaris do not. This difference is due mainly to the variation in prey. Vespula vulgaris food sources are greatly affected by temperature, while those of Vespula germanica are not, providing them with a higher chance of survival even during the winter. Because many Vespula germanica are able to overwinter and most Vespula vulgaris are not, except for the queen, this affects the nest size of the two species. Vespula germanica generally have slightly bigger nest size (3500–9000 larvae in one colony cycle) than Vespula vulgaris (3000–8000 larvae in one colony cycle).

Dance-like wing movement of queen
When the queen has found the appropriate nesting site, she orients in a similar way as the workers and flies back out of the hole. She flies frontwards and backwards in front of the nest with a slow, hovering flight and repeats this movement until its distance is further away from the hole. When the arc of the flight increases up to about 6 ft (183 cm), the pathway makes a figure of a sideways "8" and when the queen is about 60 ft (18 m) away from the nest site, she then flies in a straight line. This is how the queen Vespula vulgaris marks the land, in respect to the landmarks around the nesting site.

Defensive behaviors
Only wasps leaving the nest notice a disturbance and defend or fight off an intruder. The ones returning to the nest do not detect any disturbance and try to enter the nest. The workers that detect danger show a certain gesture – they rise onto the tips of their tarsi, put forward their heads, turn down their abdomens and constantly vibrate their wings in high frequencies and short beats. This behavior signals other workers to fly to the entrance of the nest and defend. However, if the nest is disturbed enough times, the workers stop defending the nest and instead grow tolerant to such attacks. However, when they detect life-threatening level of danger, the Vespula vulgaris workers will vigorously defend their nest. Unlike honey bees, which die after stinging, Vespula vulgaris can sting multiple times. This makes its sting viable for personal defense when away from the colony, and the common wasp is therefore more apt to sting. However, it will usually not sting without being provoked by sudden movement or other violent behavior.

Research indicates the wasps use odor to identify and attack rival wasps from other colonies, and nest odor frequently changes. Vespula vulgaris wasps have been observed aggressively competing with honey bees for the honeydew secreted by the scale insect Ultracoelostoma brittini in New Zealand's South Island black beech forests.

Over-wintering behaviors
After mating, the queen overwinters in a hole or other sheltered location, sometimes in buildings. Wasp nests are not reused from one year to the next, but in rare instances wasps have been seen to re-nest in the footprint of a removed nest or even begin building a new nest within an old nest. In the mild climate of New Zealand and Australia, a few of the colonies may survive the winter, although this is much more common with the German wasp.

Venom
The painful, though rarely life-threatening sting involves the injection of a complex venom containing amines (histamine, tyramine, serotonin, catecholamines), peptides, and proteins, including many hydrolases. The alkaline venom is quite different from bee venom, which is acidic.

Factors affecting foraging
The foraging activity of Vespula vulgaris is dependent on the light and temperature of the surrounding area. Generally, if the temperature of the surrounding area falls below 2 °C, the wasps will not proceed with foraging even if the temperature of the nest itself is optimal. When the temperature is above 2 °C, light intensity comes in to play a role. If the light intensity is high enough, the wasps will fly off to forage. However, there is a wide variance within the species, and even within individuals what that threshold light intensity would be – i. e. when would be the best light intensity for a wasp to go out to forage.

The foraging activities of Vespula vulgaris are generally highest in early mornings. There are three known reasons for such behavior. First is to satisfy the larval requirements. The workers fly off early in the morning to forage, as soon as their optimal light intensity is reached. They want to feed the larvae which have been starving during the night as soon as possible to reduce their chance of dying. The second reason is to maximize fluid foraging. Because dews and nectars are most abundant early in the morning and are the best sources of fluids, the workers fly off early in the morning before the competition becomes severe. Last is the necessity to release excretory products such as trophallactic secretions from the larvae.

Generally, wasps are unable to predict heavy rainfalls. They continue their foraging activities even in the rain, but cease when the rain becomes torrential. When the rainfall becomes extremely heavy near the nesting site, the workers rapidly return to their nests. Those whose foraging activities were interrupted by heavy rainfall become reluctant to forage again in the future, even when the weather is dry and calm. Those who continue to forage do so mainly for fluid.

The average life span of an adult Vespula vulgaris is known to be around two weeks (14 days). There was a negative correlation found between the age of the worker Vespula vulgaris and their respective foraging speeds, and a positive correlation between their age and the amount of time each worker spent in the nest between each foraging trip. The foraging speed decreased as the workers aged and the time a worker spent in the nest between foraging trips increased as they got older. Wasps that are over 30 days, in fact, generally cease from foraging trips and spend all of their time guarding the entrance of the nest.

Diet
Similarly to other Vespulas, Vespula vulgaris feed on animal preys such as caterpillars to feed their developing larvae and carbohydrates, such as nectar and sweet fruits, to satisfy their own energy requirements. Their usual food sources are freshly killed insects such as Hymenoptera, lepidopteran larvae and Diptera and spiders. Common wasps will also attempt to invade honey bees' nests to steal their honey.

Although the types of prey Vespula vulgaris and Vespula germanica forage are almost the same, that of Vespula germanica are generally 2–3.5 times bigger and heavier than that of Vespula vulgaris. This is mainly due to the size difference of the two species. Because the Vespula germanica foragers are bigger in morphology than those of Vespula vulgaris, and they both transport the prey by carrying them, it would be advantageous for the wasp to be bigger to be able to hold larger prey.

Caste system
In the early stage of the colony founding, the queen Vespula vulgaris does most of the work, both building and foraging. After completing the nest, she diversifies her foraging to include not just pulp, but also fluids and insect flesh. The labor divides as the first batch of larvae is hatched. However, during the very beginning of the hatching, the workers do not take part of any labor. Rather, they remain motionless with their heads inside a cell. Workers actually start foraging actively after seven days. They both forage and take care of the broods by feeding the larvae, breaking down the insect flesh, dividing fluids collected by the foragers, removing trophallactic secretion from the larvae, and fixing the nests.

Queen
One possible factor that determines a female's social caste is known to be its nest position. The location of each cell is directly related to the amount of food a larva can receive, and the queen cell, being located at the very bottom of the nest, encounters the foragers before any other cell. Therefore, it gets most of the food and naturally, yields the biggest female – the queen.

As mentioned above, the cell location can alter the size of the larva and eventually determine which female Vespula vulgaris is going to be queen. However, when several candidates of queens arise, there is competition among them. Certain variations among them rank the hierarchy of the queens and thus select the ultimate queen. Although the precise causes of the variations in the queens are still unknown, one possible factor is the amount of fat stored in the queen's body. Smaller developing queens have less fat stored, and thus have relatively higher mortality rates in winter than larger queens. The bigger the size and larger the amount of fat stored, the "higher" the queen is considered in quality, and she is able to out-compete other queens in finding a fit mate. She will then have an advantage in establishing a nest in the following spring.

In order for the Vespula vulgaris queen to dominate all the workers – usually numbering more than 3000 in a colony –she possesses a special chemical that sends signals of dominance. The workers were discovered to regularly lick the queen while feeding her, and the air-borne pheromone from the queen's body alerts those workers of her dominance.

Pest status
Along with the invasive German wasp (Vespula germanica) and three species of Polistes, the common wasp is considered a pest species in New Zealand. It predates native insects and competes with endemic species for food, such as insects and honeydew. In some South Island beech forests it has been calculated that wasp densities are higher than anywhere else in the world, and that the total weight of common wasps may exceed that of all birds.

