text:
Talk:Ancient Roman units of measurement/Archive 1

Good, but...
You should expand the introduction more and give better citations for the measurements - citations go on the bottom of the article, also. See the wikipedia style guidelines to see how it's done. Xaa 23:49, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

The Greek Orders of Architecture were copied by the Romans

 * Batista

Disputed
See User:Egil/Sandbox/rktect -- Egil 15:31, 27 August 2005 (UTC) Egil has listed no grounds to dispute any fact in this article

Disputed, again
It seems we have now got the version from the previous pseudoscientific attack from 2004, which we managed to weed out, but because it remained long enough in the English version for an Italian version to be made, we are now experiencing a deja vu by having this Italian version re-imported back into English! My brain hurts. Really.

This version was from an editor that was a firm believer in the Megalithic Yard as an absolute measure of everything, and thus wrote things like:
 * The "theoretical" value of the Nippur ell is: 518 616 µm exactly. Therefore Romain foot is 296 352 µm. This is around 29.64 cm.

Help! -- Egil 10:32, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Hi Egil,

 * You are right, the so-called Megalithic Yard is very doubtful.
 * But that the Roman foot has been picked up from Egyptians as 16/28th of the Nippur cubit is indeed non-controversial in science.

 * With friendly greetings, Paul.

Roman foot
Hallo Rktect,

First a tip: If you use "Show prewiew" bottom before a final save, the history pages would be easier to consult.

 * You can give only 296 mm for the conventional Roman foot, that's not false. One day soon, the recently proposed value of 296 352 µm as defined, practical, conventional value for the Roman foot will be largely accepted in science. Because, on the one hand, that's 2^5 * 3^3 * 7^3 µm and thus gives round values for other related ancient measures. On the other hand this defined, conventional value is inside the range of mean values empirically calculated by modern statistical methodes. Thitherto both 296 mm as well as 296.4 mm is okey.

 * I removed your insertion:
 * There is a direct relationship between ancient lengths and the weights. Roman and Egyptian measures are divided into digits, palms, feet, remen and cubits with the relatonship 16 digits to a foot and 18.5 Roman digitus = 18.75 Egyptian dj. Biblical and Greek measures are divided into hands so three Greek hands = 4 Roman palms = 1 foot 1 Biblical cubit = 18" Ancient English and French measures are derived from the Romans and ancient Germanic measures are derived from the Greeks.

 * because this insertion is outside of of the topic. If you know a real relationship between both values, we can discus this here. Sure, the English foot is considered to be 36/35 Roman foot and the Austrian foot is identical to the Greek "Pous metrios" but this is without regard to the relationship between Roman lengths and Roman weights.

-- Paul Martin 11:48, 21 September 2005 (UTC)

''Hi Rktect, you answered inside of my statements. For better lisibility I allowed me to separated your reply:''  (Paul)

 * I am more comfortable without going to decimal mm for two reasons. First even the Romans had some inaccurate, less than ideal, conflicting standards which make it hard to claim an accuracy to decimals of a mm and secondly I like to avoid going to mean values when there is a clear mathematical relationship.

 * The stadium of 185 m being 625 x 16 = 10000 digitus suggests a preference for ease of computation. The remen being the hypotenuse of the quarter and foot, the mile being 75 stadia = 111 km.

 * Roman and Egyptian measures are divided into digits, palms, feet, remen and cubits with the relatonship 16 digits to a foot and 18.5 Roman digitus = 18.75 Egyptian dj. Biblical and Greek measures are divided into hands so three Greek hands = 4 Roman palms = 1 foot 1 Biblical cubit = 18" Ancient English and French measures are derived from the Romans and ancient Germanic measures are derived from the Greeks.

 * Its the very essence of the topic. Without knowing those kinds of details it becomes very difficult to tell the difference between Greek and Roman feet. If you know that one is always divided into palms and the other is always divided into hands it makes it a lot easier to tell them apart.

 * Aside from basing everything on the ratio of column diameters to height as a euphamism for the parallels and using the resultant pleasing ratio to define standards of measure the issue becomes one of defining pleasing and harmonious loadbearing proportions using the geography of Pi and Phi. (The only number which is its own reciprocal)

 * The Roman Vitruvius considers 16 an ideal number for anything to do with architectural measurement. As an architect he thinks of the Greek orders from which Roman architecture is derived as not quite so perfect as his Roman ideals. There is a direct relationship between ancient lengths and the weights in that architectural proportions are designed to take loads and look god doing it. Vitruvious says that 16 is ideal because it is composed of 10 and 6. I would be happy to discuss that using Normand's Parallel Orders.

 * The relationship that the square of the length is the area and the cube of the length is the volume and thus the weight depends on the material and unit is far more ancient than the Romans.

Rktect 18:05, 21 September 2005 (UTC)

The aim of this modern definition: one Roman foot equal 296 352 µm (or Nippur Ell = 518 616 µm or Punic foot = 294 000 µm it's all the same) is to highlight the real existing "clear mathematical relationships" between ancient measures. But it's also clear that in ancient times good measure standards could turn around about ± 0.17%. (294 × 1.0017 = 294.4998) This means that all Roman foot specimen between 295.849 and 296.855 mm are quite good enough. If you want continue to wear you by using other values than 296.352 mm, that's your right. Me, I decided to recognise and to adopte this definition discried and formulated by a friend of mine in 2003.

You said: "the mile being 75 stadia = 111 km" ??? The Romain mile equal 5000 Roman feet. 75 Roman miles equal 375 000 Roman feet equal 600 Roman-attic stadions or 625 stadions of Delphi or 578 stadions of Olympia. It's that, what you want to say? So, that's true.

You wrote: "Ancient English and French measures are derived from the Roman [...] measures." You can give me the good ratio between Roman foot and the "pied du Roy de France" of about 324.8394 mm i.e. about 109.6% of Roman foot? If yes, I'am highly interested to hear it(!!), because hitherto no one gave me a convincible ratio (like this is the case for many mediaeval measures, because in Middle-Ages metrologistes not always refer to already existing standards, like it is the case in Antiquity with their international trade relationships.)

You wrote: "The relationship that the square of the length is the area and the cube of the length is the volume and thus the weight depends on the material and unit is far more ancient than the Romans." I answer you: "The truth is concrete." This means: Which numbering relationship (= ratio) between Roman lenghts and weights? It's not the weight of water in a cube, that's sure, because four Roman digits cube gives about 406.67 ml or grams i.e. about 0.932% of the weight of a Greek mine. I don't know any concrete ratio. Do you know one, say? Spongy referring to "hands", don't help.

The problem with "ideals" is that ideals are not objective. What you or another juge ideal, a third one (with good arguments too) considers not-ideal. You know. But it's true, sixteen is both an old system and a very modern one (cf. there)

I don't read Charles Normand. I can't juge it and I don't think that I'll have time to read it. But I imagine that he treats systems like the mediaeval measure systems based to the Fibonacci suite: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987... This can be interesting with condition that you clearly distinguish them from the main and standard systems: In the mediaeval standard system the palm has 36 lines, the foot 144 lines, the cubit 216 lines. The mediaeval "Royal canna" has 555 lines composed by one "palmus minor" with 34 lines, one "palmus maior" with 55 lines, one "palma" with 89 lines, then: one foot equal to the foot of the standard system and one cubit 17 lines longer. It's a legitim system, but it's not the standard system. It's important to discern this clearly. No confusions please.

-- Paul Martin 16:41, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

I agree that there were both "clear mathematical relationships" and great variations in standards. I don't like using decimal mm because of the variations but we are not in any essential dissagreement on these points.

Did I say that? The correct statement is that 75 Roman miles were taken as a degree. We can run the numbers 296 mm to a pes or foot, Each mile passum was 8 stadia of 625 pes and thus 5000 pes or 1000 passus to a mile passum or mile, 75 miles to a degree and get 111 km easily enough.

We can also mention that the Ionic Greeks used the same arrangement and the Attic Greeks used 600 pous of 308.4 mm to get a stadion that was the same 185 m as the Roman stadium. I also agree that there were other stadia. They all use pretty close to the same value for the degree but the value improves slightly over time. Mesopotamian 180 km, Egyptian,110.25 km, Greek and Roman, 111 km.

 * Herodotus

 * 608 miles = 81 schoenus
 * 1 schoenus = 7.5 miles = 11.1 km
 * 1 mile (mia chiloi, mylios, milos or milion) = 1480 m = 4800 pous of 308.33 mm
 * 1 degree = 111 km = 10 schoeni, each schoenus is 11.1 km
 * 11.1 km = 1 Egyptian itrw = 1 schoenus = 60 stadions
 * 111 km = 600 stadions = 75 Roman milliare or miles.

These stadia were used to my knowledge 1 degree = 111 km = 500 stadia, each stadia is 222 m (stadia of Ptolemy and Marinus) 600 remen of 370 mm = 222 m (stadia of Ptolemy, Marinus and Posidonus) 500 x 360 = 180,000 stadia = 39,960 km

1 degree = 111 km = 600 stadia, each stadia is 185 m (Greek and Roman stadia) 600 pous of 308.4 mm or 625 pes of 296 mm = 185 m (Greek and Roman stadia) (This is the stadia Herodotus equates to the Egyptian itrw of 21,000 Egyptian royal cubits) 600 x 360 = 216,000 stadia = 39,960 km

1 degree = 111 km = 700 stadia, each stadia is 158.57 m (Persian stadia) 500 amma of 317.14 mm (Close to Athenian pous of 316 mm) = 158.57 m (Persian stadia) 1 degree = 110.25 km = 700 stadia each stadia is 300 Egyptian st3t = 157.5 m (Eratosthenes) 1 st3t = 100 royal cubits of 525 mm = 52.5 m

700 x 360 = 252,000 stadia = 39,690 km Egyptian, 39,960 km Persian

Aristotle gets a circumference of 400,000 stadia of 300 pous of 308.4 mm = 37,008 km Pythagorus used a chain of ten stadia at Miletus to get what became the nautical mile = 1850 m.

