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Black Indians in the United States

Black Indians are Native American people – defined as Native American due to being affiliated with Native American communities and being culturally Native American – who also have significant African American heritage.

Historically, certain Native American tribes have had close relations with African Americans, especially in regions where slavery was prevalent or where free people of color have historically resided. Members of the Five Civilized Tribes participated in holding enslaved African Americans in the Southeast and some enslaved or formerly enslaved people migrated with them to the West on the Trail of Tears in 1830 and later during the period of Indian Removal.

In controversial actions, since the late 20th century, the Cherokee, Creek and Seminole nations tightened their rules for membership and at times excluded Freedmen who did not have at least one ancestor listed as Native American on the early 20th-century Dawes Rolls. This exclusion was later appealed in the courts, both because of the treaty conditions and in some cases because of possible inaccuracies in some of the Rolls. The Chickasaw Nation never extended citizenship to Chickasaw Freedmen.

Overview
Until recently, historic relations between Native Americans and African Americans were relatively neglected in mainstream United States history studies. Over time, Africans had varying degrees of contact with Native Americans, although they did not live together in as great number as with Europeans. Enslaved Africans brought to the United States, as well as their descendants, have had a history of cultural exchange and intermarriage with Native Americans, as well as with other enslaved mixed-race persons who had some Native American and European ancestry.

Most such interaction took place in New England, where contact was established early, and in the Southern United States, where the largest number of African-descended people were enslaved. In the 21st century, a significant number of African Americans have some Native American ancestry, but most have not grown up within those cultures and lack current social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples.

Relationships among different Native Americans, Africans, and African Americans have been varied and complex. Native peoples often disagreed about the role of ethnic African people in their communities. Some tribes or bands were more accepting of ethnic Africans than others, and welcomed them as full members of their respective cultures and communities. Other Native Americans saw uses for slavery, and did not oppose it for others. Some Native Americans and people of African descent fought alongside one another in armed struggles of resistance against U.S. expansion into Native territories, as in the Seminole Wars in Florida.

After the American Civil War, some African Americans became (or continued as) members of the US Army. Many were assigned to fight against Native Americans in the wars in the Western frontier states. Their military units became known as the Buffalo Soldiers, a nickname given by Native Americans. Black Seminole men in particular were recruited from Indian Territory to work as Native American scouts for the Army.

European colonization of the Americas
Records of contacts between Africans and Native Americans date to April 1502, when the first enslaved African arrived in Hispaniola. Some Africans escaped inland from the colony of Santo Domingo; those who survived and joined with the Native tribes became the first group of Black Indians. In the lands which later became part of the United States, the first recorded example of an enslaved African escaping from European colonists and being absorbed by Native Americans dates to 1526. In June of that year, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón established a Spanish colony near the mouth of the Pee Dee River in present-day South Carolina. The Spanish settlement was named San Miguel de Guadalupe; its inhabitants included 100 enslaved Africans. In 1526 the first enslaved African fled the colony and took refuge with local Native Americans.

In 1534 Pueblo peoples of the Southwest had contact with the Moroccan slave Esteban de Dorantes before any contact with the remainder of survivors of his Spanish expedition. As part of the Spanish Pánfilo de Narváez expedition, Esteban traveled from Florida in 1528 to what is now New Mexico in 1539, with a few other survivors. He is thought to have been killed by Zuni. More than a century later, when the Pueblos united to rid their homelands of the Spanish colonists during the 1690 Pueblo Revolt, one of the organizers of the revolt, Domingo Naranjo (c. 1644 – c. 1696) was a Santa Clara Pueblo man of African ancestry.

In 1622 Algonquian Native Americans attacked the colony of Jamestown in Virginia. They massacred all the Europeans but brought some of the few enslaved Africans as captives back to their own communities, gradually assimilating them. Interracial relationships continued to take place between Africans (and later African Americans) and members of Native American tribes in the coastal states. Although the colonists tried to enslave Native Americans in the early years, they abandoned the practise in the early 18th century. Several colonial advertisements for runaway slaves made direct reference to the connections which Africans had in Native American communities. "Reward notices in colonial newspapers now told of African slaves who 'ran off with his Indian wife' or 'had kin among the Indians' or is 'part-Indian and speaks their language good'."

Several of the Thirteen Colonies passed laws prohibiting the transportation of enslaved people into the frontier of the Cherokee Nation's territory to restrict interactions between the two groups. European colonists told the Cherokee that the smallpox epidemic of 1739 in the Southeast was due to disease brought by enslaved African. Some tribes encouraged intermarriage with Africans, with the idea that stronger children would result from the unions.

Colonists in South Carolina felt so concerned about the possible threat posed by the mixed African and Native American population that they passed a law in 1725 prohibiting taking enslaved people to the frontier regions, and imposing a fine of 200 pounds if violated. In 1751, South Carolina passed a law against holding Africans in proximity to Native Americans, as the planters considered that detrimental to the security of the colony. Under Governor James Glen (in office 1743–1756), South Carolina promoted an official policy that aimed to create in Native Americans an "aversion" to African Americans in an attempt to thwart possible alliances between them.

In 1753, during the chaos of Pontiac's War, a resident of Detroit observed that the Native tribes revolting were killing any whites they came across but were "saving and caressing all the Negroes they take." The resident expressed fear that this practice could eventually lead to a uprising amongst the enslaved people. Similarly, Iroquois chief Thayendanegea, more commonly known as Joseph Brant, similarly welcomed runaway slaves and encouraged them to intermarry in the tribe. Native American adoptions system did not discriminate on the basis of color, and Indian villages would eventually serve as stations on the Underground Railroad.

Historian Carter G. Woodson believed that relations with Native American tribes could have provided an escape hatch from slavery: Native American villages welcomed fugitive slaves and, in the antebellum years, some served as stations on the Underground Railroad.

There were varieties of attitude: some Native Americans resented the presence of Africans. In one account, the "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader."

European and European-American colonists tried to divide Native Americans and African Americans against each other. Europeans considered both races inferior and tried to convince Native Americans that Africans worked against their best interests.

In the colonial period, Native Americans received rewards if they returned formerly enslaved people who had escaped. In the latter 19th century, African-American soldiers had assignments to fight with U.S. forces in Indian Wars in the West.

European enslavement
European colonists created a new demand market for captives of raids when they founded what would go on to become the Thirteen Colonies. Especially in the southern colonies, initially developed for resource exploitation rather than settlement, colonists purchased or captured Native Americans to be used as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, and, by the 18th century, rice and indigo.

To acquire trade goods, Native Americans began selling war captives to whites rather than integrating them into their own societies. Traded goods, such as axes, bronze kettles, Caribbean rum, European jewelry, needles, and scissors, varied among the tribes, but the most prized were rifles. The English copied the Spanish and Portuguese: they saw the enslavement of Africans and Native Americans as a moral, legal, and socially acceptable institution; a common rationale for enslavement was the taking of captives after a "just war" and using slavery as an alternative to a death sentence.

The escape of Native American slaves was frequent, because they had a better understanding of the land, which African slaves did not. Consequently, the Natives who were captured and sold into slavery were often sent to the West Indies, or far away from their traditional homeland.

The oldest known record of a permanent Native American slave was a native man from Massachusetts in 1636. By 1661 slavery had become legal in all of the thirteen colonies. Virginia would later declare "Indians, Mulattos, and Negros to be real estate", and in 1682 New York forbade African or Native American slaves from leaving their master's home or plantation without permission. European colonists also viewed the enslavement of Native Americans differently than the enslavement of Africans in some cases; a belief that Africans were "brutish people" was dominant. While both Native Americans and Africans were considered savages, Native Americans were romanticized as noble people that could be elevated into Christian civilization.

It is estimated that Carolina traders operating out of Charles Town exported an estimated 30,000 to 51,000 Native American captives between 1670 and 1715 in a profitable slave trade with the Caribbean, Spanish Hispaniola, and the Northern colonies. It was more profitable to have Native American slaves because African slaves had to be shipped and purchased, while native slaves could be captured and immediately taken to plantations; whites in the Northern colonies sometimes preferred Native American slaves, especially Native women and children, to Africans because Native American women were agriculturalist and children could be trained more easily.

However, Carolinians had more of a preference for African slaves but also capitalized on the Indian slave trade combining both. By the late 1700s records of slaves mixed with African and Native American heritage were recorded. In the eastern colonies it became common practice to enslave Native American women and African men with a parallel growth of enslavement for both Africans and Native Americans. This practice also lead to large number of unions between Africans and Native Americans. This practice of combining African slave men and Native American women was especially common in South Carolina.

During this time records also show that many Native American women bought African men but, unknown to the European traders, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. The Indian wars of the early 18th century, combined with the growing availability of African slaves, essentially ended the Indian Slave trade by 1750. Numerous colonial slave traders had been killed in the fighting, and the remaining Native American groups banded together, more determined to face the Europeans from a position of strength rather than be enslaved.

Though the Indian Slave Trade ended the practice of enslaving Native Americans continued, records from June 28, 1771, show Native American children were kept as slaves in Long Island, New York. Native Americans had also married while enslaved creating families both native and some of partial African descent. Occasional mentioning of Native American slaves running away, being bought, or sold along with Africans in newspapers is found throughout the later colonial period. There are also many accounts of former slaves mentioning having a parent or grandparent who was Native American or of partial descent.

Advertisements asked for the return of both African American and Native American slaves. Records and slave narratives obtained by the WPA (Works Progress Administration) clearly indicate that the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the 1800s mostly through kidnappings. The abductions showed that even in the 1800s little distinction was still made between African Americans and Native Americans. Both Native American and African-American slaves were at risk of sexual abuse by slaveholders and other white men of power.