Predators
Vespula vulgaris is subject to predation by the honey buzzard, which excavates the nests to obtain the larvae. The hoverfly Volucella pellucens and some of its relatives lay their eggs in a wasp nest, and their larvae feed on the wasps' young and dead adults. Larvae of the ripiphorid beetle Metoecus paradoxus are a parasitoid of V. vulgaris larvae. Robber fly and spiders are other predators of this and many other species. A species of parasitic mite, Varroa destructor jacobsoni, was found on larvae of this species in Poland in 1988.

In New Zealand a 2010 study found that an as yet unidentified predator/s is responsible for local extinction of Vespula (both vulgaris and germanica) on many offshore islands 5–7 years following eradication of introduced rodents. Studies including 36 islands have not identified the agent responsible. However, a 2020 study of 36 islands found, "no evidence for a link between rat presence and wasp abundance on islands", but that wasps were reduced by tree canopy cover by species not attracting honeydew-secreting scale insects.

title: Vespula vulgaris


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Accademia di San Luca

The Accademia di San Luca (Academy of Saint Luke) is an Italian academy of artists in Rome. The establishment of the Accademia de i Pittori e Scultori di Roma was approved by papal brief in 1577, and in 1593 Federico Zuccari became its first principe or director; the statutes were ratified in 1607. Other founders included Girolamo Muziano and Pietro Olivieri. The Academy was named for Luke the Evangelist, the patron saint of painters.

From the late sixteenth century until it moved to its present location at the Palazzo Carpegna, it was based in an urban block by the Roman Forum and although these buildings no longer survive, the Academy church of Santi Luca e Martina, does. Designed by the Baroque architect, Pietro da Cortona, its main façade overlooks the Forum.

History
The Academy's predecessor was the Compagnia di San Luca, a guild of painters and miniaturists, which met in the demolished church of S.Luca all'Esquilino, near the Basilica of S. Mary Major, and whose statutes and privileges were renewed 17 December 1478 by Pope Sixtus IV. Among the founding members was the famous painter Melozzo da Forlì, as he was the pictor papalis. Through the initiative of Girolamo Muziano, who was both one of the leading artists in Rome and superintendent of works for Pope Gregory XIII, the Pope granted the Academy official recognition in 1577. In 1588 Pope Sixtus V gave the institution the ancient church of S. Martina, which was rededicated as Santi Luca e Martina.

In 1605, Pope Paul V granted the Academy the right to pardon a condemned man on the feast of St. Luke. As early as 1607, members were encouraged to increase their donations to the library. In the 1620s, Urban VIII extended its rights to decide who was considered an artist in Rome, and in 1627 it came under the patronage of his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Like many academies it was traditional to submit a self-portrait – the collection serving as a record of the institution's illustrious membership. In 1633, Urban VIII gave it the right to tax all artists as well as art-dealers, and monopolize all public commissions. These latter measures raised strong opposition and apparently were poorly enforced.

At some after 1634, during the time when Pietro da Cortona was principe, the accademia began to admit architects, who enjoyed the same status as painters and sculptors. The Academy offered courses in painting, sculpture and architecture. Competitions open to artists and architects of all nationalities under 25 years old, the Concorsi Clementini, were held annually until 1721, when they became triennial. In 1763 these were supplemented by the Concorsi Balestra, and thereafter the two competitions alternated biennially.

In 1845, the Academy expanded to the Palazzo Camerale on the Via di Ripetta in order to have the art students in one location. This later became the Liceo Artistico Ripetta.

The Cortona-Sacchi Debate and other artistic issues
Artistic issues debated within the Academy included the Cortona-Sacchi controversy (see Andrea Sacchi for further details of this debate) about the number of figures in a painting. Disdain was expressed by many academicians for the Bamboccianti.

Giovanni Bellori gave famous lectures on painting in the Academy. In the early 18th century, the painter Marco Benefial was inducted, and then expelled for criticizing the academy as an insider.

Recent times
Due to the construction of Via dell'Impero, the academy's historic headquarters on Via Bonella was demolished and in 1934 the institution moved to Palazzo Carpegna.

The Academy is still active; the Accademia Nazionale di San Luca is its modern descendant. From the very beginning, the statutes of the Academy directed that each candidate-academician was to donate a work of his art in perpetual memory and, later, a portrait. Thus the Academy, in its current premises in the 16th-century Palazzo Carpegna, located in the Piazza dell'Accademia di San Luca, has accumulated a unique collection of paintings and sculptures, including about 500 portraits, as well as an outstanding collection of drawings. The Academy also hosts exhibitions of the works of various artists.

The Library of the National Academy of San Luca houses the Academic Library and the Sarti Roman Municipal Library, which together hold over 50,000 volumes regarding ipainting, sculpture and architecture. Scholarships are periodically announced for research activities in academic archives or abroad.

Faculty

 * Pietro Angeletti, painter in a Neoclassical style

Principi
vProminent artists to become Principe of the academy over the first 200 years include: • Federico Zuccari, 1593

• Tommaso Laureti, 1595

• Giovanni De Vecchi, 1596

• Cesare Nebbia, 1597

• Durante Alberti, 1598

• Flaminio Vacca, 1599

• Cavalier d'Arpino, 1600, 1616, 1629

• Girolamo Massei, 1603

• Pietro Bernini, 1605, 1606

• Paolo Guidotti, 1607, 1620

• Gaspare Celio, 1609

• Cherubino Alberti, 1611–1613

• Ottavio Leoni, 1614–1615, 1627

• Giovanni Baglione, 1617–1619

• Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1621, 1630

• Agostino Ciampelli, 1623

• Antiveduto Gramatica, 1624

• Virginia Vezzi, 1624

• Simon Vouet, 1624–1627

• Baldassare Croce, 1628

• Domenichino, 1629

• Giovanni Lanfranco, 1631, 1632

• Francesco Mochi, 1633

• Pietro da Cortona, 1634–1636

• Alessandro Turchi, 1637, 1638

• Giovanni Francesco Romanelli, 1639

• Alessandro Algardi, 1640

• Girolamo Rainaldi, 1641–1643

• Niccolò Menghini, 1645–1647

• Giovanni Battista Soria, 1648–1650

• Luigi Gentile da Bruxelles, 1651–1653

• Pietro Martire Neri, 1654

• Bernardino Gagliardi, 1655–1658

• Nicolas Poussin,  1657 (resigned)

• Raffaello Vanni, 1658–1660

• Gaspare Morone, 1661

• Pier Francesco Mola, 1662, 1663

• Carlo Maratta, 1664–1665, 1699, 1706–1713

• Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi 1666

• Melchiorre Cafà, 1667 (declined)

• Orfeo Boselli, 1667

• Pietro del Pò

• Giacinto Brandi 1669, 1684

• Domenico Guidi, 1670, 1675

• Giovanni Maria Morandi, 1671, 1680, 1685

• Charles Errard, 1672, 1678

• Carlo Rainaldi, 1673

• Giovan Battista Gaulli, 1674

• Carlo Cesi, 1675

• Charles Le Brun, 1676–1677

• Lazzaro Baldi, 1679

• Mattia de Rossi, 1681, 1693

• Luigi Garzi, 1682

• Giovanni Battista Contini, 1683, 1719

• Filippo Lauri, 1686 (resigned)