There is a page on the French variations on the pied du Roy de France which seem to vary by Province and then by city. As mentioned above I'm of the opinion that a range of +/- 1 mm is about the limit to which you can hold standards precise, and at three decimals of mm they would begin to be affected by their coefficients of expansion

"For instance, in 1740 A.D., Anders Celsius, who was connected with the measurement of the arc of meridian in Lappland and for this reason was particularly concerned with the exact value of lineal units, states that the English foot is 1027/1000 of Swedish foot, which means 304.916 mm., by a Swedish foot of 296.9. Taking the same value of the Swedish foot and Celsius’ statement that it is 1000/1094 of Paris foot, the latter would be 324.808 mm. (The meridian was measured in Lappland with the definitive Paris foot of 1732 A.D., which is 324.839 mm.). Robert Young in discussing Scottish measures in 1740 A.D., states that the English foot is 1351.7 Paris lines or 304.920 mm." [Metrum]

When the system originated the accuracy and precision of standards was probably something simiar to that used by Archimedes to find the counterfeit coins. If you can define a foot to the nearest mm then you can define a finger to the nearest 1/16 mm. When you start talking about water in a cube there is a difference in specific gravity between say fresh water, salt water, wine and olive oil, and a further difference between them at different temperatures and sea levels, but does it amount to enough to be of any great importance in commerce? Since the Greeks all had different pous and there were both sacred Mina of 60 shekels and profane Mina of 50 shekels getting an exact table of equivalences can take a little work. "
 * Mesopotamia
 * 1 talent (GÚ.UN; biltu) = 60 mina = 3600 shekel = 30.00 kg
 * 1 mina (MA.NA; manû) = 60 shekel = 500 gr
 * 1 shekel (GÍN; šiqlu) = 8.333 gr
 * Persia
 * 1 Babylonian mina = 6 karšâ = 60 shekel = 499.80 gr
 * 1 karšâ = 10 shekel = 83.33 gr
 * 1 shekel = 8.33 gr
 * Attic Greek
 * 1 talent-weight = 60 mnai = 6000 drachm-weights = 27.47 kg
 * 1 mna = 100 drachm-weights = 457.8 gr
 * 1 drachm-weight (holkê) = 4.578 gr
 * 1 talent-weight = 60 mnai = 6300 coin-drachms = 27.47 kg
 * 1 mna = 105 coin-drachms = 457.8 gr
 * 1 coin drachm = 4.36 gr
 * 1 talent (to talanton) = 60 minae = 6000 drachms = 36,000 obols = 25.86 kg
 * 1 mina (hê mnâ) = 100 drachms = 600 obols = 431 gr
 * 1 drachm (hê drachmê) = 6 obols = 4.31 gr
 * 1 obol (ho obolós) = 0.72 gr
 * Alternative values:
 * 1 talent = 21.45 kg
 * 1 mina = 357.5 gr
 * 1 drachm = 3.58 gr
 * 1 obol = 0.60 gr
 * 1 stater (ho statêr) or tetradrachm = 4 drachms = 17.24 gr
 * 1 didrachm = 2 drachms = 12 obols = 8.62 gr (= 1 Babylonian shekel?)
 * 1 obol = 8 chalkoi
 * 1 deben silver (Ptolemaic demotic) = 20 drachms "

[money and weights]

Yes, if you can tolerate a little ambiguity and make allowances for less than ideal accuracy then it becomes pretty easy to follow things like the above correspondence between weights and measures in Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, Rome and Egypt

The Greek Orders of Architecture relate architectural proportions to column diameters and use diagonals to get the Fibonacci series from the Golden Section, but they also relate the diameter of the columns to their unsupported lengths (pi related to phi) and thus are related to the ability of the columns to take gravity seismic, and wind loads. I have no problem allowing that there are many different levels of related math problems involved but once you compare a shear and moment diagram for the three moments theorem or look at Hanskines formula and realize that the roof pitch is actually related to the vector at which the load is transfered from the roof to the columns by this really beautiful formula it makes what they are doing with the three problems of classical antiquity much easier to follow. Just at the point at which medieval belief is becoming Renaissance science, Andreas Palladio begins rediscovering Vitruvius.

I don't have a problem with that as far as it goes but can't resist a few confusions. For one thing there are several different Greek pous being used east of the Rhine and clearly they have different proportions than the Roman pes and for that matter the remen. Since feet can be divided into both palms and hands (not to mention fists, spans and quarters) there can be confusion as to whether the division is actually of a pes divided into 4 palmus and 16 digitus or a remen divided into 5 palms and 15 uncia or a pous based fote divided into 3 hands and 15 digits.

Clearly a foot divided into 144 lines has 12 lines to the inch and if there are 4 palms of 36 lines there are 9 lines to a finger. If we are talking a Greek foot divided into hands there are 150 lines to a foot and 10 lines to a finger. That leaves us wondering about the remen which may be in a Roman system five palms or 20 fingers and 180 lines or on a Greek system 18 fingers.

Rktect 15:28, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

Hi Rktect,

Before I will reply you later to the other topos, let's examine your statements concerning the French Foot. You say French Foot should be 1094/1027 English Foot. Are you serious or it's a joke? Okey: (1094/1027) × 304.8 mm ≥ 324.6847 mm.

In 1799 the decimal meter was defined as 3 French feet and 11.296 lines exactly. This gives 324.839 385 mm to the Pied du Roy. The ratio 1094/1027 ??? 1094=2*547 and 1027=13*79 No, surely not! This has nothing to do with classical very, very, easy primary ratio factors used in antiquity: Mainly the factors two, three, five and seven. The factor eleven is only present in the Attic Foot and the English Mile. No other factor exists in ancient metrologie.

No! (2*547) / (13*79) is not a ratio, but these values are another way to say 109.4 and 102.7 %. To illustrate you the very simply ratios in ancient metrologie, I made this table below:

Like, currently, you seem to prefer a RP in ASC0, you choose also a Pous of Kyrenaika in Accuracy Standard Class 0 with 308.4 instead of the better value of 308.7 mm. One day soon, even the legal English Foot Standard will change.

0.006 299 %. For technical even high-level accuracy, it's nothing, but for a good and correct theorie, these new defined values are very useful and important. In science, the English foot is not used any more since a long time.

For your other topics, I will answer you soon.

-- Paul Martin 16:19, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

That's a cite that Metrum attributes to Celcius. Like the Greeks the French sem to have had a variety of foot measures. I wasn't there so I don't know for sure, but that seems reasonable. Not all measures in use will always be a part of the same system. I'll go to Klein for an illustration. p 70 he puts The Belgic foot at about 336 mm or 13.22". p 72, he puts the Paris foot at 12.785" or 325 mm.

While I would agree there was a system, you also have to allow for the fact that in the Middle ages many people were busy reinventing the wheel. I would also allow there are many more integer values than what you allow and quite a few not integer values. There are a lot of questions about the correct value for the Nippur cubit. Is it correctly measured from the end of the rod or the last mark on the rod? is it divided into hands or palms? is it divided into 15 fingers or 16? Are its increments intended to be equal or does it have sets of different widths as Egyptian rulers do?

It seems likely to me that the Romans would copy the Greeks as exactly as they could but the limits of accuracy and precision are probably not correct to 3 decimals of mm across the board. Rktect 16:54, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

-- Paul Martin 19:02, 24 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I well understood that this was a quotation of metrum.org. However: The French Foot equal 1094/1027 English Foot is not a ratio in the ancient sense of term.
 * No, I'am formally, there is not a "variety of French foot measures", there is only one foot since the early Middle-Ages, even if in 1668 it was modified by about 0.5 % (the old, exposed main public standard, disaggregate, was replaced by a longer one). Belgium didn't exist between the end of Roman times and 1830 A.D.
 * In ancient times, except a few measures derived from the Old Royal Cubit and hence irrational, I don't have knowledge of any ancient measure without easy ratio. Do you know any measure of antiquity not derived from the Nippur Cubit by simple ratio. If yes, say it, which archaeological graduated ruler stick? This case would be really very interisting for me and the colleagues.
 * Yes, in the European Middle-Ages (much less scientific than the Antiquity) local princes and their metrologists didn't hesistate to officialise a local (currupt) measure standard without references to neighbour states or other well-known standards. The excellent metrologists of the Antiquity did'nt tolerate suchlike proceedings.
 * Nevertheless, an important minority of mediaeval states in Europe conserved either the Roman foot or one of the different Greek feet or they have chosen a deduced foot measure just like the English-Russian Foot for example.
 * For the measures of the Nippur Ell, see for example this link.
 * What do you don't seem to understand, that the modern definition of the Roman foot do not pretend that Roman or Greek metrologists has been able to determinate pico-, atto- or yoctometer measures. It's a modern definition ! Definitions are not true or false, it can be adequate or not for the purpose for which it has been aimed. Beyond they can be widely recognised or not.

It seems likely to me that the Romans would copy the Greeks as exactly as they could but the limits of accuracy and precision are probably not correct to 3 decimals of mm across the board.

 * Greek Feet: Miletus 318, Athens and Etruria 316, Aegina 314, Attic Short 308.4, Ionian 296.The important thing is that all palms, hands, feet, remenm cubits and elles are integral multiples of fingers, palms are 4 fingers, hands are five fingers feet are 3 hands or 4 palms, remen are or 5 palms, cubits are 5 hands or 6 palms, great cubits are 6 hands or 7 palms, nibw or elles are 8 palms.

Rktect 21:40, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

In your "Egyptian Finger" of 18.75 mm exactly one, I recognise the Old Royal Cubit in a quite bad standard (ASC-1), at least 0.213% longer than its modern definition.

For your so-called "Sumerian" and "Nippur" Standard you say "Foot", but you divise into 18 digits. So it's a Pygme.

For your so-called "Palestine", "Talmudic", "Biblical", "Hittite" and "Persian" standards you divide into 15 fingers, what even the Sumerians great inventors of the sexagesimal system never did.

Also for your so-called "Arabic standard" (correctly divided into 16 digits), please check your sources. It seems to be less "Arabic" then "arabesque". What you call "Arabic Remen" it's 64/3 digits or 1.333 feet. Okey. But it becomes "better", futher. What you call "Arabic Kus" and "Arabic Cubit", it's 230/9 digits equal 25.555 digits and, hold you tight, 1344/45 digits or 1.8666 feet. Isn't it? Your "Arabic Nibw" is 512/15 digits or 2.1333 feet. My God. You should be much more careful with your sources, by avoiding doubtful publications which immingle conspicuously sundry systems.

Likewise your "Greek Remen" and "Greek Kus" is 1.333 and 1.666 feet respectly, ok. But can you say me what's your "Greek Cubit" with 616.8 mm?? 1.9974 feet or what?