During the transitional period of Africans' becoming the primary race enslaved, Native Americans had been sometimes enslaved at the same time. Africans and Native Americans worked together, lived together in communal quarters, along with white indentured servants, produced collective recipes for food, and shared herbal remedies, myths and legends. Some intermarried and had mixed-race children. The exact number of Native Americans who were enslaved is unknown because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent. Andrés Reséndez estimates that between 147,000 and 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in North America, excluding Mexico.

Among the Cherokee, interracial marriages or unions increased as the number of slaves held by the tribe increased. The Cherokee had a reputation for having slaves work side by side with their owners. The Cherokee resistance to the Euro-American system of chattel slavery created tensions between them and European Americans. The Cherokee tribe began to become divided; as intermarriage between white men and native women increased and there was increased adoption of European culture, so did racial discrimination against those of African-Cherokee blood and against African slaves. Cultural assimilation among the tribes, particularly the Cherokee, created pressure to be accepted by European Americans.

After Indian slavery was ended in the colonies, some African men chose Native American women as their partners because their children would be born free. Beginning from 1662 in Virginia, and soon followed by other colonies, they had established a law, known as partus sequitur ventrem, that said a child's status followed that of the mother. Separately, according to the matrilineal system among many Native American tribes, children were considered to be born to and to belong to the mother's people, so were raised as Native American. As European expansion increased in the Southeast, African and Native American marriages became more common.

1800s through the Civil War
In the early 19th century, the US government believed that some tribes had become extinct, especially on the East Coast, where there had been a longer period of European settlement, and where most Native Americans had lost their communal land. Few reservations had been established and they were considered landless. At that time, the government did not have a separate census designation for Native Americans. Those who remained among the European-American communities were frequently listed as mulatto, a term applied to Native American-white, Native American-African, and African-white mixed-race people, as well as tri-racial people.

The Seminole people of Florida formed in the 18th century, in what is called ethnogenesis, from Muscogee (Creek) and Florida tribes. They incorporated some Africans who had escaped from slavery. Other maroons formed separate communities near the Seminole, and were allied with them in military actions. Much intermarriage took place. African Americans living near the Seminole were called Black Seminole. Several hundred people of African descent traveled with the Seminole when they were removed to Indian Territory. Others stayed with the few hundred Seminole who remained in Florida, undefeated by the Americans.

By contrast, an 1835 census of the Cherokee showed that 10% were of African descent. In those years, censuses of the tribes classified people of mixed Native American and African descent as "Native American". But during the registration of tribal members for the Dawes Rolls, which preceded land allotment by individual heads of household of the tribes, generally Cherokee Freedmen were classified separately on a Freedmen roll. Registrars often worked quickly, judging by appearance, without asking if the freedmen had Cherokee ancestry, which would have qualified them as "Cherokee by blood" and listing on those rolls.

This issue has caused problems for their descendants in the late 20th and 21st century. The nation passed legislation and a constitutional amendment to make membership more restrictive, open only to those with certificates of blood ancestry (CDIB), with proven descent from "Cherokee by blood" individuals on the Dawes Rolls. Western frontier artist George Catlin described "Negro and North American Indian, mixed, of equal blood" and stated they were "the finest built and most powerful men I have ever yet seen." By 1922 John Swanton's survey of the Five Civilized Tribes noted that half the Cherokee Nation consisted of Freedmen and their descendants.

Former slaves and Native Americans intermarried in northern states as well. Massachusetts Vital Records prior to 1850 included notes of "Marriages of 'negroes' to Indians". By 1860 in some areas of the South, where race was considered binary of black (mostly enslaved) or white, white legislators thought the Native Americans no longer qualified as "Native American," as many were mixed and part black. They did not recognized that many mixed-race Native Americans identified as Indian by culture and family. Legislators wanted to revoke the Native American tax exemptions.

Freed African Americans, Black Indians, and Native Americans fought in the American Civil War against the Confederate Army. During November 1861, the Muscogee Creek and Black Indians, led by Creek Chief Opothleyahola, fought three pitched battles against Confederate whites and allied Native Americans to reach Union lines in Kansas and offer their services. Some Black Indians served in colored regiments with other African-American soldiers.

Black Indians were documented in the following regiments: The 1st Kansas Colored Infantry, the Kansas Colored at Honey Springs, the 79th US Colored Infantry, and the 83rd US Colored Infantry, along with other colored regiments that included men listed as Negro. Some Civil War battles occurred in Indian Territory. The first battle in Indian Territory took place July 1 and 2 in 1863, and Union forces included the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry. The first battle against the Confederacy outside Indian Territory occurred at Horse Head Creek, Arkansas on February 17, 1864. The 79th US Colored Infantry participated.

Many Black Indians returned to Indian Territory after the Civil War had been won by the Union. When the Confederacy and its Native American allies were defeated, the US required new peace treaties with the Five Civilized Tribes, requiring them to emancipate slaves and make those who chose to stay with the tribes full citizens of their nations, with equal rights in annuities and land allotments. The former slaves were called "Freedmen," as in Cherokee Freedmen, Chickasaw Freedmen, Choctaw Freedmen, Creek Freedmen and Seminole Freedmen. The pro-Union branch of the Cherokee government had freed their slaves in 1863, before the end of the war, but the pro-Confederacy Cherokee held their slaves until forced to emancipate them.

Native American slave ownership
Slavery had existed among Native Americans, as a way to make use of war captives, before it was introduced by the Europeans. It was not the same as the European style of chattel slavery, in which slaves were counted as the personal property of a master. In Cherokee oral tradition, they enslaved war captives and it was a temporary status pending adoption into a family and clan, or release.

As the United States Constitution and the laws of several states permitted slavery after the American Revolution (while northern states prohibited it), Native Americans were legally allowed to own slaves, including those brought from Africa by Europeans. In the 1790s, Benjamin Hawkins was the federal agent assigned to the southeastern tribes. Promoting assimilation to European-American mores, he advised the tribes to take up slaveholding so that they could undertake farming and plantations as did other Americans. The Cherokee tribe had the most members who held black slaves, more than any other Native American nation.

Records from the slavery period show several cases of brutal Native American treatment of black slaves. However, most Native American masters rejected the worst features of Southern practices. Federal Agent Hawkins considered the form of slavery as practiced by the Southern tribes to be inefficient because the majority didn't practice chattel slavery. Travelers reported enslaved Africans "in as good circumstances as their masters". A white Indian Agent, Douglas Cooper, upset by the Native American failure to practice more severe rules, insisted that Native Americans invite white men to live in their villages and "control matters".

Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, the fact of a racial caste system and bondage, and pressure from European-American culture, created destructive cleavages in their villages. Some already had a class hierarchy based on "white blood", in part because Native Americans of mixed race sometimes had stronger networks with traders for goods they wanted. Among some bands, Native Americans of mixed white blood stood at the top, pure Native Americans next, and people of African descent were at the bottom. Some of the status of partial white descent may have been related to the economic and social capital passed on by white relations.

Members of Native groups held numerous African-American slaves through the Civil War. Some of these slaves later recounted their lives for a WPA oral history project during the Great Depression in the 1930s.

Native American Freedmen
After the Civil War, in 1866 the United States government required new treaties with the Five Civilized Tribes, who each had major factions allied with the Confederacy. They were required to emancipate their slaves and grant them citizenship and membership in the respective tribes, as the United States freed slaves and granted them citizenship by amendments to the US Constitution. These people were known as "Freedmen", for instance, Muscogee or Cherokee Freedmen.

Similarly, the Cherokee were required to reinstate membership for the Delaware, who had earlier been given land on their reservation, but fought for the Union during the war. Many of the Freedmen played active political roles in their tribal nations over the ensuing decades, including roles as interpreters and negotiators with the federal government. African Muscogee men, such as Harry Island and Silas Jefferson, helped secure land for their people when the government decided to make individual allotments to tribal members under the Dawes Act.

Some Maroon communities allied with the Seminole in Florida and intermarried. The Black Seminole included those with and without Native American ancestry.

When the Cherokee Nation drafted its constitution in 1975, enrollment was limited to descendants of people listed on the Dawes "Cherokee By Blood" rolls. On the Dawes Rolls, US government agents had classified people as Cherokee by blood, intermarried whites, and Cherokee Freedmen, regardless of whether the latter had Cherokee ancestry qualifying them as Cherokee by blood. The Shawnee and Delaware gained their own federal recognition as the Delaware Tribe of Indians and the Shawnee Tribe. A political struggle over this issue has ensued since the 1970s. Cherokee Freedmen have taken cases to the Cherokee Supreme Court. The Cherokee later reinstated the rights of Delaware to be considered members of the Cherokee, but opposed their bid for independent federal recognition.

The Cherokee Nation Supreme Court ruled in March 2006 that Cherokee Freedmen were eligible for tribal enrollment. In 2007, leaders of the Cherokee Nation held a special election to amend their constitution to restrict requirements for citizenship in the tribe. The referendum established direct Cherokee ancestry as a requirement. The measure passed in March 2007, thereby forcing out Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants unless they also had documented, direct "Cherokee by blood" ancestry. This has caused much controversy. The tribe has determined to limit membership only to those who can demonstrate Native American descent based on listing on the Dawes Rolls.