• Carlo Fontana, 1686, 1694

• Ludovico Gimignani 1688

• Giovan Battista Boncori, 1698

• Charles-François Poerson, 1714, 1718

• Benedetto Luti, 1720

• Giuseppe Bartolomeo Chiari, 1723–1725

• Antonio Valeri, 1726

• Camillo Rusconi, 1727, 1728

• Sebastiano Conca, 1729, 1739

• Girolamo Teodoldi, 1734, 1742

• Agostino Masucci, 1736–1738

• Gaetano Lapis, 1741

• Jean-François de Troy, 1744

• Giovanni Battista Maini, 1746, 1747

• Tommaso de Marchis, 1748

• Francesco Mancini, 1750–1751

• Filippo della Valle, 1752, 1760–1761

• Ferdinando Fuga, 1753–1754

• Giovanni Paolo Pannini, 1755

• Pietro Bracci, 1756

• Clemente Orlandi, 1757

• Placido Costanzi, 1758

• Mauro Fontana, 1762

• Francisco Preciado de la Vega, 1764–1766, 1777–1778

• Andrea Bergondi, 1767, 1779–1780

• Anton Raphael Mengs, 1771–1772

• Carlo Marchionni, 1773

• Ferdinando Raggi, 1781

• Anton von Maron, 1784

• Agostino Penna, 1787–1789

• Antonio Asprucci, 1790

• Tommaso Conca, 1793

• Vincenzo Pacetti, 1796, 1800, 1801

• Andrea Vici, 1802

• Vincenzo Camuccini, 1806–1810

• Antonio Canova, 1811 (permanent principe 1814 to 1822)

• Gaspare Landi, 1817–1820

• Alessandro Massimiliano Laboureur, 1820–1822

• Girolamo Scaccia, 1823

• Vincenzo Camuccini, 1826

• Bertel Thorvaldsen, 1827–1828

• Giulio Camporese,  1829

• Andrea Pozzi, 1830–1831

• Antonio D'Este, 1832

• Tommaso Minardi, 1837

• Clemente Folchi,  1841–1843

• Luigi Poletti, 1849–1853

• Filippo Agricola, 1854–1855

• Virginio Vespignani, 1870, 1876–1877

• Nicola Consoni, 1878, 1883

• Stefano Galletti, 1899, 1900

Claude Lorrain was a member but declined the offer of being Principe. The Academy can also boast modern members, including sculptors Ernesto Biondi, Piccirilli Brothers, and architect Angelo Torricelli.

title: Accademia di San Luca


text:
2005 in Russian football

2005 was marked by a greatest success in the Russian club football so far, as CSKA Moscow won the UEFA Cup. Later, CSKA completed the treble, winning the Russian Cup and the Russian Premier League title. Notable changes in the Russian Football Union also took place.

Changes in the Russian Football Union
On 2 April, Vitaliy Mutko was elected new president of the Russian Football Union to succeed Vyacheslav Koloskov. Two days later, national team coach Georgi Yartsev resigned and was replaced by Yuri Semin. However, Semin stepped down on 10 November, after Russia failed to qualify for the 2006 World Cup.

National team
The Russia national team attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup via European qualifying group 3. A scoreless draw in Bratislava against Slovakia on 12 October, the final group match for both teams, ended Russia's hopes of qualifying for Germany. Portugal won the group and automatically qualified for the finals. Russia and Slovakia finished level on points for second place and a place in the UEFA playoffs; Slovakia won the tiebreaker on overall goal difference in the group. A Russia win in the final match would have sent Russia to the playoffs at Slovakia's expense.

 * 1) Russia score given first

 * Key
 * H = Home match
 * A = Away match
 * F = Friendly
 * WCQ = 2006 FIFA World Cup Qualifying, Group 3

U-21 team
The U-21 team contested the qualification for the 2006 U-21 Championship. They finished second in the group, overcoming Slovakia on head-to-head results, while Portugal were first. This allowed Russia to qualify for the play-off against Denmark.

Russia lost both play-off matches, 0–1 in Moscow on 12 November and 1–3 in Brøndby on 18 November. In the second-leg match, five Russia players were sent off.

Women's U-19 team
The women's under-19 team won the European Championship in Hungary. They have finished second in the group stage after matches against France, England, and Scotland. In the semifinal they overcame Germany 3–1, thanks to the hat-trick by captain Elena Danilova, and the final match against France ended 2–2 after extra time and 6–5 on penalties.

First Division
Yevgeny Alkhimov of Lokomotiv became the top scorer with 24 goals.

Second Division
The following clubs have earned promotion by winning tournaments in their respective Second Division zones:
 * FC Baltika Kaliningrad (West)
 * FC Salyut-Energiya Belgorod (Centre)
 * FC Angusht Nazran (South)
 * FC Sodovik Sterlitamak (Ural-Povolzhye)
 * FC Metallurg Krasnoyarsk (East)

Russian Cup
Defending Russian Cup holders Terek Grozny were knocked out by their first opponents, Amkar Perm. For the second year in a row, the First Division side was present in the final, this time FC Khimki. But unlike the 2004, the final match was won 1–0 by the Premier League club, CSKA Moscow. CSKA lost the first-leg match 2–0 to their first opponents, Sokol Saratov, and progressed thanks to an awarded 3–0 victory after Sokol failed to show for the second leg.

2004–05 UEFA Cup
Only CSKA Moscow qualified for the spring phase of the UEFA Cup 2004–05. They successively defeated Benfica, Partizan Belgrade, Auxerre, and Parma to reach the final. In the final match played in Lisbon, CSKA defeated Sporting Clube de Portugal 3–1 to become the first ever Russian club to win any major European competition.

UEFA Super Cup
CSKA Moscow lost the European Super Cup match 3–1 to Liverpool F.C., the UEFA Champions League title holders.

UEFA Champions League 2005–06
Lokomotiv Moscow, the only Russian side to participate in the UEFA Champions League 2005–06, defeated FK Rabotnički in the second qualifying round, but were knocked out by Rapid Vienna in the third qualifying round. Along with the other losers in the third qualifying round, Lokomotiv entered the UEFA Cup at the first round proper.

2005–06 UEFA Cup
CSKA Moscow, Lokomotiv Moscow, and Zenit Saint Petersburg have qualified for the group stage of the UEFA Cup 2005–06. Krylya Sovetov Samara have successfully passed the second qualifying round, but were knocked out in the first round proper by AZ Alkmaar.

Zenit and Lokomotiv qualified for the Round of 32. CSKA finished fourth in the group and thus failed to defend their title.

title: 2005 in Russian football


text: User talk:199.104.105.42

title: User talk:199.104.105.42


text:
Zhangsun Wuji

Zhangsun Wuji (died 659), courtesy name Fuji (輔機), formally the Duke of Zhao, was a Chinese politician who served as a chancellor in the early Tang dynasty. He was Empress Zhangsun's brother, which made him a brother-in-law of Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin) and a maternal uncle of Emperor Gaozong (Li Zhi). He was an important advisor to Li Shimin when the latter was still the Prince of Qin during the reign of his father, Emperor Gaozu (Li Yuan). He helped Li Shimin overcome his brothers Li Jiancheng (the Crown Prince) and Li Yuanji (the Prince of Qi) in a succession struggle at the Xuanwu Gate Incident, eventually enabling Li Shimin to become the heir apparent and later the emperor. He was also instrumental in Emperor Taizong's selection of Li Zhi as the Crown Prince, and was exceedingly powerful after Li Zhi took the throne as Emperor Gaozong. However, he gradually fell out of his nephew's favour by failing to support Emperor Gaozong's decision to depose his first wife, Empress Wang, and replacing her with Empress Wu, especially after the beginning of the new year 657 with the power of Empress Wu fell more. In 659, Zhangsun Wuji was falsely accused of treason by Empress Wu's political ally, Xu Jingzong, and eventually ordered to be sent into exile by Emperor Gaozong. Xu Jingzong subsequently sent the official Yuan Gongyu (袁公瑜) to force Zhangsun Wuji to commit suicide on his way to exile.