-- Paul Martin 13:34, 25 September 2005 (UTC)

The Egyptian royal cubit certainly has more than one artifact from which conclusions about its intended standard length in different periods may be argued. Fingers, palms, feet, cubits, remen, great cubits and nibw can all be evaluated separately or collectively with rulers, rods, inscription grids, building stones, nilometers and other artifacts all contribution to the discussion. Wilkenson cites James who measured the royal cubit ay 525 mm and Jomard who measured the cubit of Mephis at 20.4729" (520 mm);that of Turin at 20.57869", (523 mm); anothe 523 mm, another 524 mm, that of the Nileometer at 527 mm but Wilkenson himself measured the cubit of Nileometers as 20.625" (523.9 mm)per royal cubit and .736"(18.7 mm) to each digit. Wilkenson also mentions a 2 cubit rule of 41.3" found in a pylon at Karnak making its cubit 20.65" (524.5 mm)Wilkenson also found a cubit carved in stone at E'sooan about 21" 533.4 mm)((The most commonly cited values today would be IES Edwards, SRK Glanville and Petries ideal of 20.62" (523.8 mm) which is cited in Gardiner sixth edition despite the 3rd edition gives 20.59" and Gillings who goes with Gardiner at 20.59 (523 mm)and Stecchinis 525 mm.

The Sumerian cubit and Nipur cubit can be divided into 18 fingers (pygon) or 12 thumbs (foot) The Greek pygon is sometimes taken as 20 fingers (daktylos)[pygon]but it really ranges from palm based remen (370 mm)= 5 palms of 74 mm to hand based remen (416 mm)5 hands of 104 mm.

The division into 15 fingers is quite natural if you are measuring in hands of 5 fingers rather than palms of 4 fingers. Mesopotamians and Greeks tend to use hands, Egyptians use palms, hands and fists and Romans tend to use palms. There are a couple of points to make here in that in addition to measuring in different numbers of fingers some rules use different sizes of fingers for palms and hands and use thumbs when dividing into 12 parts.

 * 1 finger = 16.67 mm Sumer
 * 1 finger = 17.67 mm Nipur
 * 1 finger = 18 mm Semitic
 * 1 finger = 18.5 mm used with Roman fists and palms
 * 1 finger = 18.75 mm used with Egyptian palms
 * 1 finger = 19.275 mm used with Hittite and Greek hands
 * 1 finger = 20 mm used with Mesopotamian hands
 * 1 thumb = 24.67 mm used with Roman foot
 * 1 thumb = 25 mm used with Egyptian and Mesopotamian foot

The most common divisions of the cubit are

4 fingers = 1 palm = 75 mm digit = 18.75 mm 5 fingers = 1 hand = 100 mm digit = 20 mm 6 fingers = 1 fist = 111 mm digit = 18.5 mm 10 fingers = 2 hands = 1 span = 200 mm = 20 mm 12 fingers = 3 palms = 2 fists = 222 mm 12 thumbs = 1 foot = 300 mm 15 fingers = 3 hands = 1 foot = 300 mm 16 fingers = 4 palms = 1 foot = 300 mm 18 fingers = 3 fists = 1 pygon = 333 mm 20 fingers = 5 palms = 1 remen = 375 mm 20 fingers = 4 hands = 1 remen = 400 mm 24 fingers = 6 palms = 1 cubit = 450 mm 24 fingers = 4 fists = 1 cubit = 444 mm 25 fingers = 5 hands = 1 cubit = 400 mm 28 fingers = 7 palms = 1 royal cubit = 525 mm 30 fingers = 5 fists = 1 great cubit = 555 mm 30 fingers = 6 hands = 1 great cubit = 600 mm 32 fingers = 8 palms = 1 nibw or elle = 600 mm

The nibw or elle is literally 2 feet. Two Greek feet of 308.4 mm = 616.8 mm The Germanic allen, or ellen come from the Greek by way of the Egyptian nibw and or the Mesopotamian great cubit.

The values of Arabic measures come from Klein. The measures themselves probably came from Arabata along with Hindu (Arabic numerals) c 200 BC. From my own experience there are several different kinds of Arabic with Egyptian arabic, Persian arabic and Farsi not necessarily closely related. Arabic measures draw from a huge mixture of different standards from all over the Ancient near east. Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, Baluchistan, Pakistan, North Africa and Spain get involved in the mix. Wikipedia says Arabic measures are based on the Persian system, but the Persian empire was huge.

 * 1 finger,wa:hid assbaa = ¼ palm
 * 1 palm, 'arba`ah assbaa = 1 cabda = ¼ foot
 * 1 foot 1 thala:thah (3 hands) ='arba`ah cabda = 1 'arba`ah  ≈ 0.32 m (Thats a median Greek foot)
 * 1 cubit, sittah cabda = 1 arsh
 * 1 great cubit, sab`ah cabda
 * 1 thama:niyyah cabda = ithna:n thala:thah
 * 1 pace, xamsah = xamsah thala:thah
 * 1 sittah orgye = sittah thala:thah (The orquia is Greek)
 * 1 cane, qasab = thama:niyyah thala:thah
 * 1 stadion, seir = sittah `asharah `asharah thala:thah (The stadion is Greek)
 * 1 ghalva = sab`ah ithna:n `asharah thala:thah
 * 1 league, farasakh = ithna:n tis`ah thala:thah `asharah thala:thah  ≈ 5.76 km, from parasang
 * 1 barid = 'arba`ah  farasakh
 * 1 marhala = ithna:n'arba`ah farasakh

Rktect 16:07, 25 September 2005 (UTC)

 * First, excuse, you are right: If in reality you count with 19.275 mm (=ASC0) for the digit of the Pous of Kyrenaika, than it's right, nibw = pechys histonikos = 2×308.4 mm = 616.8 mm. It's my fault. I divised 616.8 mm by your 19.3 mm finger value.
 * For the Egyptian values one can say since the third dynastie, Egyptian surveyors used the Old Royal Cubit of about 524 mm with Remen sides of 20 (later called) Roman Feet. Afterwards they complety abandoned the Old Royal Cubit, but used a construction Remen with sides of 20 digits of the Old Royal Cubit. Since, the digit of the Royal Cubit is 100/98 digiti Romani exactly one. There are not a multitude of "artifacts" of Royal Cubits, but two exactly one. Well separated in time. If Wilkenson found 20.625" for the ORC, he found a specimen of ASC7 a top-level Accuracy Standard Class. If this value is confirmed by Edwards, Glanville and Petries (with 20.62") and if even Gillings and Gardiner value of 20.59" is quite -0.17% of the modern defined value, why you privilege the Stecchinis value of 525 mm? Note, +0.2 %, it's not a catastrophe. Outside of your "Cubit of Memphis" everyone confirms the good value of about 523.9 mm, where is the problem?
 * It's useful to employ terms unambiguous. The pygon is the "20-digits-unit" (and so 5 palms), like the pygme is a "18-digits-unit". Perhaps you found a metrologist, who use the term "pygon" for a 18-digits-unit. Not me like the other colleagues. The 25 digits measure (5 hands) can exist, but it's inappropiated to call it pygon too.
 * The Nippur Ell was divided into 30 digits by the Sumerians. This is 518.616 ÷ 30 = 17.2872 mm. But even the Sumerians considerd that the foot is 16 digits, so there are 1 7/8 feet in the Sumerian Nippur Cubit, like there are 1 3/4 Roman feet in the NC and 1.75 Egyptian Feet in both Egyptian Royal Cubit. The museums are fully of pretty specimen illustring this without doubt. For your "Nipur Finger" of 17.7 mm give me references please! This should be the 29.3th part of the Nippur Cubit if I've well calculated. Fanciful, abstruse, completly absurd! *
 * Please, grace! No long paragraphs like your "4 fingers = 1 palm = 75 mm digit = 18.75 mm..." It's not useful! Because you change always references. First a bad ORC-digit, than a digit of 2 cm, than a Roman digit a.s.o. I'am horrified!
 * If Klein really wrotes "a huge mixtures" of heavy non-sense, it's not profitably to quote it, or on the contrary you have to quote it faithfully. But I absolutly exclude that this "came from Arabata" which I know as a great and reasonable mathematician.

-- Paul Martin 19:28, 25 September 2005 (UTC)

* PS: I see:  What you wrongly call "Nippur digit" is actually the "digit of the Babylonian Cubit" of indeed 17.7(1875) mm. I will immediately integrate it the table above.

Hi Rktect,

I integrated your so-called "Sumerian Finger" of about 16.67 mm (better 16.669 80 mm) into the second table. It's the Pes Drusianus taken as a pygon or - that's the same - the Pechys basilikos as a nibw.

For your multiples of hand systems, let's discuss this later. But you see, we already identified your "Sumerian Finger", your misnamed "Nippur Finger" (the Nippur digit is 518.616 / 30 = 17.187 20 mm), your Old "Egyptian Finger" (even if 18.75 mm is a bad ASC-1, I halfly understand you, because 18 750 µm is in primary factors is however 2^1 * 3^1 * 5^5.), then of course the Roman digit and many other values you used. We will finish by clear it up.

PS. I added now the Arabic Nil-Cubit, which gives us the Arabic digit of 18.007 50 mm. In your table I don't see a difference between your Palestine and your Biblical Measures if this is not a thumb of 1.333 versus 1.250 digit. The values are quite the same. This hands should be 1/10 English yard, i.e. one digit of 54/875 Roman Foot = 18.289 152 mm.

I also deleted the hand measure in the second table. I don't say that this measure is not important, but I decided to add the mesopotamian division (30 digits). Hands and their multiples can come back in another new table. -- Paul Martin 12:16, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

comments
I apologize for not getting back to you sooner, my pc is in the shop. I think we may be getting there. Its nice to enter into discussion with someone who recognizes there is a connection. In the case of Palestine it depends where and when but to mention just a few, you might have Mesopotamian Sumerian, Akkadian, Hurrian, Elamite, Ebalite, Kassite, Dilmanite, Caananite, Syrian, Mittani, Assyrian, Egyptian, Hebrew, Mycenean or Minoan or Sea People Greek, Persian, Phillistine, Phoenician, Roman, Hittite, or Arabic people all living in the same general neighborhood and borrowing and adapting each others standards of measure by adding a finger, a palm, a hand or a span to a rod. I'm still bothered by carrying things out to too many decimal points and would rather focus on the big picture items first, ie; There are short, median and long Greek feet, which it seems may be divided up differently into different numbers and sizes of fingers and or thumbs, and into hands or palms, so it would seem logical that there are also different stadia. Rktect 16:29, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

I think that there are systems of body measures used to measure lengths and systems of agricultural measures used to measure distances and that at some point they are merged into the same system so that for example we have feet as a component of yards, paces and fathoms or orquia/

Stadia measures are used in a similar manner by the Greeks, Persians, Romans and Egyptians

 * 1 Greek stadion = 600 pous = 185 m, the pous used is 308.4 mm
 * 1 Roman stadium = 625 pes = 185 m, the pes used is 296 mm
 * 75 Roman miles or 600 stadia = 1 degree = 111 km
 * The Greeks have a measure they call mia chilioi (my or mi lios) (one thousand orquia)
 * The Romans call this a milion and it becomes their mille passus (one thousand paces)
 * Eight stadia egual a mile and 10 stadia equal a nautical mile or chain the Greeks call the agros
 * The Agros is used to lay out the side of the aroura or one thousand of land (from the Egyptian)
 * The distance and area a yoke of oxen can plow in a day=10 furrows an orquia wide by a stadia long
 * Herodotus says 1 Egyptian itrw equals (or closely approximates) 60 Greek stadia = 11.1 km
 * We know the Egyptian Royal cubit is more 28 fingers of about 18.75 mm and 7 palms of about 75 mm
 * Allowing the Egyptian Royal cubit is 525 mm 21,000 royal cubits is 11.025 km
 * Herodotus has told us something that is in the right range to be taken as a correct statement.
 * Marinus and Ptolomy take 500 stadia as equal to a degree
 * Their stadia is thus 222 m or 600 remen of 370 mm
 * The Persians and Egyptians use 700 stadia to a degree
 * Their stadia is thus 157.5 m or 300 Egyptian royal cubits of 525 mm
 * The Egyptians have 70 stadia of 300 royal cubits = 60 stadia of 600 pous
 * Archimedes, Posideonos, Marinus, Ptolomy, Eratosthenes, Herodotus and the Egyptians all agree.