Similarly, the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma moved to exclude Seminole Freedmen from membership. In 1990 it received $56 million from the US government as reparations for lands taken in Florida. Because the judgment trust was based on tribal membership as of 1823, it excluded Seminole Freedmen, as well as Black Seminoles who held land next to Seminole communities. In 2000 the Seminole chief moved to formally exclude Black Seminoles unless they could prove descent from a Native American ancestor on the Dawes Rolls. 2,000 Black Seminoles were excluded from the nation. Descendants of Freedmen and Black Seminoles are working to secure their rights.

"There's never been any stigma about intermarriage', says Stu Phillips, editor of The Seminole Producer, a local newspaper in central Oklahoma. 'You've got Indians marrying whites, Indians marrying blacks. It was never a problem until they got some money."

An advocacy group representing descendants of Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes claims that members are entitled to be citizens in both the Seminole and Cherokee nations, as many are indeed part Native American by blood, with records to prove it. Because of racial discrimination, their ancestors were classified and listed incorrectly, under only the category of Freedmen, at the time of the Dawes Rolls. In addition, the group notes that post-Civil War treaties of these tribes with the US government required they give African Americans full citizenship upon emancipation, regardless of blood quantum. In many cases, Native American descent has been difficult for people to trace from historical records. Over 25,000 Freedmen descendants of the Five Civilized Tribes may be affected by the legal controversies.

The Dawes Commission enrollment records, intended to establish rolls of tribal members for land allocation purposes, were done under rushed conditions by a variety of recorders. Many tended to exclude Freedmen from Cherokee rolls and enter them separately, even when they claimed Cherokee descent, had records of it, and had Cherokee physical features. Descendants of Freedmen see the tribe's contemporary reliance on the Dawes Rolls as a racially based way to exclude them from citizenship.

Before the Dawes Commission was established, "(t)he majority of the people with African blood living in the Cherokee nation prior to the Civil war lived there as slaves of Cherokee citizens or as free black non-citizens, usually the descendants of Cherokee men and women with African blood ... In 1863, the Cherokee government outlawed slavery through acts of the tribal council. In 1866, a treaty was signed with the US government in which the Cherokee government agreed to give citizenship to those people with African blood living in the Cherokee nations who were not already citizens. African Cherokee people participated as full citizens of that nation, holding office, voting, running businesses, etc."

After the Dawes Commission established tribal rolls, in some cases Freedmen of the Cherokee and the other Five Civilized Tribes were treated more harshly. Degrees of continued acceptance into tribal structures were low during the ensuing decades. Some tribes restricted membership to those with a documented Native ancestor on the Dawes Commission listings, and many restricted officeholders to those of direct Native American ancestry. In the later 20th century, it was difficult for Black Native Americans to establish official ties with Native groups to which they genetically belonged. Many Freedmen descendants believe that their exclusion from tribal membership, and the resistance to their efforts to gain recognition, are racially motivated and based on the tribe's wanting to preserve the new gambling revenues for fewer people.

Genealogy and genetics

African Americans looking to trace their genealogy can face many difficulties. While a number of the Native American nations are better-documented than the white communities of the era, the destruction of family ties and family records during the human trafficking of the Atlantic slave trade has made tracking African American family lines much more difficult. In Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage, William Katz writes that the number of Black Indians among the Native American nations were "understated by hundreds of thousands," and that by comparing pictorial documentation to verbal and written accounts, it is clear that Black Indians existed in these settings, but were often simply not remarked upon or recorded by white chroniclers of the era.

Enslaved Africans were renamed by those who enslaved them, and until after the American Civil War they were usually not even provided with surnames. Similarly, historical records which genealogists usually rely upon (such as censuses) did not record the names of enslaved African Americans before the Civil War. While some major slavers kept extensive records which historians and genealogists have used to create family trees, researchers generally find it difficult to trace the history of African American families before the Civil War. Enslaved people were also forbidden to learn to read and write, and harshly punished or even killed if they defied this ban, making records kept by families themselves extremely rare.

Elder family members may have tried to keep an oral history of the family, but due to the many challenges listed above, these accounts have not always been reliable. Knowing the family's geographic origins may help individuals know where to start in piecing together their genealogy. Working from oral history and existing records, descendants can try to confirm stories of more precise African origins, as well as those of any possible Native ancestry through genealogical research and even DNA testing. However, DNA cannot reliably indicate Native American ancestry, and no DNA test can indicate tribal origin.

DNA testing and research has provided some data about the extent of Native American ancestry among African Americans, which varies in the general population. Based on the work of geneticists, Harvard University historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr. hosted a popular, and at times controversial, PBS series, African American Lives, in which geneticists said DNA evidence shows that Native American ancestry is far less common among African Americans than previously believed.

Their conclusions suggested that while almost all African Americans are racially mixed, and many have family stories of Native heritage, usually these stories turn out to be inaccurate,  with only five percent of African American people showing more than two percent Native American ancestry. Gates summarized these statistics as follows: "If you have two percent Native American ancestry, you had one such ancestor on your family tree five to nine generations back (150 to 270 years ago)." Their findings also concluded that the most common "non-Black" mix among African Americans is English and Scots-Irish. Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.

Another study, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, also indicated that, despite how common stories of Native American ancestry are within African-American families, relatively few who were tested actually turned out to have detectable Native American ancestry. A study reported in the American Journal of Human Genetics stated, "We analyzed the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois; Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston) ... mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10 populations." Despite this, some still insist that most African Americans have at least some Native American heritage. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. wrote in 2009, "Here are the facts: Only 5 percent of all black Americans have at least 12.5 percent Native American ancestry, the equivalent of at least one great-grandparent. Those 'high cheek bones' and 'straight black hair' your relatives brag about at every family reunion and holiday meal since you were 2 years old? Where did they come from? To paraphrase a well-known French saying, 'Seek the white man.'

African Americans, just like our first lady, are a racially mixed or mulatto people—deeply and overwhelmingly so. Fact: Fully 58 percent of African American people, according to geneticist Mark Shriver at Morehouse College, possess at least 12.5 percent European ancestry (again, the equivalent of that one great-grandparent)."

Geneticists from Kim Tallbear (Dakota) to The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) agree that DNA testing is not how tribal identity is determined, with Tallbear stressing that "People think there is a DNA test to prove you are Native American. There isn't." and the IPCB noting that "'Native American markers' are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans they are also found in people in other parts of the world." Tallbear also stresses that tribal identity is based in political citizenship, culture, lineage and family ties, not "blood", "race", or genetics.

Writing for ScienceDaily, Troy Duster wrote that the two common types of tests used are Y-chromosome and mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) testing. The tests processes for direct-line male and female ancestors. Each follows only one line among many ancestors and thus can fail to identify others. Though DNA testing for ancestry is limited, a paper in 2015 posited that ancestries can show different percentages based on the region and sex of one's ancestors. These studies found that on average, people who identified as African American in their sample group had 73.2-82.1% West African, 16.7%-29% European, and 0.8–2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals.

Autosomal DNA testing surveys DNA that has been inherited from parents of an individual. Autosomal tests focus on genetic markers which might be found in Africans, Asians, and people from every other part of the world. DNA testing still cannot determine an individual's full ancestry with absolute certitude.

Notable Black Native Americans
Claims of African American and Native American identity are often disputed. As Sharon P. Holland and Tiya Miles note, "Pernicious cultural definitions of race ... structure this divide, as blackness has been capaciously defined by various state laws according to the legendary one-drop rule, while Indianness has been defined by the US government according to the many buckets rule."

While many US states historically categorized a person as Black if they had even one Black ancestor (the "one drop rule"), Native Americans have been required to meet high blood quantum requirements. For example, the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 only recognized Native people with "one half or more Indian blood". It can sometimes be difficult for Native people to provide paper evidence of their ancestry, especially for Black Native Americans as their mixed race ancestors may have been recorded only as Black. Many tribes today still have blood quantum requirements as part of their criteria for tribal membership.

The list below contains notable individuals with African American ancestry who are tribal citizens or who have been recognized by their communities.

Historic

 * William Apess (African-Pequot, 1798–1839), Methodist minister and author.
 * Crispus Attucks (African-Wampanoag, 1723–1770) dockworker, merchant seaman, an icon in the anti-slavery movement, the first casualty of the Boston Massacre and the American Revolutionary War.
 * George Bonga (African-Ojibwe, 1802–1880), fur trader and interpreter in what is now Minnesota, son of trader and interpreter Pierre Bonga.
 * Billy Bowlegs III (African-Seminole, 1862–1965)
 * Olivia Ward Bush, (Montauk, 1869–1944), author, poet, journalist and tribal historian.
 * Joseph Louis Cook (Mohawk tribal member of African-Abenaki descent, d. 1814) colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.
 * Paul Cuffee (Ashanti/Wampanoag, 1759–1817)
 * Pompey Factor (African-Seminole, 1849–1928) Black Seminole Scout, Medal of Honor recipient.
 * John Horse, Juan Caballo (Black Seminole, 1812–1882), war chief in Florida, also the leader of African-Seminole in Mexico.
 * Edmonia Lewis (African-Haitian-Mississauga, c. 1845–1911) sculptor.
 * Zerviah Gould Mitchell (African-Wampanoag, 1807–1898) educator and direct descent of the sachem Massasoit.
 * Adam Paine (African-Seminole, 1843–1877) Black Seminole Scout, Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Charlie Patton (African-Cherokee descent, 1887–1934), founding father of the blues in the Mississippi Delta.
 * Isaac Payne (African-Seminole, 1854–1904) Black Seminole Scout, Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Marguerite Scypion (African-Natchez, c. 1770s–after 1836), freedwoman who won her freedom from slavery in court.
 * John Ward (Medal of Honor) (African-Seminole, 1847 or 1848–1911) Black Seminole Scout, Medal of Honor recipient.