Early life
It is not known when Zhangsun Wuji was born, but what is known is that he was older than his sister, the future Empress Zhangsun, who was born in 601. It was written that his ancestors traced their origin to the Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei's founding emperor Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei's 17th generation ancestor Tuoba Kuaili (拓拔儈立) — that their ancestor was Tuoba Kuali's third son, who took the surname Baba (拔拔), eventually changed to Zhangsun when Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei changed Xianbei surnames to Han surnames in 496.

His father was the Sui dynasty general Zhangsun Sheng (長孫晟), and his mother was Zhangsun Sheng's wife Lady Gao, the daughter of the official Gao Jingde (高敬德). He had at least three older brothers—Zhangsun Sheng's oldest son Zhangsun Xingbu (長孫行布, who was killed in 604 while resisting the rebellion of Emperor Yang of Sui's brother Yang Liang the Prince of Han), Zhangsun Heng'an (長孫恆安), and Zhangsun Anye (長孫安業). (Empress Zhangsun was also born of Lady Gao, while Zhangsun Anye was not; who Zhangsun Xingbu's and Zhangsun Heng'an's mothers were was not recorded in history.) Zhangsun Sheng died in 609, and Zhangsun Anye, instead of raising his younger brother and sister, expelled them, as well as his stepmother Lady Gao, from the Zhangsun household and sent them back to Lady Gao's brother Gao Shilian, and Gao Shilian raised them.

It was said that Zhangsun Wuji was studious, and that he was both intelligent and full of strategies. When his sister later married Li Shimin, the second son of the general Li Yuan, he and Li Shimin became great friends. When Li Yuan, at Li Shimin's instigation, rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui in 617 and attacked the capital Chang'an, Zhangsun Wuji went to meet Li Shimin, then serving as a major general of his father's, and he began to serve on Li Shimin's staff, often following Li Shimin on various campaigns.

During Emperor Gaozu's reign
Li Yuan captured Chang'an in winter 617 and declared Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong), taking power himself as regent. After he received news in spring 618 that Emperor Yang had been killed at Jiangdu (江都, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu) in a coup led by the general Yuwen Huaji, he had Yang You yield the throne to him, establishing Tang dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu. Li Shimin was created the Prince of Qin and thereafter became the main general in charge of his father's campaigns to reunify China under Tang rule, which was largely complete by 623, when the last major rival to Tang, Liu Heita the Prince of Handong, was captured and killed by Li Shimin's older brother, Li Jiancheng the Crown Prince. For Zhangsun Wuji's contributions to Li Shimin's campaigns, he was created the Duke of Shangdang.

Incident at Xuanwu Gate
By 623, however, Li Shimin was locked into an intense rivalry with Li Jiancheng, who was supported by another brother, Li Yuanji the Prince of Qi. For the next several years, the rivalry further intensified. By 626, Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, apprehensive that Li Shimin might act against them, had falsely accused Li Shimin's staff strategists Fang Xuanling and Du Ruhui and military officer Yuchi Gong and had them removed from Li Shimin's staff. It was said that by that time, of Li Shimin's closest confidants, only Zhangsun remained, and that Zhangsun, his uncle Gao Shilian, Hou Junji, and Yuchi advocated acting first against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji. They persuaded Li Shimin to take action. Li Shimin thereafter set up an ambush for Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, killing them at Xuanwu Gate, and then effectively forced Emperor Gaozu to create him crown prince. Zhangsun was thereafter made the minister of civil service affairs. Two months later, Emperor Gaozu yielded the throne to Li Shimin, who took the throne as Emperor Taizong.

During Emperor Taizong's reign
Late in 626, when Emperor Taizong personally ranked the contributions of the generals and officials in order to grant them fiefs, Emperor Taizong ranked five of them—Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, Yuchi Gong, and Hou Junji to be contributors of the highest grade, and Zhangsun was created the Duke of Qi. As Zhangsun was both a great contributor to his victory and a close relative, Emperor Taizong was particularly close to him, allowing Zhangsun to enter the palace frequently.

In spring 627, when the general Li Yi, an associate of Li Jiancheng's, rebelled at Bin Prefecture (豳州, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), Emperor Taizong sent Zhangsun to engage Li Yi, although before Zhangsun could arrive, Li Yi had been defeated by his own subordinates and killed in flight. In fall 627, Emperor Taizong, despite opposition from Empress Zhangsun (who feared that the Zhangsun clan was becoming overly honored and would become a target of attack), Emperor Taizong made Zhangsun Wuji Puye (僕射), one of the heads of the important executive bureau of the government and a post considered one for a chancellor. Later that year, when Emperor Taizong heard that Eastern Tujue's Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi, who had made a deep incursion to Chang'an when Emperor Taizong first took the throne in 626, was having internal problems with his subordinates, he consulted Zhangsun and Xiao Yu, asking for their opinions. Xiao advocated an attack on Eastern Tujue, but Zhangsun pointed out that the peace treaty between the two states should not be breached, and Emperor Taizong accepted his suggestion.

Many officials were critical of Zhangsun Wuji's ascension to a chancellor post, and there were secret accusations made to Emperor Taizong that Zhangsun was monopolizing power. Emperor Taizong publicly declared confidence in Zhangsun, but he himself feared that he was a target of resentment. He repeatedly offered to resign, both directly and through Empress Zhangsun, and in spring 628, Emperor Taizong accepted the resignation, although he conferred on Zhangsun the honorific position of Kaifu Yitong Sansi (開府儀同三司) and continued to consult Zhangsun on many important matters. In 633, Emperor Taizong conferred on Zhangsun the even greater honor of Sikong (司空): one of the Three Excellencies.

In 637, a major revision of the Sui penal laws, led by Fang but assisted by Zhangsun, was completed, with 500 sections dividing the punishments into 20 grades. About 1,600 sections of regulations to implement the laws were also written.

Also in 637, as part of Emperor Taizong's scheme to bestow prefectures on his relatives and great generals and officials as their permanent domains, Zhangsun's title was changed to Duke of Zhao, and he was given the post of prefect of Zhao Prefecture (趙州, roughly modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei), to be inherited by his heirs. Many officials opposed the plan, with the strongest opposition coming from Zhangsun, who also had his daughter-in-law, Princess Changle (Emperor Taizong's daughter) submit oppositions on his behalf as well, and Emperor Taizong cancelled the scheme, although Zhangsun's title remained Duke of Zhao. In 642, Emperor Taizong changed Zhangsun's honorific from Sikong to Situ (司徒). In 643, when Emperor Taizong commissioned the Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion to commemorate the 24 great contributors to Tang rule, Zhangsun's was one of the portraits commissioned—indeed, Zhangsun's portraits was ranked first.