Rktect 16:29, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

Since some have questioned the Egyptians having a stadia as described above, I found the following interesting and worth citing. I think their schoenus was as Herodotus describes it but otherwise the statement goes the same place we are moving toward.

"Some figures given by the ancients for the circumference of the earth: Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)--400,000 stadia; Archimedes (287-212 B.C.)--300,000 stadia.

Eratosthenes of Alexandria (276-194 B.C.). In a book on the subject, now lost, he stated that at Syeffe (Aswan), 500 stadia due South of Alexandria, a gnomon (pointer on a sundial) threw no shadow on the day of the summer solstice, while the shadow at Alexandria was 1/50 of the circumference of the heavens (7.2 degrees of arc). Consequently, the circumference of the earth was 250,000 stadia. Later, 252,000 stadia was used, probably in order to get a round number (700 stadia) for the length of one degree of latitude. This figure was ado ' pted by Hipparchus (2nd c. B.C.), Strabo (63 B.C.-A.D. 21), and Pliny the Elder (23-79), and passed on to all educated people in Europe.

How long is a stadium? One Egyptian schoenus = 40 stadia. An Egyptian schoenus = 12,000 royal Egyptian cubits = .525 meters for each cubit. So one stadium = 300 cubits = 157.5 meters = 517 feet, which makes the earth 24,662 miles around and 7,850 miles in diameter (very close to modern calculations). "

[stadia]

Rktect 17:06, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

Rktect's proposals
We are making good progress with this page. To add on something more besides it would be nice to see some of the variations on Roman units as for example.

architectural units
The Corinthian orders of architecture, possibly as compared to the Greek orders they derived from.

measures of area
Roman areas compared to Greek and European areas as the use of the horse as a plow animal led to changes in crop rotation. The origin of the agros or chain and the nautical mile.

industrial measures
measures related to industrial specilization in Roman mills such as board and cloth measure, the size of ingots for metals, barrels for beer, ale and wine, and amphorae for oil and wine, and the Roman use of the talent, mina and shekel as well as the Roman coinage and Biblical Imperial measures such as the bushel, quart, pint and gallon.

Rktect 13:44, 7 October 2005 (UTC)


text: Category talk:Films directed by James Cameron

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Mandy Cho

Mandy Lee Cho (born September 2, 1982 in Sacramento County, California) is a Hong Kong beauty contestant and television personality.

Cho studied in San Francisco, United States. She went to Hong Kong in 2003 and competed in the 2003 Miss Hong Kong Pageant. A favorite at the start of the competition, she made it into the semifinals and won the Perfect Team Award. Then in August, she competed in the finals and beat favorites like Selena Li, Rabee'a Yeung, and Carrie Lee for the title. Later Cho appeared in TVB series including Split Second, Guts of Man, and The Charm Beneath. She also became the seventh contestant from Hong Kong to win the Miss Chinese International First Runner-up title. Cho is also the second woman after Winnie Yeung (also from Hong Kong) to win the Miss Friendship title. The eventual winner of the 2004 Miss Chinese International title was Linda Chung.

In 2006, Cho completed her studies at the Gemological Institute of America in New York City and is now a Graduate Gemologist. She returned to Hong Kong in September 2006. Though she said she was working as a PR at a jewelry company when she first returned to Hong Kong, she is now working as an actress once more.

Awards
 2000 Model Competition: Miss Hong Kong 2003: Miss Chinese International 2004: TVB:
 * Internet Popularity
 * Miss Hong Kong 2003, Diamond Skin, Miss International Goodwill, Miss Figure Beauty, Perfect Group
 * First Runner up and Miss Friendship
 * Best Newcomer

title: Mandy Cho


text:
Fort Detroit

Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or Fort Detroit (1701–1796) was a French and later British fortification established in 1701 on the north side of the Detroit River by Antoine Laumet de Lamothe Cadillac. A settlement based on the fur trade, farming and missionary work slowly developed in the area. The fort was located in what is now downtown Detroit, northeast of the intersection of Washington Boulevard and West Jefferson Avenue.

Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit surrendered to the British in November 1760 during the Seven Years' War in November 1760 following the fall of Montreal. It was besieged by Indigenous forces during Pontiac's War in 1763. The British controlled the area throughout the American Revolutionary War, but replaced the French fort with the newly constructed Fort Lernoult in 1779. While the territory on what is now the Michigan side of the Detroit River was ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, control of the fort was not transferred until 1796.

History
The river located between Lakes Saint Clair and Erie became known as le Détroit, "the Strait." In 1701, Cadillac ordered a fort built on the west side of the river, to prevent British colonists from moving into the west, and to monopolize the fur trade in central North America. Cadillac had been commandant of Fort de Buade, another French outpost in North America. Fort de Buade was abandoned in 1697 due to conflicts with religious leaders over the trading of alcohol to the Native Americans. Cadillac persuaded his superiors to let him build a new settlement. He reached the Detroit River on July 23,

When he landed at the site, Cadillac celebrated formally taking control of the area. In honor of Louis Phélypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain (or his son, Jérôme both from the city of Jouars-Pontchartrain), Minister of Marine to Louis XIV, Cadillac named the new settlement as Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit. Construction of the storehouse and the stockade were started immediately, but the first building completed was Ste. Anne's Catholic Church. The stockade was the second structure completed and was made of logs with defensive bastions or towers in each corner.

After the fort was established, some Ottawa and Huron (Wyandot people) settled near it for the convenience of trading with the French. A French Jesuit mission to the Huron was established across the Detroit River. They developed L'Assomption Church, which became the center of what was known by the mid-18th century as the Petite Côte settlement of French colonists. Located in the far west of the region, Petite Côte was the oldest continually occupied European settlement in what later became Ontario. It has since been encompassed by Sandwich (now Windsor).

Military conflicts
The first major conflict of Fort Detroit occurred in March 1706 while Cadillac was away. The Ottawa heard a rumor about a Huron tribe ambush. The Ottawa attacked and killed several members of the Miami tribe. The Miami sought safety in the fort, where they were defended by the soldiers. The French killed about 30 Ottawa warriors when they attacked the fort. After the battle, Miami attacked an Ottawa village. In the conflict, a French priest and sergeant were both caught outside the walls and killed.

The fort was commanded by Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont. Bourgmont was criticized for his handling of the incident. When Cadillac returned, Bourgmont and some soldiers from the fort deserted. The French captured one of the deserters, who testified that the deserting party had shot and killed one of its own and cannibalized him.

Bourgmont remained on the lam, living with Native Americans. He took a Native American wife and had a child with her. According to the matrilineal kinship system of the Odawa and related tribes, children were considered born to the mother's people and belonged to her clan, so mixed-race children such as Bourgmont's were brought up in the tribal culture. Descent and inheritance were counted through the maternal line.

In 1718, Bourgmont was decorated by the French government with the Cross of St. Louis and given an order of nobility. He was recognized as the first European to map the Missouri and Platte rivers and for enlisting the Native Americans to side with the French against the Spanish.

Cadillac was removed under accusations of corruption. In 1710, François de la Forêt was appointed as Cadillac's successor, but sent Jacques-Charles Renaud Dubuisson to administer his role. In 1712, Jacques-Charles Renaud Dubuisson officially replaced Cadillac as commander at Fort Detroit.

When the Fox heard of this change, they planned an attack on the fort (after some of Cadillac's Native American supporters had left). They besieged the fort in late April 1710, with a mixed force of about 1,000 Fox, Sac, and Mascoutens. The Ottawa and the Huron warriors were out on a raid and so could not help the French. Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, commander of the French outpost at Kekionga (now Fort Wayne, Indiana) and seven fur traders reached the fort, sneaking through Fox lines. Dubuisson sent messengers to the Ottawa and Huron Indians, who returned to the fort's aid.

The Fox and their allies became caught between the French and their traditional enemies; they were besieged until the end of May. They fled to what is now Windmill Point, where the French and Huron warriors pursued them. After four days of the siege there, the Fox surrendered to spare their families. The French agreed but, after the Fox were disarmed, the French attacked and killed all of them. This event is known in the Grosse Pointe area as the Fox Indian Massacre. This siege of Fort Detroit was the opening incident in the Fox Wars.

British takeover of the fort
After a few years, the British and French conflict in North America, a front in the Seven Years' War of Europe, came to a head in the French and Indian War which broke out in 1754. Detroit was far removed from the main areas of conflict and was not involved in combat. Two months after the capitulation in 1760 of the French at Montreal, on November 29, 1760, the French ceded Fort Detroit to the British Army's Rogers' Rangers.

British rule differed in several major ways from French rule. The British required greater taxes and confiscated weapons from settlers they classified as "unfriendly", a category they used for many French Canadians. The British refused to sell ammunition to the French Canadians or to the Native Americans who had been trading with the French. The French traders had armed many of their trading partners with guns for years, beginning with the five Iroquois nations in New York. The British changes limited the ability of the Native Americans to trap and hunt, as well as rendering them less of a threat. The British colonists did not emphasize maintaining good relationships with the Native Americans. But the French Canadians had formed many families through intermarriage and knew about the Native American custom of giving gifts.

After the French left the conflict, Pontiac, war-leader of the Ottawa, rallied several tribes in Pontiac's Rebellion. He attempted to capture Detroit from the British on May 7, 1763. They failed to capture the fort as the British were forewarned of the attack, but did lay siege to it (see the Siege of Fort Detroit).