Contemporary

 * Natalie Ball (Klamath/Modoc), born 1980, interdisciplinary artist
 * Joe Burton (Soboba Band of Luiseño Indians), professional basketball player; the first Native American man to earn a basketball scholarship at a Pac-12 Conference school.
 * Radmilla Cody (Diné), 46th Miss Navajo Nation (1998), traditional singer, enrolled member of the Navajo Nation with African-American ancestry, first bi-racial Miss Navajo, and advocate against domestic violence in both the Navajo Nation and the state of Arizona
 * Angel Goodrich (Cherokee Nation), WNBA basketball player for the Tulsa Shock and the Seattle Storm
 * Mary Ann Green (Augustine Cahuilla, 1964–2017), chairperson who reestablished the Augustine Cahuilla reservation and tribal government
 * Lisa Holt (Cochiti Pueblo), ceramic artist
 * Mwalim (Mashpee Wampanoag), musician, writer, and educator
 * Harlan Reano (Kewa Pueblo), ceramic artist
 * Kyrie Irving (Lakota), born 1992, NBA basketball player
 * France Winddance Twine (Muscogee (Creek) Nation, born 1960), sociologist
 * William S. Yellow Robe Jr. (Assiniboine), playwright and educator
 * Nyla Rose (Oneida descent), professional wrestler, martial artist, and actress
 * Kelvin Sampson (Lumbee), college basketball coach
 * Santiago X, Louisiana Coushatta multidisciplinary artist and architect
 * Powtawche Valerino (Mississippi Choctaw), NASA engineer
 * Delonte West (Piscataway), retired NBA basketball player

title: Black Indians in the United States


text:
Intelligence Oversight Act

The Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980 is a United States federal law that amended the Hughes–Ryan Act and requires United States government agencies to report covert actions to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (HPSCI) and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI). The previous requirement to notify six to eight other committees was eliminated.

Enacted on September 21, 1980, The Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980 provided that the heads of intelligence agencies would keep the oversight committees "fully and currently informed" of their activities including "any significant anticipated intelligence activity." Detailed ground rules were established for reporting covert actions to the Congress, in return for the number of congressional committees receiving notice of covert actions being limited to the two oversight committees.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Intelligence Oversight Act


text:
Witness to the Execution

Witness to the Execution is a 1994 American made-for-television drama film directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and starring Tim Daly and Sean Young. Its plot concerns a fictional television network's desire to carry the live execution of a condemned killer as a pay-per-view event. It also portrays the events surrounding the attempt to create a television show about the execution.

Cast

 * Sean Young as Jessica Traynor
 * Tim Daly as Dennis Casterline
 * Len Cariou as Jake Tyler
 * George Newbern as Phillip Tyler
 * Dee Wallace as Emily Dawson
 * Alan Fudge as Wallace Sternberg
 * Brian Markinson as Kirby Jacobs
 * Marina Palmier as Cynthia Moore
 * Constance Jones as Lucy
 * Alex Morris as Ramos
 * Lourdes Regala as Dornbush
 * Brandon Smith as Toyoshima
 * Blue Deckert as Lt. Mike Spalding
 * James Black as the Chaplain

title: Witness to the Execution


text:
User talk:Relativereality2

Welcome to Wikipedia! You seem to be off to a good start. Hopefully you will soon join the vast army of Wikipediholics!

You may wish to review the welcome page and tutorial as well as the avoiding common mistakes and Wikipedia is not pages. The Wikipedia directory is also quite useful. In addition, you might want to add yourself to the new user log.

By the way, an important tip: To sign comments on talk pages, simply type four tildes, like this: ~. This will automatically add your name and the time after your comments.

Finally, here are some open tasks:

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

Hope to see you around the Wiki! And if you have any questions whatsoever, feel free to contact me on my talk page! .:.Jareth.:. babelfish 15:21, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Tower of geburah.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Tower of geburah.jpg. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read the instructions at Non-free content carefully, then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies for fair use. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot (talk) 02:43, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Relativereality2


text:
Magadh division

Magadh division is an administrative geographical unit of Bihar state of India. Gaya is the administrative headquarters of the division. Currently (2005), the division consists Gaya district, Nawada district, Aurangabad district, Jehanabad district, and Arwal district. The current divisional commissioner is Mayank Warwade, an IAS officer of 2001 batch of Bihar cadre. Magadh is home to the Magahi culture. People speak Magahi language here.

title: Magadh division


text: User talk:81.228.212.113

title: User talk:81.228.212.113


text:
Juan Álvarez (historian)

Juan Álvarez (3 September 1878 – 8 April 1954) was a judge and historian born in Gualeguaychú,.

Biography
Álvarez was born at a time of massive immigration in Argentina. His father, Serafín Álvarez, was an exiled Republican Spaniard; within the family, discussions about society, politics and religion were common. He studied at the Faculty of Law in Buenos Aires, where the ruling class of the time was raised. His doctoral thesis was evaluated by Bartolomé Mitre.

Since 1902, he worked at the Tribunals of Rosario, as a secretary, attorney, prosecutor and judge. He lived most of his life in this dynamic and rapidly growing city of the province of Santa Fe, and made friends within the professional and business elite, as well as firm links with other Argentine intellectuals. He was of a liberal mindset, opposed to nationalism and the tendency to worship tradition.

His first books argued that the roots of a nationality should not be sought in the old times, but in the future. This topic was especially relevant due to the wave of nationalistic pride sweeping Argentina near the centennial of its liberation from Spain (the May Revolution of 1810). In his Essay on the history of Santa Fe he went as far as claiming that Argentine history is nonexistent before 1853 (year of the framing of Constitution).

In 1913, Álvarez founded a public library in Rosario. This library, which is the largest in the city, carries at present the name of Biblioteca Argentina Dr. Juan Álvarez.

In 1914, Álvarez wrote about the civil wars of Argentina from an economic point of view, and explicitly looking to prevent similar wars in the future. World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917 affected his liberal mindset, which led him to write a criticism of liberalism and its limitations. Similar crises came after the Sáenz Peña Law of secret and compulsory suffrage and the conservative revolution of 1930. Álvarez turned towards conservatism, unsure about the new developments in the relationship between citizens, institutions and the state.

In 1943, he wrote Historia de Rosario (1689–1939) ("History of Rosario"), which, like other works that deal with the interaction of geography, economy and politics, is considered a seminal work, which introduces the concept of the city as a subject matter, starting from its local identity, without a forced reference to national matters. His thesis about the asymmetric relationships between his adopted home town, Rosario, and the capital city of Santa Fe, opposes the dynamism of the former (devoid of a colonial past or an aristocratic class) and the bureaucratic tradition of the latter. This idea is still considered valid and continues to re-emerge in popular and intellectual discourse today.

Álvarez was the Attorney General of the Nation between 1935 and 1946. He died in Rosario in 1954.

title: Juan Álvarez (historian)


text:
Trubizh

The Trubizh (Трубі́ж, Трубе́ж) is a river entirely located in Ukraine, a left tributary of Dnieper. It falls into the Dnieper's Kaniv Reservoir (named after Kaniv). It is 113 km long, and has a drainage basin of 4700 km2.

Major cities: Pereiaslav.

title: Trubizh


text:
Robert Pipon Marett

Sir Robert Pipon Marett (20 November 1820 – 10 November 1884, pseudonym Laelius) was a lawyer, journalist, poet, politician, and Bailiff of Jersey from 1880 until his death.

Life and career
He was born in St. Peter on 20 November 1820 and studied at the University of Caen and the Sorbonne. He was admitted to the Bar of Jersey as advocate in 1845, but in 1846 the family moved to Blois in France as a result of his mother's ill health. Returning to Jersey, he entered the political scene and was elected Constable of St. Helier in 1856. During his short term in municipal office, he laid out the Parade as an urban promenade.

The death of the Bailiff, Sir Thomas Le Breton, created a vacancy among the Crown Officers and on 6 March 1858 Robert Pipon Marett was appointed Solicitor-General. He rose through the legal hierarchy, becoming Attorney-General in 1866, and Bailiff in 1880.

He was knighted in 1880. He was one of the founders of the Société Jersiaise and a patron of education for girls. He was the father of Robert Ranulph Marett.

He died on the 10 November 1884 at his home, La Haule Manor in St. Brelade, after a long illness.

Literature
On his return from Blois, Robert Pipon Marett was one of the founders of the newspaper La Patrie in which his poetry in Jèrriais appeared from 1849 under the pseudonym Laelius.

His La Fille Malade was widely admired and François-Victor Hugo reproduced it in his La Normandie inconnue. It has been suggested that his Lé R'tou du Terre-Neuvi oprès san prumi viage influenced Victor Hugo's Les Pauvres gens written in Jersey in 1854. He corresponded publicly in verse form with George Métivier, the Guernsey poet. His comparatively small poetic output belies its continuing influence. His poetry is generally social rather than political, but La Bouonne Femme et ses Cotillons satirises conservative resistance to constitutional reform.

He took a philological interest in Jèrriais and through his prestige did much to standardise Jèrriais orthography on the pattern of French orthography. On being appointed to high office he stopped publishing poetry, and a fire at his home, Blanc Pignon, in St. Brelade in 1874 destroyed his papers – a loss to Jèrriais literature.