Succession dispute
Later in 643, Li Chengqian the Crown Prince (the oldest son of Emperor Taizong and Empress Zhangsun, who had died in 636), locked into an intense rivalry with his younger brother Li Tai the Prince of Wei, who was also born of Empress Zhangsun and was Emperor Taizong's favorite son, was discovered to have plotted to overthrow Emperor Taizong, along with Hou Junji and Emperor Taizong's sons-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節) and Du He (杜荷, Du Ruhui's son). Emperor Taizong put the investigation in the hands of Zhangsun, Fang Xuanling, Xiao Yu, Li Shiji, and the officials in charge of the supreme court and the legislative and examination bureaus of government, and they determined that, indeed, Li Chengqian had plotted to overthrow Emperor Taizong. Li Chengqian was deposed, while his coconspirators were executed.

A succession question immediately arose. Li Tai was Emperor Taizong's favorite son, and Emperor Taizong almost immediately promised to him that he would be created crown prince, an idea concurred by the chancellors Cen Wenben and Liu Ji. However, Zhangsun did not concur, and instead recommended that Emperor Taizong make his ninth son Li Zhi, also by Empress Zhangsun, crown prince instead; Zhangsun was supported in this suggestion by Chu Suiliang. Further, when Emperor Taizong interrogated Li Chengqian personally, Li Chengqian admitted guilt but blamed Li Tai's machinations for leading him to fear for his own safety and thus plot rebellion. Emperor Taizong thereafter resolved to create Li Zhi crown prince—a decision that he initially secretly informed only Zhangsun, Fang, Li Shiji, and Chu, in addition to Li Zhi himself—and he exiled both Li Chengqian and Li Tai. Subsequently, Zhangsun, along with Fang and Xiao, were made senior advisors to the new crown prince. Thereafter, however, Emperor Taizong began to doubt whether his decision was correct—believing that while Li Zhi was kind, he was also weak in personality, and unsure whether he would be fit to be emperor. He discussed with Zhangsun the possibility of making another son, Li Ke the Prince of Wu (by his concubine Consort Yang, a daughter of Sui's Emperor Yang), who was older than Li Zhi and considered more capable, crown prince instead. Zhangsun strenuously opposed this idea, and Emperor Taizong did not carry it out. Zhangsun further often praised Li Zhi's kindness. Thereafter, a deep enmity developed between Zhangsun and Li Ke.

In 644, when Emperor Taizong, at an imperial gathering, stated to his key officials their strengths and weaknesses, he spoke, with regard to Zhangsun:

 * Zhangsun Wuji is overly worried about appearance of conflict of interest. He is dexterious and decisive beyond the wisdom of the ancients, but commanding an army in the battlefield is not his strength.

Goguryeo–Tang War
Later in 644, when Emperor Taizong launched a major attack against Goguryeo, he had the generals Li Shiji and Li Daozong lead the forward forces, while commanding the main forces himself, assisted by Zhangsun, Cen, and Yang Shidao. In summer 645, at a major battle against the main Goguryeo forces commanded by the generals Go Yeonsu (高延壽) and Go Hyezin (高惠真) engaged Tang forces, Emperor Taizong had Li Shiji command 15,000 men to serve as decoy, and when Goguryeo forces attacked Li Shiji, Zhangsun Wuji attacked them from behind with 11,000 men, and Li Shiji and Zhangsun, as well as Emperor Taizong himself, defeated Goguryeo forces, forcing their surrender. He then considered directly attacking Goguryeo's capital Pyongyang itself, but Li Shiji believed that if Ansi (安市, in modern Anshan, Liaoning) was not captured first, the general in command of Ansi (a capable general known in Korean popular legends as Yang Manchun, although whether that was his real name is unknown), might attack Tang forces from the rear. Emperor Taizong agreed, and therefore put Ansi under siege again. However, the commander at Ansi was a capable defender, and the resolve of the defenders was strengthened when Li Shiji, in anger, declared that after the fall of the city all residents would be slaughtered. With the Tang forces bogged down in sieging Ansi, a number of officials suggested skipping past Ansi and attacking Ogol (烏骨, in modern Dandong, Liaoning) and then head toward Pyongyang. Zhangsun opposed, believing the strategy to be too risky without first capturing Ansi and Geonan (建安, in modern Yingkou, Liaoning) first. Emperor Taizong agreed and continued sieging Ansi, but still could not capture it. In fall 645, with winter approaching, Emperor Taizong was forced to withdraw. (The Song Dynasty historian Hu Sanxing, the commentator to the Zizhi Tongjian, commented that overcautiousness was what cost Emperor Taizong the victory, indirectly blaming Zhangsun for opposing the strategy to attack Pyongyang directly.) As the army retreated, Zhangsun was responsible for building a temporary bridge over the Liao River to allow the army to cross.

In 647, when Zhangsun's uncle Gao Shilian died, Emperor Taizong, who had just recently himself recovered from an illness, wanted to attend Gao's wake, but Zhangsun lay down in the path of his horse, blocking him, reasoning that as someone who had recently recovered, it was inappropriate for Emperor Taizong to attend the wake. Emperor Taizong, due to Zhangsun's opposition, relented. In summer 647, Emperor Taizong made Zhangsun the commandant at Yang Prefecture (i.e., Jiangdu), but did not actually send him to Yang Prefecture. In fall 647, when a commoner named Duan Zhichong (段志沖) submitted a petition to Emperor Taizong, asking him to yield the throne to Li Zhi, Li Zhi became concerned that Emperor Taizong would suspect that the proposal came from him, and Zhangsun requested that Duan be executed. Emperor Taizong, however, was unfazed, and took no actions against Duan.

In spring 648, Emperor Taizong made Zhangsun the acting head of the legislative bureau—also a chancellor post—and further gave instructions that he also be in charge of the other two main bureaus of government, the executive and the examination bureaus, effectively putting Zhangsun in command of all of the government.

In summer 649, Emperor Taizong was seriously ill, while at the summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮). He summoned Zhangsun and Chu to his bedside and entrusted Li Zhi to them. He soon died, and by Zhangsun's orders, his death was kept a secret until his casket, accompanied by Li Zhi, was returned to Chang'an. Li Zhi then took the throne (as Emperor Gaozong).

During Emperor Gaozong's reign
After Emperor Gaozong took the throne, he changed Zhangsun's honorific title to Taiwei (太尉), also one of the Three Excellencies, and ordered that he continued to be in charge of all three bureaus, although Zhangsun declined the responsibility over the executive bureau. Emperor Gaozong also gave him the chancellor de facto designation of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Sanpin (同中書門下三品). Early in Emperor Gaozong's reign, it was said that, while there were other men with chancellor designations, Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang controlled the government, but that they served faithfully and were extending the efficient governance that Emperor Taizong instituted during his "Reign of Zhen'guan." However, perhaps challenging Zhangsun's authority and/or faithfulness, the Tufan king Songtsän Gampo wrote a letter to Zhangsun, stating, "The Son of Heaven has just taken the throne. If there are unfaithful subjects among the officials, I will lead an army to the capital to destroy them." However, Emperor Gaozong trusted both Zhangsun and Chu greatly, and in 650, when a commoner named Li Hongtai (李弘泰) accused Zhangsun of treason, Emperor Gaozong had Li Hongtai immediately beheaded.