The British force in the fort, commanded by Henry Gladwin, consisted of 130 soldiers with two 6-pound cannons, one 3-pound cannon, and three mortars. The 6-gun schooner Huron was anchored nearby in the Detroit River. Two months into the siege, on July 29, 1763, the British brought a large relief force into the area. Skirmishing in the area, including the Battle of Bloody Run, continued until mid-November when the Indians dispersed.

During the American Revolutionary War, Detroit was far to the west of the main areas of action. The British used the fort to arm American Indian raiding parties, who attacked rebel colonial settlements to the southeast. American revolutionaries, particularly George Rogers Clark, hoped to mount an expedition to Detroit to neutralize these operations, but could not raise enough men to attempt. However, Clark did capture Henry Hamilton, the Lieutenant-Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Province of Quebec and senior officer at Fort Detroit, when he traveled south to Fort Sackville.

United States fortification
In late 1778, while Hamilton was still being held as a prisoner of war, Captain Richard B. Lernoult began construction on a new fortification situated a few hundred yards to the north of the original fort. It was named Fort Lernoult on October 3, 1779. This new fort largely superseded the original fort and was often referred to as "Fort Detroit."

Following the United States gaining independence in the Revolution, the government made the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 with several Indian tribes. They ceded several blocks of land to the United States that were beyond the Greenville Treaty Line and within the Indians' territory.

Article 3, Item 12 notes: "The post of Detroit, and all the land to the north, the west and the south of it, of which the Indian title has been extinguished by gifts or grants to the French or English governments: and so much more land to be annexed to the district of Detroit, as shall be comprehended between the river Rosine [known today as the River Rouge], on the south, lake St. Clair on the north, and a line, the general course whereof shall be six miles distant from the west end of Lake Erie and Detroit river."

On July 11, 1796, under terms negotiated in the Jay Treaty, the British surrendered Fort Detroit, Fort Lernoult, and the surrounding settlement to the Americans, 13 years after the Treaty of Paris ended the war and ceded the area to Britain.

Some accounts say that only Fort Lernoult survived the 1805 fire that destroyed most of Detroit. It appears that no part of the original Fort Detroit remained after this time. Fort Lernoult was officially renamed Fort Detroit in 1805, then renamed Fort Shelby in 1813. Soon after its use by the military ended, the fort was demolished by the City of Detroit in 1827.

Location
The second Hotel Pontchartrain, now named the Fort Pontchartrain a Wyndham Hotel, is located on the former site of the fort. The Michigan Historical Marker for Fort Pontchartrain is located at the southwest corner of the Crowne Plaza, at Jefferson Ave. and Washington Blvd.

title: Fort Detroit


text: User talk:Michaeldunlap

title: User talk:Michaeldunlap


text:
Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.

Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc., 517 U.S. 370 (1996), is a United States Supreme Court case on whether the interpretation of patent claims is a matter of law or a question of fact. An issue designated as a matter of law is resolved by the judge, and an issue construed as a question of fact is determined by the jury.

Background
Herbert Markman patented a system to track clothes through the dry cleaning process using barcode to generate receipts and track inventory.

The 7th Amendment guarantees the right to a jury trial in patent infringement cases. The 7th Amendment preserves the right to a jury trial as it existed in 1791. There is no dispute that infringement cases today must be tried by a jury as their predecessors were in 1791. However, the court held that the construction of the patent, including the terms of art within its claim, is exclusively within the court's province.

In general, the effectiveness of a particular patent depends on its potential to block competitors. The key for a patent holder is getting the proper definition of words used in the patent to allow blocking of the particular troublesome competitive product. Before this decision, juries were responsible for deciding the meaning of the words used in patent claims. Opposing results in cases with similar facts were common, and a perception arose that the outcome of such trials was somewhat arbitrary. In Markman, the Court held that judges, not juries, would evaluate and decide the meaning of the words used in patent claims. Judges were to look at four sources for definitions, in order of priority:

 * 1) the written description accompanying the patent claims is most relevant;
 * 2) the documentation of the history of the patent as it went through the application;
 * 3) standard dictionaries of English;
 * 4) finally, if all else fails, expert testimony from experts "skilled in the art" at issue.

This case has had a significant impact on the patent litigation process in the United States. Many jurisdictions now hold Markman hearings to construe patent claims before the actual trial. Patent infringement suits now often settle after this stage of the litigation process.

Supreme Court decision
In a unanimous ruling written by Justice David Souter, the court affirmed the judgment of the circuit court, holding that:

 * The construction of a patent, including terms of art within its claim, is exclusively within the province of the court.

Law firms involved
Markman was represented in the original trial by the law firm of Duane Morris, and by the law firm of Eckert Seamans on appeal. Defendants were represented by the law firm of Gollatz, Griffin, Ewing & McCarthy (now Flaster Greenberg) on appeal.

title: Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.


text:
Kate Austin

Kate Cooper Austin (July 25, 1864 – October 28, 1902) was an American journalist and advocate of feminist and anarchist causes.

Early life
Born Catherine Cooper on July 25, 1864, in LaSalle County, Illinois, Austin moved with her family to Hook's Point, Iowa, when she was six. At the age of 11, Austin lost her mother and had to raise her seven brothers and sisters. Reading became one of her amusements.

Career
It was in Hook's Point, Iowa, that she married a young farmer, Sam Austin, in August 1883. Around the same time, her father discovered Lucifer, an anarchist/free love journal published by Moses Harman. Austin and her entire family were influenced by Hamon's writings, but it was the Haymarket Riot of 1886 and the ensuing reaction that brought Austin to anarchism.

"Her devotion to liberty made her an anarchist; her hostility to patriarchy made her a feminist. She was too much the former to join the organized women's movements of her day, and too much the latter to ally with mainline political anarchists—most of them men—whose devotion to liberty often stopped short of women's liberation."

A member of the American Press Writers' Association, Austin wrote for many working-class and radical newspapers. She also contributed to Lucifer and to anarchist periodicals such as The Firebrand, Free Society, Discontent, and The Demonstrator. Austin's interests included sexual reform and the economic status of working people. In 1897 and 1899, Emma Goldman visited Austin at her home in Caplinger Mills, Missouri, where she gave several well-attended lectures.

Personal life
In 1890, Austin and her husband, Sam Austin, both moved to Caplinger Mills, Missouri, about twenty miles away from the nearest railroad station. Austin did not feel any type of isolation, as country life was her ideal. Since Austin joined the American Press Writers Association, her work increased as she came in contact with many well known radical writers and lecturers of her time, keeping her busy reading and writing.

Austin died of consumption on October 28, 1902, in Kingman, Kansas, leaving behind nine children aged between 19 and 10. Austin's body was sent back to Caplinger Mills, as a funeral was held for her with the largest crowd that ever attended a funeral in that district.

title: Kate Austin


text:
Talk:Kate Austin

March 2006 expansion
I came upon this page because of the Lost character, and then expanded it based on some limited web research, just because I thought Austin sounded interesting. However, I really know very little about anarchism or social movements of the late 19th century, so it's possible that some errors may have slipped in unbeknownst to me. If a scholar comes across this page, I hope that he or she will improve my feeble effort. —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 20:15, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Kate Austin. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060214161300/http://raforum.apinc.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=2&lang=en to http://raforum.apinc.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=2&lang=en

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 14:44, 13 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kate Austin


text:
Kelso, New South Wales

Kelso is a suburb of Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia, in the Bathurst Regional Council area.

History
Kelso was the original European settlement in the area. In 1816, the initial settlement of Bathurst was established on the eastern banks of the Macquarie River, in current-day Kelso. The first ten farmers in Kelso were each given 50 acres; five were newborn colonials and five were immigrants.

Heritage listings
Kelso has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * 71-85 Gilmour Street: Holy Trinity Anglican Church

Sights

Holy Trinity Church was the first inland church in Australia. It was built in 1835 to serve the Anglican parish of Kelso. It was the first Australian church consecrated by a bishop. The church has a close association with early settlement west of the Great Dividing Range. The church is surrounded by an historical cemetery, which contains many of the Kelso/Bathurst district's pioneers.

Education
Opening in 1976 and formally known as Kelso High School, the Kelso High Campus makes up the Denison College of Secondary Education along with Bathurst High Campus.

Former station
Kelso previously had a railway station on the Main Western line. It opened on 4 February 1875 and was closed on 6 April 1975. It is now served by coach services.

title: Kelso, New South Wales


text: User talk:81.215.91.171

title: User talk:81.215.91.171


text:
Zaniskari

The Zaniskari or Zanskari is a breed of small mountain horse or pony from Ladakh in northern India. It is named for the Zanskar valley or region in Kargil district. It is similar to the Spiti breed of Himachal Pradesh, but is better adapted to work at high altitude. Like the Spiti, it shows similarities to the Tibetan breeds living on the other side of the Himalayas in neighbouring Tibet. It is of medium size, and is often grey in colour. The breed is considered endangered, as there are only a few hundred alive today, and a conservation programme has been started at Padum, Zanskar, in the Kargil district of Ladakh.

History
In 1977 the population of Zaniskari horses was estimated at $15,000$. The breed was listed as "not at risk" by the FAO in 2007. However, it has been endangered by indiscriminate cross-breeding with other horses and it is thought that only a few hundred pure-bred animals now remain, mainly in the valleys of Ladakh, including the Zanskar Gorge from which the breed takes its name. The Animal Husbandry Department of Jammu and Kashmir operates a farm at Padum, Zanskar, for the breeding and conservation of the breed. The population has declined rapidly due to mechanisation and to increases in the number of roads in its native area. However, the population did not in 2006 show signs of any significant genetic bottleneck.

In 2013 there were approximately $9,700$ of the horses. In 2022 the conservation status of the breed was listed in DAD-IS as "at risk/critical maintained", based on a reported population of $346$ animals.

A genetic analysis of five Indian horse breeds in 2007 found the Zaniskari to be close to the Manipuri, Spiti and Bhutia breeds, and more distant from the Marwari. A study of all six Indian breeds in 2014 grouped the Zaniskari with the Bhutia, Manipuri and Spiti breeds, and found it to be most closely related to the Spiti.

Characteristics
The Zaniskari is strong, compact and well built, and is particularly adapted to work in the hypoxic environment of Ladakh. Height is usually between 120 and 140 cm; thoracic circumference is 55 - 60 in and body length about 38 - 45 in. The most usual coat colour is grey; bay, brown, black and chestnut also occur.