Note

 * 1) Des Filles, une sorcière, Dame Toumasse et quelques autres R.-J. Lebarbenchon, 1980, Azeville

title: Robert Pipon Marett


text:
File:Transport Triggered Architecture.png

Summary
Parts of transport triggered architecture


text: Category:Internet films

title: Category:Internet films


text: Category:Companies of Moldova

title: Category:Companies of Moldova


text:
ORAC

ORAC or Orac may refer to:

 * Oxygen radical absorbance capacity, a scalar value derived in the laboratory for comparing the antioxidant content of different foods or nutritional supplements
 * Office of the Registrar of Aboriginal Corporations, former name of the Australian government agency now called Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations (ORIC)
 * Orac (Blake's 7, a computer in the science fiction television series Blake's 7
 * Orac (MD program), a classical molecular dynamics program for solvated biomolecules
 * Orac, Leova, a commune in Moldova
 * Orac, an early poker-playing computer program developed by Mike Caro
 * ORAC, Wilhelm Reich's abbreviation for his orgone accumulator

 * People
 * Orac, pseudonym of David Gorski, cancer surgeon and blogger critical of alternative medicine
 * Costel Orac (born 1959), Romanian footballer
 * Daniel Orac (born 1985), Romanian footballer

title: ORAC


text: User talk:203.197.249.150

title: User talk:203.197.249.150


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Redpanda

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Speedily Redirected by User:DragonflySixtyseven Ryan Norton T 23:50, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

Redpanda
Quality article already exists at Red Panda. This adds no real content --Aranae 15:27, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per nomination. -- Aranae 15:27, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I have been bold and redirected to Red Panda as a not-implausible misspelling. DS 15:38, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirecting as above has my full support. Jkelly 15:44, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * That's perfect. I'm withdrawing my nomination.  --Aranae 17:01, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Talk:First Portuguese Republic

Quality of article
I have recently been reading a number of Portuguese history pages as I knew little on this subject. Unfortunately I found this article extremely difficult to follow. Many sentences make little sense or have a stilted, obtuse construction. Far too many bracketed name and date references disrupt reading.

eg: "Sidonismo, also known as Dezembrismo (Eng. Decemberism), aroused a strong interest among historians, largely as a result of the elements of modernity that it contained (José Brandão, 1990; Ramalho, 1998; Ribeiro de Meneses, 1998, Armando Silva, 1999; Samara, 2003 and Santos, 2003)"

"Nevertheless, much has been written about the crisis and fall of the regime and the 28 May movement (Cruz, 1986; Cabral, 1993; Rosas, 1997; Martins, 1998; Pinto, 2000; Afonso, 2001). The First Republic continues to be the subject of an intense debate which is impossible to summarise in these paragraphs. A recent historiographical balance sheet elaborated by Armando Malheiro da Silva (2000) is a good introduction into this debate"

I gave up.

Tiddy 05:33, 10 June 2007 (UTC)

Basic focus of article
It needs to be less meta-discussion of recent trends in historiography, and more about what actually happened during the period. AnonMoos 04:56, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Possibly copyright infringement?
I think the section marked "The Republic" is copyrighted elsewhere.

It comes from an article entitled "The Political History of Twentieth-Century Portugal" and was published in the E-Journal of Portuguese History Here is the link to the article:

http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Portuguese_Brazilian_Studies/ejph/html/issue2/pdf/baioa.pdf

The text comes from the first few pages.

I don't know if the author posted it himself. I'm not the copyright holder, but I did run across the article and it looked a little suspect. If the author did post it here, my mistake.

Cheers!

Mwinslett 00:08, 8 June 2007 (UTC)mwinslett
 * I highly doubt the author posted it, and hence the text should be rewritten or removed due to copyright infringement. The original text is by what seems to be three different professors at three different universities. It is even clearly stated that the paper was copyrighted. KristofferAG (talk) 12:38, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Completely agree. I read the Brown article (above) when I came across it and immediately thought infringement issue. Having edited several articles on the people and events during the period, I have been meaning to take a stab at a revision. The question that arises: whether blanking the mitigating content, would result in no article at all. My first impulse is to completely delete it, but I am already editing a few things, and the subject is so significant that it would need some time to completely re-write. Ruben JC (Zeorymer) 14:40, 3 September 2010 (UTC)

Nightmare Republic

 * Copied from WP:RD/H for processing. --Ghirla-трёп- 15:42, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Why was Portugal before the New State called the Nightmare Republic?Bryson Bill 19:17, 9 August 2007 (UTC)

 * The term refers to the First Republic, 1910 to 1926, which was notoriously unstable. In its sixteen years, it had forty-five governments. As you say, the Nightmare Republic led to the New State, which lasted from 1926 to 1974. That was certainly stable but was not exactly a model of liberal democracy. Xn4 23:00, 9 August 2007 (UTC)

This is a fascinating question about a fascinating subject-the First Portuguese Republic, the model and acme of a dysfunctional state. No banana republic comes close to the Portuguese record of instability and regime change. I found one contemporary view by Will Rogers which summarises the position with his characteristic humour;

''They make 'em or break 'em quick over here. You don't get four years' trial like you all do over home, and then we have to put up with regardless. A Premier never unpacks his grip over here. He just engages his room by the day. Portugal, the week I was in Madrid, had three Revolutions and four changes of Government in one day, and they haven't got daylight saving either, or else they could have squeezed in another Revolution.''

Yes, of course it's a comic exaggeration, but not much! The New State, one might even say the necessity of the New State, can only really be appreciated by a proper understanding of what went before. As Xn4 says, the first republic had forty-five governments in just under sixteen years, the most unstable state in Europe by far. The average life of each administration was no more than four months. There were military coups in 1915, 1917, 1921 and 1926. Of the eight presidents only Antonio Jose Almeida served out his term in office, though his health was ruined in the process. One was assassinated, two resigned after threats of military intervention, and two were ejected by force. President Teixeira Gomes was so desperate to leave the country that he boarded the first ship after his resignation and never returned! The poet Guerra Junqueira described the republic, for which he had campaigned, as "an heroic march to the sewer." Later one academic was to describe the period as a 'permanent carnival.'

So, what was the source of this chaos? Why, the economy, stupid! No, seriously now, this was part of the answer. The old monatchy had left the country with a huge foreign debt, almost impossible to manage considering how poor Portugal was at the time, a country where as much as 78% of the population were illiterate. A bad financial inheritance was compounded by the economic crisis which overtook the country in 1915 and lasted for over ten years. In the worst period inflation reached almost 3000%, and the currency was devalued no less than twenty times between 1919 and 1924. A bad economy made for a bad political culture, and riots, bombings, assassinations, coups, plots, strikes, mutinies and walk-outs were a regular feature of the Portuguese horizon. Perhaps as many as 5000 people were killed in public disorder, civil war in all but name. The name 'Nightmare Republic' was actually accorded by an Irish journalist in 1914, writing for a publication by the name of Nineteenth Century. Portuguese editors constantly expressed fears over the ongoing 'Mexicanisation' of the nation. The French even adopted the verb Portugaliser for a time, meaning to bring chaos into politics.

With a bad economy, no political culture to speak of, and an almost complete absence of consensus on any issue of central significance, conspiracy and counter-conspiracy took the place of democratic participation. In 1919 the constitution was revised, according the president additional powers, including the right to dissolve parliament. Intended as a political anchor it only made matters even worse, if such a thing were possible. Presidents were openly intimidated into dismissing parliaments, whether or not there was a need. In 1921 President Almedia was forced at gun point to call new elections on two separate occasions. The only thing that kept the Nightmare Republic afloat for so long was that right-wing conspirators, including those in the army, were as divided as the rest of Portuguese society. But it was only a matter of when, not if, that the curtain would be brought down and the carnival brought to a close. Clio the Muse 01:46, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

 * There we have the Rolls Royce answer, supplementing my pedestrian shorthand! All I feel able to add is that once, long ago, an old man with a beard told me that in the 1920s, as a tribute to the otherworldliness of Portugal, someone opened a low dive in Paris called "le Grand Hôtel de l'Univers et du Portugal". I should like to think this is true, but I have never found any trace of it. Xn4 02:00, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

 * What a pity! Clio the Muse 05:13, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Threat of Spanish Invasion?
What evidence is there for the threat of a spanish invasion as to one of the reasons why Portugal entered World War 1? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.33.138.221 (talk) 05:27, 4 October 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved to First Portuguese Republic. Favonian (talk) 15:31, 10 March 2012 (UTC)

Portuguese First Republic → First Portuguese Republic — Relisted. Favonian (talk) 18:59, 3 March 2012 (UTC). There are two reasons I think this article should be at "First Portuguese Republic" instead of its current location. Firstly the official name of the country is the "Portuguese Republic" which you can see in the English translation of the constitution and the title of the presidential website. Within Portugal, I am sure most people will refer to the "First" and "Second Republics" when they need to distinguish between the two. However, from an outside point of view we need to clarify that it is the "Portuguese Republics" that we are discussing. It makes grammatical sense to put the numbering in front rather than in the middle of the title. Secondly, I am not a big fan of Ghits but in this instance a search using Google Books has shown me that there are about 5,000 usages of the term "first portuguese republic" and about 300 usages of the term "portuguese first republic" within the books at Google. Green Giant (talk) 15:04, 25 February 2012 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's policy on article titles.