In 651, another revision of the laws, with Zhangsun in charge, was completed, and was promulgated by Emperor Gaozong.

In 652, with Emperor Gaozong's wife Empress Wang being sonless, her uncle Liu Shi, also a chancellor, suggested to her that she propose that Emperor Gaozong's oldest son, Li Zhong, whose mother Consort Liu was of low birth, be made crown prince, believing that Li Zhong would be grateful to her. Liu Shi also lobbied Zhangsun to make the request for her. Emperor Gaozong agreed, and in fall 652 created Li Zhong crown prince.

Late in 652, there was a major dispute between Fang Xuanling's oldest son and heir Fang Yizhi (房遺直) and his younger brother Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛), as well as Fang Yi'ai's wife, Emperor Taizong's daughter Princess Gaoyang. Princess Gaoyang accused Fang Yizhi of assaulting her, while Fang Yizhi accused Fang Yi'ai and Princess Gaoyang of treason. Emperor Gaozong ordered Zhangsun to investigate, and Zhangsun discovered that Fang Yi'ai, Princess Gaoyang, the general Xue Wanche (薛萬徹), and another brother-in-law of Emperor Gaozong's, Chai Lingwu (柴令武), had considered to support Emperor Taizong's younger brother Li Yuanjing (李元景) the Prince of Jing as emperor. Fang Yi'ai, knowing that Zhangsun had long wanted to kill Li Ke, whom he viewed as a threat to Emperor Gaozong's throne, falsely implicated Li Ke in the plot as well, hoping that Zhangsun would spare him. Zhangsun, however, used this opportunity to carry out a purge—and in spring 653, Zhangsun persuaded Emperor Gaozong to issue an edict executing Fang Yi'ai, Xue, and Chai, while ordering Li Yuanjing, Li Ke, and Princesses Gaoyang and Baling (Chai's wife) to commit suicide. Further, Zhangsun also had the chancellor Yuwen Jie (a friend of Fang Yi'ai's), Li Daozong (who had long had a rivalry with Zhangsun and Chu), and the general Zhishi Sili (執失思力), Xue's brother Xue Wanbei (薛萬備) as well as Li Ke's mother Consort Yang and Consort Yang's younger son Li Yin, reduced to commoner rank and exiled. (For these actions, he was heavily criticized by Liu Xu, the lead editor of the Old Book of Tang, who commented that perhaps it was karmic that eventually Zhangsun himself would be falsely accused. Indeed, when Li Ke died, he cursed Zhangsun, stating: "Zhangsun Wuji has stolen imperial power and falsely accused the faithful. The imperial ancestral spirits are watching. Soon your own clan will be slaughtered.")

Downfall
By 654, Emperor Gaozong had become enamored with Consort Wu—whom he had, against Confucian definitions of incest, taken as a concubine even though she had been a concubine of Emperor Taizong's. (Empress Wang, who had been jealous of Emperor Gaozong's then-favorite concubine Consort Xiao, had suggested that he take Consort Wu as a concubine, in order to divide Consort Xiao's favors, but as Emperor Gaozong's favors became exclusively concentrated on Consort Wu, she turned to ally with Consort Xiao against Consort Wu, to no avail.)  In 654, after Consort Wu's infant daughter died, Emperor Gaozong began considering deposing Empress Wang and replacing her with Consort Wu. (Historians have suggested that Consort Wu murdered her own daughter in order to frame the Empress, however there is no evidence that the infant was actually murdered, and could have died from natural causes). However, Gaozong feared opposition from the high level officials. He visited Zhangsun's mansion along with Consort Wu, bestowing lavish gifts on Zhangsun and making Zhangsun's three sons mid-level officials, and used the opportunity to bring up the topic of replacing Empress Wang with Consort Wu. Zhangsun pretended not to understand and took no actions to endorse Consort Wu, and persisted in this stand despite later lobbying by both Consort Wu's mother Lady Yang and fellow chancellor Xu Jingzong. However, soon, Xu, Li Yifu (who became chancellor over his overt support for Consort Wu), as well as other key officials Cui Yixuan (崔義玄) and Yuan Gongyu, formed an alliance in support of Consort Wu.

In fall 655, after an imperial gathering, Emperor Gaozong summoned Zhangsun, Li Ji (i.e., Li Shiji—he had dropped the character "Shi" by this point by Emperor Gaozong's orders that naming taboo was to be observed as to the characters Shi and Min, not just the sequence "Shimin" as Emperor Taizong had ordered), Chu, and Yu Zhining to the palace—an order that Chu correctly guessed that was intended to call them into a meeting in which he would try to persuade them to agree with his desire to replace Empress Wang with Consort Wu. Li Ji declined to enter. When Zhangsun, Chu, and Yu attended the meeting, Emperor Gaozong did indeed propose to replace Empress Wang with Consort Wu. Chu objected strenuously, while Zhangsun and Yu did not speak but showed no approval. Later, fellow chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also showed opposition, but when Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji, Li Ji responded, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong, after demoting Chu to a commandant post at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha, Hunan), deposed Empress Wang and Consort Xiao to commoner rank and created Consort Wu as empress to replace Empress Wang. (Soon, by Empress Wu's orders, the former Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were tortured and killed.)

Death
By the beginning of 657, the power of Empress Wu and her allies was so great that they began to retaliate hard against the authorities who opposed them. By 659, Empress Wu's position was secure, and she resented how Zhangsun and Yu had shown implicit disapproval of her ascension—and Xu, who had been repeatedly rebuked by Zhangsun over this matter, also resented Zhangsun. Xu thereafter, when investigating a report of factionalism by the low level officials Wei Jifang (韋季方) and Li Chao (李巢), manufactured evidence that Zhangsun had plotted treason with them. Emperor Gaozong wanted to interrogate Zhangsun personally, but at Xu's suggestion—pointing out that Zhangsun had been experienced at quick reactions as demonstrated by his achievements—in summer 659, suddenly stripped Zhangsun's posts and fief, and while he officially gave Zhangsun the title of commandant at Yang Prefecture, he instead exiled Zhangsun to Qian Prefecture (黔州, modern southeastern Chongqing) under house arrest. Zhangsun's sons were also exiled. In fall 659, Emperor Gaozong further reopened the investigations, putting Li Ji, Xu, Xin Maojiang, Ren Yaxiang, and Lu Chengqing in charge of investigating the alleged plot. Xu took this opportunity to send Yuan Gongyu to Qian Prefecture, where Yuan by order of Empress Wu forced Zhangsun to commit suicide. His wealth was confiscated. (As part of the same reprisal transactions, Empress Wang's uncle Liu Shi was also executed in exile. Members of the Zhangsun and Liu households, as well as those of Han's, were forced to hard labor, while several relatives of Zhangsun's were also executed.)  Later in Emperor Gaozong's reign, in 674, Emperor Gaozong restored Zhangsun's titles posthumously and allowed Zhangsun's great-grandson Zhangsun Yi (長孫翼) to inherit the title of Duke of Zhao. He also had Zhangsun's casket returned to Chang'an, to be buried near Emperor Taizong's tomb.