Use
The Zaniskari is particularly adapted to work as a pack animal in the high altitudes and challenging conditions of its native region, which lies between $3,000 m$ above sea level, and where temperatures may reach $-40 °C$. It is strong and sure-footed, and has good stamina. The Indian army in Ladakh uses it as a pack-beast. It is also used for riding and for polo.

title: Zaniskari


text:
Newfoundland pony

The Newfoundland pony is a breed of pony originating in Newfoundland, Canada. They are sturdy and muscular ponies, found in many colors, including the relatively rare white coloration. The Newfoundland developed from a mix of English, Irish, and Scottish pony breeds brought to Newfoundland by settlers over a period of four centuries. Initially free-roaming, they crossbred to produce the modern type. They were used by settlers as draft and multi-purpose ponies until the mid-20th century century, when they were brought almost to the point of extinction by mechanization and slaughter. The population rebounded slightly after the formation of a breed registry in 1980, but still remains low. In 1997, the Newfoundland pony was declared a heritage breed of Newfoundland and Labrador, which afforded it protection under the law, but the breed has not yet been recognized under the Canadian federal Animal Pedigree Act. As of 2008, there were 248 registered ponies of breeding age, out of a total population of 361. In 2013, the widely dispersed breeding population is still estimated at between 200 and 250 animals.

Physical Characteristics
Newfoundland ponies are usually tall and weight 400 to 800 lbs. They are often black, bay or brown in color. Roan, chestnut, gray and dun are also seen. White coloration is occasionally found in the breed, though white in horses is very rare. Gray horses, whose hair coats become white as they age, are much more common. Grays are born dark colored with dark skin and lighten in color as they age, retaining the dark skin. White horses are born and remain white in color, and have pink skin. Pinto color patterns are not eligible for registration. White markings are minimal, and seasonal color changes are often drastic.

The head is small, with thickly-furred ears that are small and quite pointed at the tips. Overall, the body is stocky and muscular, with a deep, narrow chest, short back, sloping croup and low-set tail. The coat and mane are thick, especially in winter. In order to be registered with the Newfoundland Pony Society, ponies must "[have] a good temperament and [be] docile and easy to work with." They are generally used as family horses for pleasure riding and driving, although they are also seen at horse shows.

History
The ancestors of the Newfoundland pony arrived in Newfoundland from the British Isles, brought there by settlers between 1611 and the mid-1900s. Dartmoor ponies formed the initial shipment, imported by John Guy, the first Proprietary Governor of Newfoundland. Lord Falkland imported additional animals soon after, and these were followed by a spate of pony shipments from England, Ireland and Scotland. Additional breeds found in the shipments included the now-extinct Galloway pony, as well as Connemara, Dartmoor, Exmoor, Fell, Highland and New Forest ponies. Beginning with the first imports, the breeds crossbred, eventually forming the modern Newfoundland pony.

In the past, the Newfoundland pony was used for ploughing, assisting with gardens, hauling kelp from the beaches, gathering hay, and carrying wood, and they were also used for transportation. They were successfully used and bred to withstand the hard climate, and by 1935 there were over 9,000 ponies on the island. During the mid-20th century, however, increasing mechanization and a ban on free-roaming ponies contributed to a decline in the population, and increased exports to France for horse meat in the 1970s almost led to the extinction of the breed.

Shortly before the breed would have become extinct, several interested breeders came together and formed the Newfoundland Pony Society in 1980. The group was formed to gather the remaining free-roaming herds, register the horses and breed them in captivity, and was successful in locating around 300 animals. In 1997, the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador passed the Heritage Animals Act, which made the Newfoundland pony the first (and, so far, only) heritage animal of Newfoundland and Labrador. A subsequent order designated the Newfoundland Pony Society as "the group which will maintain the registry of ponies and otherwise act for the preservation of the animal." In part, this Act required anyone wishing to export ponies from Newfoundland to first acquire a permit; this ensured that ponies were going to private homes instead of slaughterhouses. Also in 1997, the Newfoundland Pony Breed Association was formed. This group sought to have the Newfoundland pony recognized under the Canadian Animal Pedigree Act, which may have given it additional protection and recognition. In March 2014, the Newfoundland Pony Society stated that they believed the breed should not have federal recognition, believing that the "federal act is meant for farm stock and breeding animals", not heritage breeds. Members of the society also fear that protection of the breed may be lessened under federal law when compared with current provincial regulations. However, the provincial government will make the final decision on whether to move forward with the process for federal recognition.

In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012, the Newfoundland pony and Canadian horse were found to be the most genetically diverse of the Canadian breeds studied, which also included the Sable Island horse and the Lac La Croix pony. When an estimation was made using microsatellite loci, the Newfoundland was found to have high autosomal diversity and a high number of haplotypes, some of which overlapped with the mountain and moorland pony breeds (historically documented as the ancestors of the Newfoundland), Nordic breeds and a feral population at Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Overlapping haplotypes also suggested a relationship with the Standardbred and Clydesdale, suggesting possible crossbreeding at some point, although previous studies using microsatellite markers had not come to this conclusion. Although the microsatellite loci showed a relationship between the Newfoundland and the Sable Island horse, the study did not find overlapping haplotypes that would support this, possibly due to the population bottleneck in the 1980s that may have resulted in such haplotypes being lost. In order to be registered with the Newfoundland Pony Society, ponies must undergo DNA testing to verify Newfoundland parentage.

In 2011, The Livestock Conservancy (TLC) added the Newfoundland pony to their Conservation Priority List in the "study" category, as it worked to verify the breed's history and population numbers. In 2012, with studies completed, the breed was moved to the "critical" category, meaning that the breed has a global population of less than 2,000 and annual registrations in the US of less than 200. Rare Breeds Canada also considers the breed critically endangered, with fewer than 15 annual registrations of purebred female breeding stock. As of 2008, there were 248 registered ponies of breeding age, out of a total registered population of 361 ponies. The largest populations were in the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and Ontario, with smaller populations in seven other Canadian provinces and the United States. As of 2013, TLC estimates that the widely dispersed breeding population consists of between 200 and 250 ponies.

title: Newfoundland pony


text:
Acanthurus triostegus

Acanthurus triostegus, the convict surgeonfish, convict surgeon, convict tang or '''fiveband surgeonfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Acanthuridae which includes the surgeonfishes, unicornfishes and tangs. This species has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution.

Taxonomy
Acanthurus triostegus was first formally described in 1758 as Chaetodon triostegus by Carl Linnaeus, the description being published in the 10 edition of Systema Naturae with its type locality given as "Indies". The genus Acanthurus is one of two genera in the tribe Acanthurini which is one of three tribes in the subfamily Acanthurinae which is one of two subfamilies in the family Acanthuridae.

Etymology
Acanthurus triostegus was given the specific name triostegus which means "three covers", this may refer to the three branchiostegal membranes.

Description
The convict tang is so called because of its bold black stripes on a yellowish background. It is a laterally-compressed oval-shaped fish with a maximum length of about 26-27 cm. The head is small with a pointed snout and a terminal mouth with thick lips. It has six black stripes which distinguishes it from the zebra tang (Acanthurus polyzona) which has nine, and has a more restricted range in the Indian Ocean. The first black stripe is oblique and passes through the eye. There are two black spots on the caudal peduncle, and on each side there is a sharp, retractable spine, which is used in offence or defence.

Distribution and habitat
Acanthurus triostegus occurs in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. Its range extends from the East African coast and Madagascar to southwestern Japan, Australia and Central America, including many Pacific island groups. It is found over hard bottoms in lagoons, reef slopes, bays and estuaries. Juveniles are common in tide pools, and larger fish are found at depths down to about 90 m.

Biology
Acanthurus triostegus frequently feed in the vicinity of freshwater discharges, grazing filamentous algae off the rocks. Typically these tangs graze on filamentous algae growing on coral or rocky substrates. The adults aggregate in large schools to feed and these overwhelm damselfishes attempting to defend their territories. The males and females gather in aggegations to spawn.

Utilisation
Acanthurus triostegus is targeted as a food fish in many parts of its range and in some areas is commercially targeted. In Hawaii it is fished for by recreational anglers and it is also caught for the aquarium trade.

title: Acanthurus triostegus


text:
DHL Ecuador

DHL Ecuador (TransAm) Ltda. (Trans Am Aero Express del Ecuador) is a cargo airline based in Guayaquil. It is wholly owned by Deutsche Post and provides services for the group's DHL-branded logistics network in Ecuador. Its main base is José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport.

History
The airline was established and started operations in 1991 as Trans Am Aero Express del Ecuador.

Current fleet
As of January 2021, the DHL Ecuador fleet consists of the following aircraft:

Former fleet

 * 1 Dassault Falcon 20
 * 1 Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner

title: DHL Ecuador


text: User talk:81.107.202.173

title: User talk:81.107.202.173


text:
Fire retardant

A fire retardant is a substance that is used to slow down or stop the spread of fire or reduce its intensity. This is commonly accomplished by chemical reactions that reduce the flammability of fuels or delay their combustion. Fire retardants may also cool the fuel through physical action or endothermic chemical reactions. Fire retardants are available as powder, to be mixed with water, as fire-fighting foams and fire-retardant gels. Fire retardants are also available as coatings or sprays to be applied to an object.

Fire retardants are commonly used in fire fighting, where they may be applied aerially or from the ground.

Principles of operation
In general, fire retardants reduce the flammability of materials by either blocking the fire physically or by initiating a chemical reaction that stops the fire.

Physical action
There are several ways in which the combustion process can be retarded by physical action:
 * By cooling: Some chemical reactions actually cool the material down.
 * By forming a protective layer that prevents the underlying material from igniting.
 * By dilution: Some retardants release water and/or carbon dioxide while burning. This may dilute the radicals in the flame enough for it to go out.

Commonly used fire retardant additives include mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite, aluminium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide. When heated, aluminium hydroxide dehydrates to form aluminum oxide (alumina, Al2O3), releasing water vapor in the process. This reaction absorbs a great deal of heat, cooling the material into which it is incorporated. Additionally, the residue of alumina forms a protective layer on the material's surface. Mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite work in a similar manner. They endothermically decompose releasing both water and carbon dioxide,  giving fire retardant properties    to the materials in which they are incorporated.

Chemical action

 * Reactions in the gas phase: chemical reactions in the flame (i.e. gas phase) can be interrupted by fire retardants. Generally, these retardants are organic halides (haloalkanes) such as Halon and PhostrEx. The chemicals used in these types of retardants are often toxic.
 * Reaction in the solid phase: some retardants break down polymers so they melt and flow away from the flame. Although this allows some materials to pass certain flammability tests, it is not known whether fire safety is truly improved by the production of flammable plastic droplets.
 * Char Formation: For carbon-based fuels, solid phase flame retardants cause a layer of carbonaceous char to form on the fuel surface. This char layer is much harder to burn and prevents further burning.
 * Intumescents: These types of retardant materials incorporate chemicals which cause swelling behind the protective char layer, providing much better insulation. They are available as plastic additives, and as paints for protecting wooden buildings or steel structures.