 * Support: per explanation above. -- lTopGunl (talk) 10:43, 4 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Support for same reasons. --RJFF (talk) 14:51, 10 March 2012 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Any additional comments:
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Flag
How do I connect "Flag" with Flag of Portugal? Thanks! Mts-Lisboa (talk) 15:12, 3 September 2017 (UTC)
 * anyone out there? Mts-Lisboa (talk) 20:06, 6 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:First Portuguese Republic


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/UbuWeb

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was keep (no consensus). Sjakkalle (Check!)  07:01, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

UbuWeb
Appears to be a not-very-notable site with Alexa rank around 250,000. — ceejayoz ★ 15:28, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete per nomination. — ceejayoz ★ 15:28, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per nomination. It's a very nice site though, I've been browsing it from time to time and they have great stuff. — mark ✎ 15:38, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep/Expand they have notable partners "WFMU, PennSound, The Center for Literary Computing, and Artmob" and host a fair amount of original content. It's well known in poetics circles and their outsiders section is particulary well-linked/respected. Jessamyn 15:42, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep/Expand as above. Very notable website and worthy of an article. Just curious, is there a Wikipolicy that demands a site get a certain Alexa rating in order to be eligible for an article? I'm not aware of such a rule, myself. 23skidoo 04:33, 5 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as above. --Jacquelyn Marie 16:05, 5 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/UbuWeb


text: Talk:Patna division

title: Talk:Patna division


text:
Pietro Amato

Pietro Amato is a French horn player with the rock bands Torngat, Bell Orchestre, and The Luyas. He has also performed with Arcade Fire.

Career
In 2001, Amato, along with keyboardist Mathieu Charbonneau and percussionist Julien Poissant, formed Torngat, his longest standing musical project. The band self-released music for several years before signing with the Alien8 label.

In 2006 Amati performed with the Bell Orchestre at the Montreal Jazz Festival, and promoted the group's release Recording a Tape the Colour of the Light with a March tour in Europe and a May tour of the US. In April he toured with Torngat in Eastern Canada, promoting the album La Rouge. In July a stand-in temporarily replaced Amato for Bell Orchestre's European tour while he participated in the recording of Torngat's 2007 album, You Could Be.

In 2007 Amato toured in March with Arcade Fire in Canada, promoting Neon Bible. Then he was on the road again with The Luyas in Ontario, to promote that band's recently released Faker Death. That year Amato and the Bell Orchestra were nominated for a Juno Award for their work in Recording a Tape the Colour of the Light.

Torngat's You Could Be was released in 2007, and late 2007 and early 2008 Amato toured with the band in Eastern Canada and New York City in support of that album.

By 2009, Torngat had released another album, La Petite Nicole; the trio conducting spring and fall tours around Canada and the U. S. to promote it. Amato also toured in April, May and July with Bell Orchestre in Canada and parts of the US to promote their release As Seen Through Windows, which won best instrumental album at the Juno Awards in 2010.

In 2011 Amato was on the road again with The Luyas from March to May promoting Too Beautiful to Work, touring in Canada and the US before moving on to Europe.

In 2023, Amato produced the soundtrack of the biographical drama film The Iron Claw by Sean Durkin.

Studio albums
Torngat
 * Torngat (2002)
 * Live at The Bread Factory (2004)
 * La Rouge (2005)
 * You Could Be (2007)
 * La Petite Nicole (2009)

Bell Orchestre
 * Recording a Tape the Colour of the Light (2005)
 * Who Designs Nature's How (2009) EP
 * As Seen Through Windows (2009)

The Luyas
 * Faker Death (2007)
 * Tiny Head (2009) self-released EP
 * Too Beautiful to Work (2011)

Studio Sessions
Islands - Return to the Sea (2006)

Evalyn Parry - Small Theatres (2007)

Amon Tobin - Foley Room (2007)

Sevens Project - Sevens Project (2010)

Ferriswheel - Woodsongs from the Backroom (2010)

Plants and Animals - La La Land (2010)

Snailhouse
 * Lies on the Prize (2008)
 * Monumental Moments (2010)

Arcade Fire
 * Funeral (2004)
 * Neon Bible (2007)
 * The Suburbs (2010)

Belgrave
 * Belgrave (2011)

Paper Beat Scissors
 * Paper Beat Scissors (2012)

Tambour - Farewell Museum (2016)

title: Pietro Amato


text:
User talk:Tysto/archive01

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library

For more information click  here . You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Sam Spade 21:02, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Dude... you look just like Humphrey Bogart.... --Tysto 22:26, 2005 May 6 (UTC)

Hehehe, no, I look like me! (scroll down). Sam Spade 23:50, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

Votes for deletion/Franco Lombardi
I merged a few VfD listings into just one since it's all the same related cruft. If you want to go move/revise your vote to a "delete all" so we have a clearer vote listing that would be great. Thanks! — Phil Welch 1 July 2005 21:52 (UTC)

Fountain Square
I'm sorry if I came across as righteously indignant, and I didn't mean to come across as dismissive in my last remark on that talk page. Fountain Square in Cincinnati was a playground of my youth, which is what drew my attention to the RfC in the first place. I enjoyed viewing your contributions, and I just wanted to see them placed where they could thrive under the attentions of other editors who would similarly enjoy them. --Eric Forste (Talk) 08:42, 11 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks. No offense taken. I was just surprised at how vehement the comments seemed to be (more from Kelly Martin than from you). After all, it's not cam whore or Bam Margera. Plus, it seemed to be directed at me for some reason, even tho I was just dissenting from the original mergeto tag (the poster never commented). --Tysto 14:15, 2005 August 11 (UTC)

LaToyia Figueroa needs some support
I have written the piece for LaToyia Figueroa, and hopefully the Wiki-community would give her some support for her safe return. I want to thank you for the information. If anything seems awkward or repetitive, feel free to edit it. I been in a hurry and I been kind of sloopy with a few other articles. But still it's a masterpiece that hits close to home. There is a woman by the name of Nicqui McCowen who is missing in the Dayton area and hopefully I gather enough information on her to make another piece. But thanks for the idea, and hopeful support for LaToyia. LILVOKA 18:48 2005 August 12 (EST)

Hiberno-English

 * I added your request to Irish_Wikipedians%27_notice_board/to_do --ClemMcGann 15:28, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Cincinnati Mighty Ducks
I did some reworking of Cincinnati Mighty Ducks. Its lacking a history write up, but I never followed them. Maybe you can contrib to it? Other than that, does it satisfy your clean up request? ccwaters
 * Yeah, thanks; that's a very good start. I just put the cleanup tag on there because I noticed that it had sections that were blank and I wanted to call the attention of hockey fans who might know more or be inclined to research it. --Tysto 17:03, 2005 August 28 (UTC)

Pröpær ñåmeß etc
Hi Tysto. I guess the details about transliterating ß belongs to Proper names and/or Naming conventions (use English), rather than having a separate entry on WP:MOS. I guess the best place is the 2nd paragraph of Naming conventions (use English), which would benefit from an overhaul anyway. First, we could give the Paul Erdős example, to explain how “ignorable” diacritics are treated in general. Then, ß gets special treatment with two Strauss examples—one who is natively spelt with ß, such as Franz Josef Strauß and one who isn't, such as Richard Strauss. Arbor 07:24, 30 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I just added it as a bullet with sub-bullets under "National Varieties of English," but "Proper names" is a good place too, since it seems to apply primarily to names, but I thought of it as applying to any German term that might be mentioned in an article on, say, psychiatry or German history. I'll try to figure out the most economical way to mention it in all three places. --Tysto 07:50, 2005 August 30 (UTC)
 * There is also Naming conventions (Unicode) (draft). I think what we need is Manual of Style (transliteration), (or some similar title) and move stuff from all the other pages there. As you point out it's not really a naming convention issue because it has effects for body text as well, and not specific to proper names. This would be a very useful clean-up job. (If I had the time I would do it myself. Maybe tomorrow?). Arbor 08:22, 30 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree. Some kind of general rendering-foreign-words page would eliminate some redundancy and muddiness. Once I tried to add some mention of eszett to "Proper names," I ran smack into the fact that foreign names were barely addressed at all. --Tysto 08:36, 2005 August 30 (UTC)
 * I started collecting things Manual of Style (foreign words and names) (draft); though I don't know if there will be enough for a full page. How about a new section at Proper names called Latin characters? The stuff you added to Personal names could be under Place names just as well, and instead of duplicating it, I think there should just be one section. Basically, I think I propose to merge Manual of Style (foreign words and names) (draft) into Wikipedia;Proper names as a section of its own. Arbor 19:57, 30 August 2005 (UTC) Later: Done it. Revert, move, vandalize at will! Arbor 08:48, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

Dolgoruki
Since you have participated in "Use English" talks, please visit Talk:Ekaterina Dolgorukova to contribute to the current poll. 217.140.193.123 06:00, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

Indiana town maps and photos
Hi there. I'm glad you like the maps. I hope you don't mind that I am shrinking the display size of the aerial photos a bit on the city pages (from 400px to 250px). I'm just trying to get everything to fit on the page without all of the images overwhelming the text. If you have any thoughts about the layout, this is a great time to give it, because I have only done a couple so far. I have 480 maps made up of the Indiana towns that already have articles, so it will take some time to get through them all. - Marvin01 | talk  18:48, 21 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Not at all. When there was only one image, making it big seemed right, but with additional images, the aerials should be shrunk. --Tysto 19:32, 2005 August 21 (UTC)