Notes and references

 * Old Book of Tang, vol. 65.
 * New Book of Tang, vol. 105.
 * Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200.

title: Zhangsun Wuji


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Oliver Stevens

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was DELETE. — J I P | Talk 15:08, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Oliver Stevens
Hoax. No relevant Google hits. Delete Lupo 10:13, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No Amazon hits on the author or book he supposedly wrote either. Sjakkalle (Check!)  10:19, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Probable hoax from the author of Will Lewis also up for deletion.   Dl yo ns 493   Ta lk   15:53, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Zero Nexis hits for book either. -- Lord Vold e  mort  (Dark Mark) 18:16, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as probable hoax. Hall Monitor 19:05, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Will Lewis

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was DELETE. — J I P | Talk 15:11, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Will Lewis
Probable hoax. Delete unless verified. Lupo 10:14, 3 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete Probable hoax from the author of Oliver Stevens also up for deletion.   Dl yo ns 493   Ta lk   15:52, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as probable hoax. Hall Monitor 19:05, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Do Not Delete Genuine. Verified by Princeton University research department Lupo 19:05, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Above vote for do not delete was added by User:217.41.241.254 who created the article. CambridgeBayWeather 09:35, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I've stricken out the fake vote . Lupo 10:11, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete - Hoax. CambridgeBayWeather 09:35, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text: User talk:69.236.170.55

title: User talk:69.236.170.55


text:
Binalong

Binalong is a village in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia, 37 km north-west of Yass in Yass Valley Shire. At the, Binalong and the surrounding area had a population of 543.

Original inhabitants
The indigenous people of the district were part of the Ngunnawal people. The first Europeans recorded as visiting the area were the exploratory party of Hamilton Hume in 1821.

The name of the town is believed to derive either from an Aboriginal word meaning "under the hills, surrounded by hills, or towards a high place" or from Bennelong, the name of a noted Aboriginal Man.

European settlement
Binalong lay beyond the border of the Nineteen Counties which was the formal legal extent of European settlement in New South Wales. However, squatters settled in the district prior to the formal establishment of squatting districts in 1839.

From 1847 there was a court of petty sessions. The same year a local entrepreneur applied successfully to the Commissioner of Police for a grant to build an inn to provide accommodation and victuals for the visiting magistrate and police witnesses, and the Swan Inn was established close to the courthouse. The town was gazetted in 1850.

In 1853, Cobb and Co was established in Melbourne as a coaching company, and upon eventually expanding their operations into New South Wales, entered into an agreement with the Swan Inn to provide staging services for coaches, drivers and passengers travelling along the adjacent road to the goldfields at Lambing Flat or Young. The town flourished as a coaching stop. The Swan Inn became known as "The Cobb and Co".

Consolidation
The public school was established in 1861. The original railway station opened in 1875 and was replaced by the current structure on an island platform when the railway was deviated and duplicated in 1916. The 1916 signal box is now closed. The original station remains as a private house on the road to Yass.

The Swan Inn closed following the building of the railway and the establishment of other hostelries closer to the railway station. It reopened in the mid-1980s as a restaurant and continues under the name The Black Swan. A motel was built on the adjoining block of land.

Notable residents

 * Michael Boddy, an English-Australian actor and writer, and spouse of Janet Dawson
 * Janet Dawson MBE, an Australian artist and spouse of Michael Boddy
 * The presence of gold meant also that there were bushrangers in the area. The grave of John Gilbert is near the town in the former police paddock. He was a member of the Gardiner-Hall gang and shot by police in 1865.
 * Gillian Mann, English/Australian artist
 * The family of the poet Banjo Paterson moved to the Binalong district in 1869 when he was five years old. He attended the primary school in Binalong but later went to boarding school in Sydney returning home in the holidays.  The district features in a number of his poems, for example, Pardon, the son of Reprieve .  Paterson's father is buried in the local cemetery.
 * John Nagel Ryan inherited his father's states, comprising 30,000 acres in the Boorowa-Binalong district. In 1883 he was appointed to the New South Wales Legislative Council
 * Bruce Smeaton, an Australian composer

title: Binalong


text:
Talk:Booty call

 * Traditionally this phenomenon, especially the term booty call, is associated with a woman calling a man...

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the term "Booty-Call" as a slang word that means "''a communication (such as a phone call or text message) by which a person arranges a sexual encounter with someone". '' — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:8805:5800:64D:A92C:BCC7:2118:3D1D (talk) 03:44, 23 September 2019 (UTC)

Really? I thought it was the other way around. I mean, that was the central theme of the film of the same name. Not that Hollywood always gets things right! --Do Not Talk About Feitclub (contributions) 10:14, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * If there's doubt, perhaps the article shouldn't tell mention either way?

does it really mean that!? i thought it meant anal sex. --66.218.22.254 23:34, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
 * yes it does. (booty call: ringing somebody up to come over just for sex) Mathmo 18:17, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

Yes, "booty call" generally refers to a woman requesting sex from a man, which is supposed to be a new and "modern" phenomenon (yes, it's really happened since the beginning of time). A man's request for casual gratification generally goes by its old, traditional name of "proposition." Cranston Lamont 07:17, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, the wording "booty call" may have generally referred to a woman requesting sex from a man, but as Feitclub alluded to, it seems to have taken on being generally referred to as a man requesting sex from a woman. Perhaps it is now equal in its reference to either sex propositioning the other sex. Flyer22 00:19, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

The phrase originated in a comedic routine by stand-up comedian Bill Bellamy in the early 1990s.

Not so! I recall this expression being frequently used when I was in the U.S. military during the Vietnam era. Its meaning back then, as now, was to try to initiate "informal" sexual contact. I don't recall it ever being a request by a woman. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.228.163.254 (talk) 16:29, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

Originated: Booty Call
The phase Booty Call was not originated by Bill Bellamy. But the phase may have gained popularity by Bill Belamy, and first used on television by him.
 * Does this really need to be filed under the Intimate relationships category?
 * DrunkenDialer (talk)

booty call: either sex propositioning the other sex
A booty call is either sex propositioning the other sex. It started out as male calling a female, but evolved to become an equal opportunity proposition.

Mildly racist content?
"The term is generally associated with black males"

This certainly isn't true in my experience, and I propose it should be removed unless someone can find a credible source for the assertion. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.76.38.165 (talk) 09:19, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Your experiences do not belong in an encyclopedia... 76.109.174.153 (talk) 17:41, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

No, credible sources do. He's just raising an objection, not saying it's wrong because he says so.81.108.236.22 (talk) 23:28, 12 May 2008 (UTC)

Origins of the "Booty Call" term: Unverified
Though the term "Booty Call" gained notarity from such comedic figures as Mr. Bill Bellamy, it is highly unlikely that he's the originator of the term. One can watch shows such as 'In Living Color,' dating back to the late '80s and 'Martin,' dating back to the early '90s, Starring Mr. Martin Lawrence and find strong references to the term. Mr. Bellamy is probably foremost, front and center, with the term because of his movie, of the same name, and his standup comedic routines. I move to have the reference removed from an otherwise well articulated article. ~Shaka Zulu~ —Preceding unsigned comment added by 139.139.83.70 (talk) 08:13, 16 July 2008 (UTC)

 * That info is sourced, but if you doubt its correctness you could perhaps change it to read that it was "popularized" by Bellamy in his act (I already changed it to "is thought to have orginated"); and you could also mention earlier uses of the term if they are accurate. It would be best to source the info, though. Also, need to get your facts straight: Booty Call isn't Bellamy's movie. Softlavender (talk) 09:51, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