Fire extinguishers
Class A foam is used as a fire retardant in 2.5 gallon [APW] and [CAFS] extinguishers to contain incipient brush fires and grass fires by creating a fire break. Other chemical retardants are capable of rendering class A material and Class B fuels non-flammable and extinguishing class A, class B, and some class D fires. Fire retardant slurries dropped from aircraft are normally applied ahead of a wildfire to prevent ignition, while fire suppression agents are used to extinguish fires.

Surface coating
Objects may be coated with fire retardants. For example, Christmas trees are sprayed with retardants, as a tree dries out it becomes very flammable and a fire-hazard.

Steel structures have a fire retardant coating around columns and beams to prevent structural elements from weakening during a fire.

Dormitories in the US are also considering using these products. Since 2000, 109 people have died in fires in dormitories or off-campus student housing across the nation, according to Campus Firewatch, an online newsletter. Campus Firewatch's publisher, Ed Comeau, said a January 2000 fire at Seton Hall University in New Jersey drew attention to the perils of fire on campus. A common area in a Seton Hall dorm caught fire after two students ignited a banner from a bulletin board. The fire quickly spread to furniture and killed three students and injured 58 others.

Forest-fire fighting

Early fire retardants were mixtures of water and thickening agents, and later included borates and ammonium phosphates.

Generally, fire retardants are dropped from aircraft or applied by ground crews around a wildfire's edges in an effort to contain its spread. This allows ground crews time to work to extinguish the fire. However, when needed, retardant can also be dropped directly onto flames to cool the fire and reduce flame length.

Aerial firefighting
Aerial firefighting is a method to combat wildfires using aircraft. The types of aircraft used include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. Smokejumpers and rappellers are also classified as aerial firefighters, being delivered by parachute from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft, or rappelling from helicopters. Chemicals used to fight fires may include water, water enhancers, or specially-formulated fire retardants.

Wildfire retardants
Fire retardants applied to wildfires are usually a mixture of water and chemicals designed to wet the area as well as chemically retard a fire's progression through vegetation. Typically it is colored so that the application area can be seen from the air. Fire retardant gel based retardants which meet NFPA Standard 1150 are also being used in service. These are dyed other colors to differentiate them from the traditional red retardant. The gels and their dyes are designed to biodegrade naturally.

Any fire retardant approved for use against wildfires on US Federal lands must be included on the United States Forest Service Qualified Products List. To be added to that list, the product must be tested by Wildland Fire Chemical Systems, a division of the National Technology and Development Program, a process that can take up to two years. Phos-Chek is a brand of long-term retardant currently approved for wildland fire use. Phos-Chek also has a consumer-based fire retardant spray called Wildfire Home Defense that is effective immediately after application and that remains effective until it is washed off with heavy water levels. It is designed to be applied to fuel beds around homes and outbuildings to create a firebreak in the fuels leading up to each structure. Ember Bloc is another consumer-based fire retardant gel that can be applied to the exterior of one's house and nearby structures to help protect against both embers and flames in a wildfire. It has a unique ability to cling onto the side of a house to withstand high heat and windy conditions.

Environmental concerns
Forest fire retardants that are used are generally considered non-toxic, but even less-toxic compounds carry some risk when organisms are exposed to large amounts. Fire retardants used in firefighting can be toxic to fish and wildlife as well as firefighters by releasing dioxins and furans when halogenated fire retardants are burned during fires, and drops within 300 feet of bodies of water are generally prohibited unless lives or property are directly threatened. The US Forest Service is the governing agency that conducts research and monitors the effect of fire retardants on wildland systems in the US.

A study published in June 2014 found that marine bacteria have the ability to manufacture a non-synthetic source of chemically identical polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These chemicals are used as flame retardant, but are known to be toxic to the environment.

Risks
Most chemical fire retardants are organic halides (haloalkanes) such as Halon and PhostrEx, which are proven to be toxic. During 1980s, the most commonly used fire retardant material was penta-bromodiphenyl ether. It was banned by the US Government due to its potential health and environment concerns. It was then replaced by chlorinated tris, chloroalkyl phosphates, halogenated aryl esters, and tetrabromophthalate diol diester, which later were proven by an EPA study that they contained mutagens that could be absorbed into children's bodies.

Studies have shown that a small percentage of the population may have an allergy towards the chemical substance used as fire retardant. Studies have also shown that a drop of the retardant chemical directly into a stream may cause a sufficient ammonia concentration in the water, which is lethal to fish and other aquatic organisms. If the amount is large enough, there is a risk that it could lead to lethal consequences towards humans.

Health concerns
Long-term exposure to these chemicals are likely to develop cancer or skin disease for fire fighters, and the potential contamination towards the environment will be another safety concern. Many of these chemicals are now recognized as global contaminants and are associated with adverse health effects in animals and humans, including endocrine and thyroid disruption, immunotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, cancer, and adverse effects on fetal and child development and neurologic function.

One of the most common way to spread fire retardant is through aerial firefighting, which means that there are chances that these toxic chemicals will contaminate the soil and water system, and then find their way into human body. This will lead to the likelihood of developing long-term health issues, such as respiratory disease or other risky health concerns.

Another notable health concern is that fire-suppressant foams are toxic in standardized soft and hard water, and it is likely that water creatures will be infected. If they were to be consumed by humans, there is a great chance that these toxicities will be transferred into human body.

title: Fire retardant


text:
Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve

Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve, also known as Wells Reserve, is a National Estuarine Research Reserve located in Wells, Maine.

History
Established in 1984, Wells Reserve manages 2250 acre of coastal habitat and is headquartered at the historic Laudholm Farm. The land managed by the reserve lies partially within the Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge. Funding for the reserve is provided in part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as well as by the nonprofit Laudholm Trust.

Description
Wells Reserve is located along the coast of the Gulf of Maine. The land managed by the reserve includes fields, forests, salt marsh, tidal freshwater marsh, and sandy beaches. The reserve includes the campus of Laudholm Farm, which serves as the reserve's headquarters. Laudholm Farm is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The reserve also features a visitor center and the Maine Coastal Ecology Center, which hosts educational exhibits featuring the landscape, history, and ecology of the reserve. The Maine Coastal Ecology Center also has research facilities for visiting scientists.

Research and monitoring
Since the 1980s, the Wells Reserve research program has been expanding knowledge of coasts and estuaries with an emphasis on ensuring healthy salt marsh ecosystems. Some key areas of research include:
 * Fish distribution and growth
 * Salt marsh restoration
 * Coastal watershed land use
 * Invasive species
 * Biological productivity in estuaries
 * Patterns in plant communities
 * Avian productivity and survivorship
 * Lyme disease ecology

Staff scientists also continually monitor trends in weather, water quality, nutrients, and plant and animal communities, contributing to a national effort that promotes effective coastal zone management.

Education and training
Wells Reserve educators engage people in environmental education, both on-site and in local communities. Each year, more than 3,000 children and adults participate in a variety of educational programs at the site, which serves as a living laboratory. The Wells Reserve also maintains indoor facilities to enrich teaching opportunities. Formal educational offerings include:
 * school field trips
 * teacher trainings
 * guided tours and programs
 * lectures and workshops
 * curriculum kit rentals
 * activity backpacks and trail guides
 * summer day camps

The nationally recognized Coastal Training Program provides resource managers, regulators, politicians, and other decision-makers with information on sound coastal management, as well as opportunities to collaborate on watershed initiatives.

Conservation and stewardship
Wells Reserve resource specialists manage about 500 acre representing many habitats that support an impressive flora and fauna. Acting as a model site for stewardship, methods of active management employed at the Wells Reserve include:
 * controlling invasive plant species
 * maintaining and creating shrublands as wildlife habitat
 * protecting rare plants and endangered animals
 * maintaining fields for grassland nesting birds
 * managing an over-abundant deer population

The Wells Reserve also involves communities in conservation by providing mapping services, technical assistance, training programs, and conservation data useful for the protection and care of land and water resources.

Protection and preservation
The protected lands comprising the Wells Reserve are entirely within the Town of Wells, Maine. These conservation lands are owned by the Maine Department of Conservation (533 acres), United States Fish and Wildlife Service/Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge (1,428 acres), Town of Wells (249 acres), and Wells Reserve Management Authority (40 acres).

The Wells Reserve site, farmed for over three centuries, holds a prominent place in the town's history. The Laudholm Farm campus reflects New England's progressive farming era. By the 1970s, farming had ceased to be viable, but the effort to permanently protect Laudholm stimulated the establishment of Maine's only National Estuarine Research Reserve. Laudholm Farm's buildings were restored and renovated to respect a treasured heritage while creating a platform for Wells Reserve research, education, and stewardship programs.


text:
Manjil Virinja Pookkal

Manjil Virinja Pookkal is a 1980 Indian Malayalam-language romantic thriller film produced by Navodaya Appachan under Navodaya Studio and written and directed by Fazil. It stars Shankar, Mohanlal and Poornima Bhagyaraj. The film features original songs composed by Jerry Amaldev and a score by Guna Singh, cinematography was done by Ashok Kumar.

In the film, Prem Kishan (Shankar) arrives at Kodaikanal, where he falls in love with a girl named Prabha (Poornima). But Prabha is already married to Narendran (Mohanlal), a sadistic youngster. Their life gets troublesome when Narendran finds out about their affair. Manjil Virinja Pookkal marks the onscreen debut of Mohanlal and Poornima, the Malayalam debut of Shankar, the directorial debut of Fazil, and Amaldev's debut as music director.

The film was shot extensively in and around Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu. Manjil Virinja Pookkal was released in theatres on 25 December 1980 on Christmas day. Made for ₹7 lakh (₹0.7 million), the film grossed over ₹1 crore (₹10 million) at the box office. It became one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of all time. In retrospect, the film is often regarded as the first new generation film in Malayalam cinema. Manjil Virinja Pookkal won six Kerala State Film Awards, including Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value and Best Actress for Poornima.

Plot
The story is about Prem Krishnan coming to the hills of Kodaikanal on work, meeting and falling in love with Prabha whom he knows little about. Later, he realises that she is married when her husband, Narendran comes into the picture. Narendran is a sadistic husband. The film ends with Prem Krishnan committing suicide by driving off the cliff after killing Narendran, saddened by the loss of Prabha, who was killed by Narendran.