Criminal
I wasn't trying to talk trash. I was only giving a reason for making an edit on a highly-watched page. Sorry if you took it as such. I don't agree that the song is languid, but if you have sources for it that's what matters. No harm meant. Cheers.--Hraefen 23:32, 11 December 2005 (UTC)
 * "Look up the work languid in the dictionary" was not meant to be insulting? I'm touched at your interest in my continuing education. Also, in my message, I posted a link to the sources I quoted that used the word languid to describe the song and the artist's style in general. I'm not sure what more you could want. --Tysto 00:13, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I already said that the sources you have are good enough for me. Call it languid even though I don't think it is.  Call it techno garage rock from outer space if you can find a source for it.  And by telling you/whoever to "Look up the work languid in the dictionary" I was forcing you/whoever to at least think about their word choices (like many music critics seem not to do), listen to the song, and decide if it's a fitting word choice.  I think it clearly is not, but my opinion doesn't matter if you have a source, which you do.  A dictionary is just a source which I advise other Wikipedians to use when I don't agree with something that is on Wikipdeia.  Nothing personal, but you took it that way.  I can't apologize for how something made you feel.--Hraefen 00:43, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

Ohio county government
I disagree that providing information on the structure of Ohio's county governments was "pointless". PedanticallySpeaking 18:49, 10 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The information is of value and deserves its own article, but copying the same information into every county article defeats the purpose of a wiki. --Tysto 19:59, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

HTML
Thanks.--TheDoctor10 (talk|email) 20:00, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tysto/archive01


text:
Binitarianism

Binitarianism is a Christian theology of two persons, personas, or aspects in one substance/Divinity (or God). Classically, binitarianism is understood as a form of monotheism—that is, that God is absolutely one being—and yet with binitarianism there is a "twoness" in God, which means one God family. The other common forms of monotheism are "unitarianism", a belief in one God with one person, and "trinitarianism", a belief in one God with three persons.

Scholarly views of early Christian theology
Larry W. Hurtado of University of Edinburgh uses the word "binitarian" to describe the position of early Christian devotion to God, which ascribes to the Son (Jesus) an exaltedness that in Judaism would be reserved for God alone, while still affirming as in Judaism that God is one and is alone to be worshiped. He writes:"...there are a fairly consistent linkage and subordination of Jesus to God 'the Father' in these circles, evident even in the Christian texts from the latter decades of the 1st century that are commonly regarded as a very 'high' Christology, such as the Gospel of John and Revelation. This is why I referred to this Jesus-devotion as a 'binitarian' form of monotheism: there are two distinguishable figures (God and Jesus), but they are posited in a relation to each other that seems intended to avoid the ditheism of two gods." Hurtado does not describe binitarianism as antithetical to Nicene Christianity but rather as an indication that early Christians (before Nicaea) were monotheistic (as evidenced by their singular reference to the Father as God) yet also devoted to Jesus as pre-existent, co-eternal, the creator, embodying the power of God, by whom the Father is revealed, and in whose name alone the Father is worshiped. He writes, "The central place given to Jesus ... and ... their concern to avoid ditheism by reverencing Jesus rather consistently with reference to 'the Father', combine to shape the proto-orthodox 'binitarian' pattern of devotion. Jesus truly is reverenced as divine."

Hurtado's view might be interpreted as urging that, at this stage in the development of the Church's understanding, it could be said that God is a person (the Father) and one being; and that Jesus is distinct from the Father, was pre-existent with God, and also originating from God without becoming a being separate from him, so that he is God (the Son). This view of a would posit a unity of God's being and a oneness of the object of worship, which is sympathetic to its predecessor view in Judaism; and it also displays a plurality of simultaneous identities, which is sympathetic to its successor in trinitarianism. It is a development in understanding of Christ, in other words, from which arose several subsequent ones in the further course of development that eventually came into conflict with one another.

Before Hurtado's influential work, one classic scholarly theory of binitarianism was that the Holy Spirit was seen as in some sense identical to the Son or uniquely embodied in him. The Shepherd of Hermas, among other sources, is cited to support the theory. Near the end of Parable Five, for example, an angel declares: The preexistent Holy Spirit, which created the whole creation, God caused to live in the flesh that he wished. This flesh, therefore, in which the Holy Spirit lived served the Spirit well, living in holiness and purity, without defiling the Spirit in any way. ... [I]t had lived honorably and chastely, and had worked with the Spirit and cooperated with it in everything. The classic theory of Christian binitarian theology (assumed by most dictionary definitions) asserts that some early Christians conceived of the Spirit as going out from God the creator, and is the creator: a person of God's being, which also lived in Jesus (or, from other sources, appears to be thought of as Jesus's pre-existent, divine nature). This view further asserts that the same Spirit is given to men, making them a new creation and sharers in the same hope of resurrection and exaltation. This interpretation of early Christian belief is often cited in contrast to trinitarianism. However, trinitarians cite the same sources as examples of pre-Nicene Christian monotheism, which is not orthodoxy but "proto-orthodox"—that is, one of several versions among Christians which explain monotheism as a plurality (Father, Son, Spirit) in one being, prior to orthodoxy's settlement in Christianity.

By the time of the Arian controversy, some bishops defended a kind of "dual" conception of deity, which is sometimes called "Semi-Arian". Macedonianism (the Pneumatomachi) typifies this view, which some prefer to call "binitarian" as at that time the Semi-Arians were the main binitarians. None of the Semi-Arian views were strictly monotheistic (one being). All asserted that the God who speaks and the Word who creates are two beings similar to one another, of similar substance (homoiousia [ὁμοιούσία]), and denied that they are one and the same being, or two persons of the same substance (homoousia [ὁμοούσία]) in which two are distinguished, as Nicaea eventually held.

History
Many Church of God binitarians (see below) believe their Christology perspective most accurately reflects that of the "original" Jewish Christians. Certain scholars have noted that "earliest Christian worship specifies two figures, God and Jesus, as recipients" and that early rabbis considered early Christianity to be binitarian.

After the 325 Council of Nicaea defeated Arianism, the Council of Constantinople was called in 381 to attempt to deal with the binitarians, who were referred to as "Semi-Arians". However, as the Trinity was finalized at this time as official Christian doctrine, the offended Semi-Arians walked out. "They rejected the Arian view that Christ was created and had a different nature from God (anomoios [ἀνόμοιος]—dissimilar), but neither did they accept the Nicene Creed which stated that Christ was 'of one substance (homoousios [ὁμοούσιος]) with the Father'. Semi-Arians taught that Christ was similar (homoios [ὅμοιος]) to the Father, or of like substance (homoiousios [ὁμοιούσίος]), but still subordinate."

In the mid-4th century, orthodox apologist Epiphanius of Salamis noted, "Semi-Arians ... hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father ... but has been begotten without beginning and not in time ... But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son."

After Ellen White gained influence in the American Adventist movement, in 1858 the binitarian Church of God (Seventh Day) was founded in the U.S. mid-western states of Michigan and Iowa having split from those Adventists who in 1863 founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Later, in 1897, Ellen White published a pamphlet declaring the Holy Spirit "the third person of the Godhead". Andrews University, an Adventist institution for higher learning, suggests that the Seventh-day Adventists were inclined towards binitarianism before this, which Gerhard Pfandl terms "Semi-Arian."

Church of God
By the latter half of the 19th century, binitarianism was held by a relatively small group of church denominations. At present, it is a theology essentially held only by some 7th Day Church of God groups. The three largest church denominations that appear to hold a binitarian view today are the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day) – with other Church of God (7th Day) groups remaining unitarian – the United Church of God, and the Living Church of God (the latter two originating from the Worldwide Church of God). Other groups, scattered spin-offs from the breakup of the previously sabbatarian Worldwide Church of God founded by Herbert W. Armstrong, also hold to a binitarian view of God. The sabbatarian Churches of God persist in their worship of Jesus and the Father; insisting that, in their worship of the "plural" God, "Elohim" (Gods), as multiple separate and individual God-beings of which only the Father and Son are now very God, they are practicing monotheism in the sense that "Elohim" is one family unit. Adherents of these churches believe they will eventually be born into that family as children of God at a resurrection of the dead at the second coming of Christ. They also believe that others will follow as children of God after Christ rules on Earth and teaches the correct way to live and follow him. These same groups insist certain human beings may eventually be gifted with all the attributes of the Father and Jesus. These humans who may enter the "God family" are currently only those found to be attending the congregations that openly support "pluralism", but after Jesus's return salvation shall be offered to all during the Great White Throne Judgment, which is a form of universal reconciliation. God's plural identification in Genesis as "Elohim", as the Father and the Word or Logos who became the Son of God, the firstborn of many brethren, leaves room for untold numbers to be added to God's family. This binitarian view posits that humanity eventually will have access to become members of God's family in their own right each with the power of the Holy Spirit, however, not equal to Father or Son. As part of the binitarian view it is also believed that, as the Bible states, the Father is greater than Jesus.

Contrast with Trinitarians
Trinitarians sometimes describe the modern binitarian view as "ditheist" or "dualist" instead of binitarian because, in their misunderstanding of binitarianism, some claim it posits that God is multiple beings, analogous to a human family; as all humans are also called "Man", after their first father, so in the Father's family, all born into his family are called "God". This is considered a form of polytheism in the traditional trinitarian view as well as in the unitarian or monotheistic point of view.