Why is the Online Booty Call website referenced in this article?
Beyond exploiting the catchphrase, what relevance does the website OnlineBootyCall.com have to this article? I didn't make it past the Home Page, but the content there and on television ads seems to be more relevant to matchmaking/dating websites. I'm not against the website being indexed on Wikipedia, but this article doesn't seem like the right place for it. // Internet Esquire (talk) 21:15, 17 November 2009 (UTC)

Suggest redirect
In the absence of any reliable sources, I propose to redirect to Casual sex. Kenilworth Terrace (talk) 18:11, 22 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Done. Kenilworth Terrace (talk) 17:25, 30 March 2010 (UTC)

Defining Booty Call https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/booty%20call — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:8805:5800:64D:A92C:BCC7:2118:3D1D (talk) 03:46, 23 September 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Booty call


text:
Cranbrook History Centre

The Cranbrook History Centre, formerly the Canadian Museum of Rail Travel, or its brand name "Trains Deluxe", is located in Cranbrook, British Columbia, Canada, a city of about 25,000 on the west side of the Rocky Mountains. The city was developed by the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) in 1898, as the administrative centre for the railway's "Crowsnest Pass" route. This deep connection with the railway was the driving force behind the founding of the original museum and while the city is still a busy railway centre with Canadian and international freight traffic, the area's rich history extends far back before the railway's introduction and the museum has recently expanded the exhibits to reflect this. Cranbrook was incorporated as a city in 1905 when Cranbrook boomed into the major economic, and commercial centre of the Kootenays.

History
The museum, opened in 1977, originally focused entirely on restoring and displaying vintage passenger trains - the transcontinental "Deluxe Hotels-On-Wheels". Many of these original features are still present and train culture remains central to the museum, and town's, identity. The original museum emphasized deluxe railway passenger car design in various eras (1886, 1907, 1929, 1936) as well as deluxe railway hotel architecture. The museum is an outgrowth of the Cranbrook Archives, Museum and Landmark Foundation, founded in 1976 with the initial goal of converting an out of service rail car into a local art gallery. The group then discovered that they had unknowingly purchased a dining car from the short-lived Trans-Canada Limited luxury rail line (1929-1931), and the focus of the project shifted to more extensive rail rehabilitation efforts. Founder Garry Anderson was awarded the Order of Canada in 2007 for his efforts in developing the museum.

More recently, the Museum has expanded its focus to embody the larger history of the area, and region. The Cranbrook History Centre now collects, preserves, and displays artifacts and archival records of permanent value to the history of Cranbrook, the East Kootenay, and Canadian rail travel. The collecting scope currently emphasizes three areas:

 * Artifacts and specimens which communicate the human and natural history of the city site of Cranbrook, and the East Kootenay.
 * Artifacts and heavy track equipment which narrate the social, political, economic, and technological impact of rail travel in Canada.
 * Archive material in the form of photographs, documents, film, and digital information associated with the City of Cranbrook, Canadian rail travel, and the East Kootenay.

Cranbrook Museum
The Cranbrook History Centre celebrates the rich culture and heritage of the East Kootenay region. Situated in the original 1898 Cranbrook Freight Shed, museum displays include first nations histories, early settler artifacts and information about regional wildlife. Early photographs and timelines honour those who came before and helped build the community we know today.

Cranbrook History Gallery
The Cranbrook History Gallery will showcase topics that highlight the history and culture of our area. This will include local history and folklore, natural history, palaeontology, and Ktunaxa First Nation traditions.

Paleontology Gallery / Ted Fiedler Room
The Paleontology Gallery (featuring a collection donated by Michel Plourde) is the newest edition to the Cranbrook History Centre. It features a number of fossils from the Fort Steele and Burgess Shale regions, as well as a beautiful mural painted by Rosalie Dureski.

Train Collections
The largest exhibition at the Cranbrook History Centre is a collection of 28 railway cars of which 13 are currently available to the public. Highlights of the collection include the 7 cars of the 1929 “Trans-Canada Limited” (a classic “Jazz Era Art Deco” design), 2 cars of the 1907 “Soo-Spokane Train” (a deluxe example of “Edwardian Art Nouveau Elegance”), and the 1927 executive night car “Strathcona” which has housed many VIP guests during its time in service, including Queen Elizabeth II, John & Jackie Kennedy and Sir Winston Churchill.

These remarkable rail travel cars, comprise one of the largest collections in North America, and are in a continued state of restoration. Because of the fragile nature of this irreplaceable collection, our immediate priority is to provide a permanent covered roof to ensure these ‘deluxe hotels on wheels’ are preserved for future visitors and historians alike.

The collections have included:
 * the "Pacific Express" (1886) (two original cars),
 * the "Soo-Spokane Train Deluxe" (1907) (four original cars). The cars in this set include a compartment-observation-buffet-library car, a palace sleeper, and a first class day car. The fourth car is a baggage car.
 * the "Trans-Canada Limited" (1929) (a complete restored 7-car set). Recipient of Heritage Canada's "Achievement Award" for restoration in 1993. The cars in this set include a crew baggage car, a day parlour car, a dining car, three first class sleepers, and a Solarium-Lounge car.
 * the "Chinook" (1936) (a complete four-car set)
 * cars that expand the story line including Royal and Business cars.
 * the "Royal Alexandra Hall" (1906) the restored former Grand Cafe of the luxurious Royal Alexandra Hotel, Winnipeg, built by the CPR in 1906, but demolished in 1971, with the Museum obtaining the contents in 1999 and opening the Hall in 2004. Recipient of Heritage Canada's "Achievement Award" for restoration in 2007. It can hold up to 184 for formal diner, 280 for concert, and 400 for stand up receptions. There are adjacent facilities that expand the use of this Hall, and which cater to groups of visitors that tour the historic trains.

Instead of the usual mechanical and technological focus that most railway museums employ, the museum emphasizes the social aspects of the railway through travel and design.

It located downtown next to the busy rail yards of the CPR, on Highway 3/95, a major east-west Canadian arterial highway, and a major north-south route linking Banff and Japser National Parks with the Pacific North-West of the US. Cranbrook is about 50 miles (80 km) north of the Idaho and Montana border with Canada and British Columbia.

The back of the Museum has a siding track for excursion trains arrival, with doors into the Museum's large entrance hall from this track. The spectacular "Royal Canadian Pacific" (a high-end excursion train operated by the CPR on a circle route through the Rockies, out of Calgary, Alberta), uses this facility, as well as occasional special excursions of the CPR's famed #2816 restored "Hudson" style steam locomotive.

A 1992 study about the historical significance of the collections was recently updated by the author, Rober Turner, Curator Emeritus of the Royal British Columbia Museum, in which he states that "the museum is unparalleled anywhere in Canada, and is clearly of national as well as international importance".

title: Cranbrook History Centre


text:
Viseu Dão Lafões

The Comunidade Intermunicipal Viseu Dão Lafões is an administrative division in Portugal. It replaced the previously existing Greater Metropolitan Area of Viseu. Since January 2015, Viseu Dão Lafões is also a NUTS3 subregion of Centro Region, that covers the same area as the intermunicipal community. The main city and seat of the intermunicipal community is Viseu. The population in 2011 was 267,633, in an area of 3,237.74 km².

Municipalities
The intermunicipal community Viseu Dão Lafões consists of 14 municipalities:

title: Viseu Dão Lafões