Cast

 * Shankar as Prem Krishnan
 * Mohanlal as Narendran
 * Poornima Bhagyaraj as Prabha
 * Prathapachandran as Shivashankara Panicker
 * Alummoodan as Kushalan
 * Nedumudi Venu as Seythalavi

Development
Fazil was one of the members in the creative team of Navodaya Studio's story discussions for their productions. The discussion for Manjil Virinja Pookkal began right after the success of the studio's big-budget film Theekkadal starring high-profile actors like Madhu and Prem Nazir. During their discussion, Fazil suggested a low-budget film featuring newcomers. The project was greenlit and they hired Fazil himself as the director. Ashok Kumar was selected as the film's cinematographer; his name was suggested by a friend of Fazil. Fazil got the film's title from a chat he had with song lyricist Bichu Thirumala when they were in Alappuzha. Thirumala when returned after a morning walk told Fazil that he saw a flower bloomed in the snow. Fazil found it to be against the laws of nature for flowers to bloom in the snow because that would prevent spring from coming. He realised that his main characters Prabha and Prem Kishan too suffer the same fate, because spring does not come to their lives, and their love cannot bloom.

Casting
Shankar was selected to portray Prem Kishan, the film was his debut in Malayalam cinema; he was already popular among the Tamil speaking audience through the film Oru Thalai Ragam (1980) which ran for 365 days in Tamil Nadu. For the role of Narendran, debutant Mohanlal was selected through an audition. A panel consisting Jijo Punnoose, Fazil, Sibi Malayil, and a director [unknown] was the judges for the screen-test. Sibi Malayil and the other director gave him only five and seven marks out of hundred displeased with his appearance, but Fazil and Punnoose awarded him 90 and 95 marks for his performance. He was ultimately chosen as the antagonist. Mohanlal donated his first salary of ₹2000 to an orphanage near the filming location. The film's second-unit director was Sibi Malayil. Poornima Jayaram made her debut in Malayalam with the film.

The studio hired the United States-based Jerry Amaldev as the music composer, who debuted with it. Amaldev was suggested to Fazil by Punnoose, Fazil recall that, "Jijo of Navodaya had made me listen to a song tuned by a new composer and I immediately liked its orchestration,...I had no idea who Jerry was, but was impressed when Jijo told me that he had assisted legendary composer Naushad in Mumbai. I decided to try him for my debut film, and that was how he became the music director of Manjil Virinja Pookkal".

Filming
On the thought that "a movie that introduces a new face should be shot using a new camera", Appachan travelled to Germany for buying the "best camera available" at that time. The film was shot using the Arriflex 35 IIC camera. The filming took place mainly in and around Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu. The first dialogue of Mohanlal, which begins as "Good Evening Mrs. Prabha Narendran" was shot close to the Astoria Hotel, near Kodaikanal bus-stand.

Soundtrack
The evergreen hit songs of this movie was composed by Jerry Amaldev and penned by Bichu Thirumala.

The song Mizhiyoram was reused in the film Jan.E.Man.

Reception
Manjil Virinja Pookkal was released on 25 December 1980, Christmas Day.

Critical response
On 26 December 1980, The Indian Express wrote, "The director, Sri Fazil, a post-graduate student who has also contributed to the story and dialogue makes an impressive debut in this picture. His directorial touches are original, and he shows a definitive touch that could be the envy of veteran directors."

Box office
The film was a slow starter but turned out to be a blockbuster and ran for more than 150 days in theatres. Made on a cost of ₹7 lakh (₹0.7 million), it grossed over ₹1 crore (₹10 million) at the box office, becoming one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of the year. In an interview in 2010, Shankar told that he watched the film on its release day in a theatre in Thrissur, but "it didn't look like the film was going to be a hit than", and he was surprised by the response it got later. He realised the film was doing well from the comments of people when he was mobbed at the Bangalore Airport.

Legacy
Manjil Virinja Pookkal became a landmark film in Malayalam cinema. In retrospect, it is regarded as the first new generation film in Malayalam cinema. Shankar's symbolism before kissing, that is, moving his index finger from left chin to his upper lip and then downwards, was a rage among the youth. In the 2013 film Natholi Oru Cheriya Meenalla, throughout the film, Fahadh Faasil's character Prem interacts with the character Narendran in a virtual world. The song Mizhiyoram was reused in the 2021 film Jan.E.Man.

title: Manjil Virinja Pookkal


text: User talk:204.62.192.244

title: User talk:204.62.192.244


text:
Myroxylon

Myroxylon is a genus of Fabaceae native to Latin America.

History
The first described species in this genus was M. balsamum. It was originally described in 1753 by Linnaeus as Toluifera balsamum, based on a specimen collected in the province of Cartagena (at the time Tolú was located in the province of Cartagena). The genus Myroxylon was first established by Linnaeus filius in 1781, when he described M. peruiferum based on a specimen collected by Mutis in South America. Although Toluifera is prior in term of publication time, Myroxylon is chosen as the conserved name and Toluifera is rejected. The name derives from Greek μύρρα (myrrha, "myrrh") and ξύλον (xylon, "wood").

Species
Some authors recognize infra-specific taxa based, mainly, in their balsam phytochemistry; while other authors do not recognize such categories. There are reports of differences in composition of balsams obtained from M. balsamum var. balsamum (Tolu balsam tree), M. balsamum var. pereirae (Peru balsam tree), and M. peruiferum (quina).

It is in the flowering plant family Fabaceae (Leguminosae). There are two species:

Distribution
Myroxylon species grow in Central America (primarily in El Salvador) and South America.

Myroxylon balsamum occurs in Central America, and northern and western South America, it is fairly common in tropical forest at 200–690 m elevation. In Peru and Brazil this species is mostly associated with rivers, and sometimes grows on lateritic soil. It is found in remnants of mesophillous forest. At present it is considered as being of least concern (LC) according to CITES classification. Myroxylon peruiferum is disjunctly distributed in the Americas, from Mexico to northern Argentina and southern Brazil, though it has a wide distribution, it is not abundant within its area of occurrence. It is found in remnants of mesophillous forest and dry habitats at 540–2000 m elevation. It is considered to be Near Threatened (NT), according to CITES classification.

The tree
The trees are large, growing to 40 m tall, with evergreen pinnate leaves 15 cm long, with 5–13 leaflets. The flowers are white with yellow stamens, produced in racemes. The fruit is a pod 7 – long, containing a single seed. The tree is often called Quina or Balsamo, Tolu in Colombia, Quina quina in Argentina, and sometimes Santos Mahogany or Cabreuva in the lumber trade.

Members of this genus produce hydroxypipecolic acids in their leaves.

The wood is dark brown, with a deep red heartwood. Natural oils grant it excellent decay resistance. In fact, it is also resistant to preservative treatment. Its specific gravity is 0.74–0.81.

With regard to woodworking, the tree is moderately difficult to work but can be finished with a high natural polish; it tends to cause some tool dulling.

Invasive species
The balsam tree can become a highly invasive species when introduced into tropical countries where it is not native. In Sri Lanka, it has overgrown several hectares of the Udawatta Kele Sanctuary and is rapidly spreading there. In this Sri Lankan rain forest, Myroxylon seeds sprout in very high numbers due to tolerating more diverse light conditions than native species and due to the absence of natural enemies such as diseases and insects. This has given rise to dense stands of young trees where no other vegetation can grow, causing severe ecological disruption, i.e., the disappearance of local, native plant species and consequently of the animals and insects that feed on these.

The tree has also been introduced to several Pacific islands such as Fiji and to Indonesia, and is a potential ecological threat there.

title: Myroxylon


text:
Pendle College, Lancaster

Pendle College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Lancaster, England. Founded in 1974, the college is named after the Pendle witches of 1612, from the area around Pendle Hill in East Lancashire. The term "Pendle" is associated with a great deal of fantasy and legend.

Accommodation

With standard, en-suite and studio accommodation Pendle College has a wide choice of accommodation options. The college moved to its current location at the far south end of campus in 1994; Grizedale College had already incorporated the original Pendle buildings in 1993. When the university had floated proposals to build new college accommodation at what was then the southern end of campus, it was agnostic as to whether Grizedale or Pendle should take ownership of the new residences. The colleges' Senior Common Rooms were similarly unable to determine their position so the matter was decided through a drinking game conducted between students from both colleges. Grizedale won and elected to retain their existing college buildings and take over the existing Pendle buildings; Pendle would move to the new accommodation. The buildings completed in 1994 surround the college quadrangle and house 402 standard residence rooms.

Rooms situated in South West campus are subject to higher rents and have ensuite facilities. With its own quadrangle, Pendle standard rooms occupy nine blocks of the Alexandra Park complex. Ensuite rooms are available in blocks 24-28: Winewall; Higherford; Fence, Crowtrees and Brierfield. Self-contained studio accommodation is in block 29 - Barnoldswick.

Pendle Rooms includes the bar, a meeting rooms called The Errington Room after a previous Principal, and JCR lounge called 'The Harpley Lounge' - named after the long serving College Manager Jill Harpley. The building features a balcony overlooking the quad. Pendle Rooms is one of the larger bars on campus and has the best acoustics of all the bars on campus. Pendle College also houses a launderette, computer lab, secure bike sheds, college offices and the Porters' Lodge. The residential blocks in Pendle are numbered, starting with the bar. The two-storey bar is called the Merriman Block and is named after former college vice-principal and history lecturer Marcus Merriman.

Symbols
The college crest depicts a lion rampant standing on top of Pendle Hill with a witch's broom. The lion is taken from the arms of the Norman lords of the Pendle area, the de Lacys. The Latin motto "altiora sequamor" means "seek to climb to the top". The Junior Common Room College logo is a black witch on a full moon. The Pendle JCR motto is Venue of Legends. The college colours are green and yellow.

Governance
The statutes of the university established the college. Internally, the key committee that runs the College is the College Syndicate.

The Junior Common Room (JCR) consists of all Pendle undergraduates. The term JCR is often used in reference to elected executive committee of the JCR, who are also known as the JCR Exec. The executive committee undertake a variety of tasks, ranging from organising social events to co-ordinating sports, producing publicity and offering education and welfare services.

Most college officers are drawn from the Senior Common Room (SCR), although the Assistant Deans are both JCR members as well as being a part of the SCR. The SCR is composed of all University staff who are also members of Pendle.

Notable alumni

 * Hilton Dawson, Former MP for Lancaster
 * Alan Milburn, Former MP and former Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
 * James May, Journalist, TV presenter BBC Top Gear
 * Ranvir Singh, Journalist, TV presenter BBC North West Tonight

title: Pendle College, Lancaster