Semi-Arian binitarians do not believe that Jesus "was truly human and truly God", which is the position held by trinitarians. They believe that Jesus was God (the Word) prior to His incarnation, that He became fully human (finite) yet he was not fully God during the pre-resurrection incarnation as He did not have the powers etc. of God then, and that all authority was restored to Him (as well as his infinite God-status) at or shortly after the resurrection. They make three major claims to support that position:

 * 1) Semi-Arian binitarians believe that Jesus emptied Himself of His Divinity while in the flesh, citing the same Scriptures which trinitarians cite to the opposite conclusion: that he denied himself the honor and glory he deserved, and hid the fact that he is equal to the Father, in order to serve those who were undeserving. 2 Corinthians 8:9 states that Jesus became poor, yet God is rich (Haggai 2:8), while Philippians 2:7 states, "... Christ Jesus, who subsisting in (the) form of God thought (it) not robbery to be equal to God, but emptied Himself, taking (the) form of a slave, becoming in (the) likeness of men". The Semi-Arian view of these texts is called kenosis, referring to the idea that what Jesus "emptied" himself of was his divinity (rather, than, say, his exalted position in Heaven).
 * 2) They deny the trinitarian teaching that Jesus possessed two wills and two natures. For this reason, they view the assertions of Jesus that He "could do nothing" without the Father, prior to His resurrection (John 5:19,30; 8:28), as a denial by him that he had all divine rights until after the resurrection, when he claimed that he had "all authority in heaven and on earth" (Matthew 28:18). They conclude that it is because he had overcome the temptations of Satan and upon living the perfect sinless life would be "all powerful".
 * 3) Similarly, they note that the Bible claims that Jesus was tempted in all points as humans are (Hebrews 4:15) and that in another place the Bible claims "God cannot be tempted by evil" (James 1:13). Denying the trinitarian view of two natures, Semi-Arian binitarians see the assertions as contradictory if posited of the same person and therefore, since "scripture cannot be broken" (John 10:35), Jesus could not have been fully God while in the flesh. But still that is contrary to Colossians 2:9 which says, "For in him dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily." and Luke 4:12 "And Jesus answered, and said unto him, It is said, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God."

In other words, Semi-Arian binitarians believe that in the flesh Jesus was not who He was prior to His incarnation (God the Word), not what He was (i.e. not fully God with all authority) since His resurrection. He was God, then he was not fully God, then he was God again.

Trinitarians teach that the Holy Spirit is another person like the Son, who comes from God without becoming a separate being from him (Matthew 28:19–20; John 16:5–7; Acts 1:8, 2:4). Most binitarians teach that the Holy Spirit is essentially the power of God, with no distinct identity within God, and not a separate Being or Person as they conceive the Son to be. For example, in its Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs, the binitarian Living Church of God states, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe (1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 139:7; Jeremiah 23:24). It was through the Spirit that God created all things (Genesis 1:1–2; Revelation 4:11). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe (Hebrews 1:2–3). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized (Acts 2:38–39) and is the power (Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:6–7) by which all believers may be 'overcomers' (Romans 8:37 (KJV); Revelation 2:26–27) and will be led to eternal life."

Scripture mentions prayer to the Father, and to the Son, but the Holy Spirit is never prayed to nor worshiped in the Bible; in the Revelation of John, there is praise to the "One who sits upon the throne" (God), "and to the Lamb" (Jesus), but the Spirit is not mentioned; modern binitarians conclude that this is because the Holy Spirit is not a person of the God family, but the mind of God.

Binitarians believe that statements from early Christian leaders such as Melito of Sardis and Polycarp of Smyrna were binitarian, though most mainstream scholars do not accept this assertion. Binitarians point out, for example, while both call the Father and Son "God", not only do neither refer to the Holy Spirit as God, Melito's "Oration on Our Lord's Passion" suggests that the Holy Spirit is simply the power of God in action. Binitarians have noted that Paul honors the Father and the Son towards the beginning of every book he wrote, but never does so for the Holy Spirit. Trinitarians see Romans 1:4 "And declared to be the Son of God with power, according to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead:", Ephesians 1:13 "In whom ye also trusted, after that ye heard the word of truth, the gospel of your salvation: in whom also after that ye believed, ye were sealed with that Holy Spirit of promise", 1 Thessalonians 1:5–6 "For our gospel came not unto you in word only, but also in power, and in the Holy Ghost (cor. gk. pneuma, air, breath, breeze, Spirit), and in much assurance; as ye know what manner of men we were among you for your sake. And ye became followers of us, and of the Lord, having received the word in much affliction, with joy of the Holy Ghost (cor. Spirit):" and 1 Timothy 1:14 "And the grace of our Lord was exceeding abundant with faith and love which is in Christ Jesus." as exceptions.

By not considering that the Holy Spirit is a person of God, or God's mind, some binitarians were also called the Pneumatomachi, as a subset of Semi-Arians.

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Binitarians from groups originating in the old Worldwide Church of God (the current Worldwide Church of God is now trinitarian), believe that the teaching from Romans 8:29 about Jesus being "the firstborn among many brethren" demonstrates that Christians will be in the Family called "God". The view that God is a Family that Christians can expect to be born into is not widely held within groups that profess Christianity. However, there is a sense in which trinitarians believe that, by being united with Christ, a Christian becomes a participant in the Son's communion with the Father, they become sons by adoption and brothers to Christ, and "sharers in the divine nature" (although Eastern Orthodox Christians would have reservations regarding how "nature" would be interpreted). This contrasting, majority view has been thoroughly developed in the Catholic, Trinitarian tradition inherited by most Protestants.

For example, the Trinitarian Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that Christians will by grace become so entirely conformed to the will, purpose, and character of God, that they will be gods by the grace of God, but not on the same level of the Uncreated God. Timothy Ware, an Eastern Orthodox theologian, wrote, "St. Athanasius summed up the purpose of the Incarnation by saying, 'God became human that we might be made God'...we are God's 'offspring' (or generation) (Acts xvii, 28), His kin ... we will become 'like' God, we will acquire divine likeness; In the words of John Damascene ... To acquire the likeness is to be deified, it is to become a 'second god', a god by grace'. 'I said, ye are gods, and all of ye children of the Most High' (Psalm lxxxi, 6; cf John x, 34–35) ... Such, according to the teaching of the Orthodox Church, is the final goal at which every Christian must attain: to become like God, to obtain theosis, 'deification' or 'divinization'. For Orthodoxy human salvation and redemption mean something close to, but not the same as, deification...deification is not something reserved for a select few initiates, but is something intended for all alike, but only in the sense of attainment of heavenly attributes. The Orthodox Church believes this is the normal goal of every Christian without exception. Certainly we shall only be deified on the Last Day; but for each of us the process of divinization must begin here and now in this present life." Western Christians often vigorously avoid the terminology of deification, divinization, or theosis, while not necessarily rejecting the intended doctrine expressed in different terms.

Modern binitarians strongly agree with these Eastern Orthodox statements concerning deification, as they understand them. However, in Eastern Orthodoxy, theosis is profoundly linked to a Trinitarian understanding of God, laying special emphasis on the Holy Spirit as containing and communicating the fullness of God, not as an intermediary, but as God indeed. In Eastern Orthodoxy especially, to deny that the Holy Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father alone but rather from both the Father and the Son, as the filioque states, is seen as tending toward binitarian monotheism, or worse, bitheism. The Roman Church accepted and urged adoption of the filioque, which formed the theological rationale for the schism with the Eastern Orthodox in 1054. The Orthodox urge that these filioque statements must be rejected because the theological understanding of the Spirit is directly attached to consequent notions of what the unity of God is, the unity of the gift of God in giving his Son and His Spirit, and thus what "salvation" means and by what principle it is lived out. In addition, the Orthodox view of theosis only allows humans to be united with God in his "energies", but never with God's "essence", as God remains completely transcendent in His essence.

Binitarians look forward to their hope of being deified, and deny that the trinitarian or Chalcedonian doctrines uniquely assert anything necessary to a godly faith, along with Mormons. Nevertheless, as they do not see the strict monotheism or the trinitarianism of Eastern Orthodoxy as contributing anything essential and necessary, these binitarians see themselves as closer to the Eastern Orthodox than to "theosis" as found in Western (Augustinian) Christianity, or the Mormon views of deification, as they understand these doctrines.

The Oriental Orthodox position is the same as the Eastern Orthodox position; however, they do not accept the wording of the Chalcedonian Creed.

title: Binitarianism


text: Talk:Saran division

title: Talk:Saran division


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User:SimpleWhisk

I started the "feral cat" page to describe both the definition and status of feral cats. Remember, this isn't a "forum" for cat haters or anyone with an agenda. This is simply the place to list accurate information regarding feral cats and enlighten those who may not even know the extent to which they exist. As the opposite of "feral" is "domestic", and we humans domesticated the cat, we're obviously responsible for the existence of feral cats throughout the world, as well. Thanks to Silver Lake Animal Hospital of Berlin for much of the information I use...

title: User:SimpleWhisk


text: User talk:130.64.50.166

title: User talk:130.64.50.166


text: User talk:209.142.39.252

title: User talk:209.142.39.252


text: Talk:Darbhanga division

title: Talk:Darbhanga division


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Gave d'Oloron

The Gave d'Oloron is a river of south-western France near the border with Spain. It takes its name from the city Oloron-Sainte-Marie, where it is formed from the rivers Gave d'Aspe and Gave d'Ossau. It joins the Gave de Pau in Peyrehorade to form the Gaves réunis, a tributary of the Adour. The Gave d'Oloron is used for fishing. The river is 148 km long, including its source rivers Gave d'Ossau and Gave du Brousset. Near Sauveterre-de-Béarn it takes up its largest tributary, the Saison.

The Gave d'Oloron flows through the following départements and towns:

 * Pyrénées-Atlantiques: Oloron-Sainte-Marie, Sauveterre-de-Béarn.
 * Landes: Peyrehorade.

title: Gave d'Oloron


text: Talk:Kosi division

title: Talk:Kosi division